BOUMERDES UNIVERSITY, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, I.G.E.

E (ex-INELEC)

TRANSIENTS

Lab report Electrical Engineering II (EE203L-Lab)

Experiment 2

Under the supervision of Ms S.DJABALI

Wednesday, October 5, 2022

L2, L03, Group 06

Members :

- BAY Seif-El-Islam
- MELAH Raid Chems Eddine
Introduction
In Electrical Engineering, transients is the term that is often used to
regard to signals. When the power is first flicked on, there are typically two
responses in the system: The transient response, and the steady-state response.
Perhaps, the juxtaposition of the terms will make the difference evident,
however, the transient response is the response which does not last. It will pass.
The steady state response is the response which the system will decay to as
time is sufficiently far away from the power being turned on.

Objectives :
At the end of the experiment the reader would be able to :
- Learn about charge and discharge of a capacitor.
- Study the transient response types of an RLC circuit.

Needed Equipments :

- The function generator (FG). - The oscilloscope (or simply the scope). - A BNC to BNC cable.

- Digital Multimeter. - Cable. - Capacitor (C=4700µF). - Resistor (R=10KΩ).

- T BNC connector. - Y BNC connector. - A jumper. - The probe.

 - Bread board. - Power supply.

Procedure :
Part I :
- We consider this circuit below :
XMM1

S1 R

V 10kΩ
5V 1
C
4700µF

1) Establishing the differential equation in terms of Vc in the circuit as R is

connected to point a :
- At t0 the capacitor start charging,
By using KVL we find that :
E – VR – VC = 0
VR + VC = E
 Ri + VC = E …(1)
from (1) we can obtain the differential equation :
we know that :
i(t) = 𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞/ 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = C (𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣_𝐶𝐶)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
So : R 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖/ 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 + VC = E  RC (𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣_𝐶𝐶)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + VC = E
 (𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣_𝐶𝐶)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 1/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 VC = 1/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 E
2) Solve the differential equation :
- This equation has a solution of the form: VC(t) = K1 + K2 eSt
- By replacing the solution form in the differential equation we get :
K1 = E and S = - 1/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
- And by using the initial condition (VC(0) = 0V), we get : K2 = -E
 So the expression of the capacitor voltage during the charge phase is :
Vc(t) = E (𝑒𝑒^(− 𝑡𝑡/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) − 1)

3) Construct the circuit with R = 10 KΩ and C = 4700μF :

 Turn on the power supply and prepare to connect R to point a, Use a counter
(watch or mobile) and immediately as you connect R to point a start counting time
(your partner should count time and you record voltage values). Record the values
of the voltage you read every 10 second interval. Go up to 24 intervals (see the
table as a model). Then discharge the capacitor and repeat the previous procedure
for a second and a third time and take the average values.
o Data table :
Time interval (10 V V V V
seconds each) (first trial) (second trial) (third trial) (average value)
1 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02
2 1.72 1.74 1.73 1.73
3 2.23 2.25 2.24 2.24
4 2.65 2.70 2.68 2.68
5 3.02 3.06 3.04 3.04
6 3.30 3.37 3.34 3.34
7 3.54 3.60 3.57 3.57
8 3.77 3.82 3.80 3.80
9 3.94 4.99 3.95 3.95
10 4.10 4.13 4.12 4.12
11 4.24 4.30 4.27 4.27
12 4.34 4.41 4.38 4.38
13 4.42 4.47 4.45 4.45
14 4.50 4.55 4.53 4.53
15 4.55 4.60 4.58 4.58
16 4.59 4.64 4.62 4.62
17 4.63 4.68 4.66 4.66
18 4.67 4.70 4.69 4.69
19 4.70 4.73 4.72 4.72
20 4.72 4.75 4.74 4.74
21 4.74 4.77 4.76 4.76
22 4.76 4.79 4.78 4.78
23 4.77 4.80 4.79 4.79
24 4.78 4.81 4.80 4.80

4) Plotting the capacitor voltage versus time on a millimeter paper, Which

should give us the capacitor charging curve :
 Graph of VC = f(t)

The graph represents an increasing Exponential function.

5) Finding the value of the time constant theoretically and from the curve :
i. Time constant from the graph :
 We can find 𝝉𝝉 by drawing the tangent line through the point (t = 0).
Or by a second method which we know that when t = 𝝉𝝉 the capacitor is
charged to 0.63 E  UC = 0.63E (Where E: is the maximum voltage of the
charged capacitor), And we project this value on the curve, then on the x
axis and read the value of 𝝉𝝉 .
o from the graph we get that : 𝝉𝝉measured = 54 s
ii. Time constant theoretically :
We have R = 10KΩ and C = 4700µF
So : 𝝉𝝉 = RC = (10 × 10 3) (4700 × 10 -6) = 47 s
𝝉𝝉theoretically = 47 s
- Comparing between the two values :
% of error = (|𝝉𝝉 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 − 𝝉𝝉 𝒄𝒄𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂|)/(|𝝉𝝉 𝒄𝒄𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂|) × 100 =
(|𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟒 − 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 |)/𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖%
We see that there is some different due to the equipment and laboratory
mistakes, and also because that the resistor is not exactly 10 KΩ.
Part II :
We connect the uncharged capacitor directly to the 5V-supply for about 4 to 5
seconds then we disconnect it without discharging it in any way. Then we place the
capacitor back and move R to point b. (we use R = 5.1 KΩ in this part). Immediately
we start counting time as we connect the capacitor (same way as in part I). And
we record the capacitor voltage every 5 second interval. Go up to 25 intervals (Fill
a table similar to the one in part I). Discharge the capacitor and repeat the
previous procedure a second and a third time and take average values.
o Data table :
Time interval (10 V V V V
seconds each) (first trial) (second trial) (third trial) (average value)
1 4.97 4.98 4.98 4.98
2 3.35 3.30 3.33 3.33
3 2.69 2.73 2.71 2.71
4 2.27 2.30 2.28 2.28
5 1.92 1.93 1.92 1.92
6 1.64 1.66 1.65 1.65
7 1.39 1.42 1.41 1.41
8 1.20 1.21 1.21 1.21
9 1.01 1.03 1.02 1.02
10 0.85 0.86 0.86 0.86
11 0.72 0.73 0.73 0.73
12 0.60 0.62 0.61 0.61
13 0.48 0.49 0.48 0.48
14 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42
15 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36
16 0.30 0.32 0.31 0.31
17 0.25 0.26 0.26 0.26
18 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.22
19 0.18 0.19 0.18 0.18
 20 0.14 0.16 0.15 0.15
21 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.12
22 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.09
23 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
24 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07
25 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

- Plotting the capacitor discharg curve :

Graph of VC = f(t)

The graph represents a decreasing Exponential function.

- Finding the value of the time constant theoretically and from the curve :
• Time constant from the graph :
 We can find 𝝉𝝉 by drawing the tangent line through the point (t = 0).
Or we know that when t = 𝝉𝝉 the capacitor is uncharged to 0.37 E
 UC = 0.37E, The projection of the interscetion point between the line
and the curve, on x-axis is the value of 𝝉𝝉 .
o from the graph we get that : 𝝉𝝉measured = 21.5 s
• Time constant theoretically :
We have R = 5.1KΩ and C = 4700µF
So : 𝝉𝝉 = RC = (5.1 × 10 3) (4700 × 10 -6) = s
𝝉𝝉theoretically = 23.97 s
- Comparing between the two values :
% of error = (|𝝉𝝉 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 − 𝝉𝝉 𝒄𝒄𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂|)/(|𝝉𝝉 𝒄𝒄𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂|) × 100 =
(|𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗|)/(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗) × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 %
We see that there is some different due to the equipment and laboratory
mistakes, and also because that the resistor is not exactly 5.1 KΩ.
Part III :
In this part, the transient response of the series RLC circuit is observed.
Depending on the value of circuit elements, the response may be overdamped,
critically damped or underdamped. This response depends on the values of α =
𝑹𝑹/𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 (α is called neper frequency or damping coefficient and is measured in
nepers per second (Np/s))and ω0 = 𝟏𝟏/√𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 (ω0 is called resonant frequency or
undamped natural frequency and is measured in radians per second (rad/s)). The
damping factor of the circuit (also called damping ratio) is then defined as : ζ =
𝜶𝜶/𝝎𝝎𝟎𝟎 .The overdamped case corresponds to ζ> 1, the critically damped circuit
corresponds to ζ = 1 and the underdamped case is for ζ < 1.
- With L = 100 mH and C = 10 nF.
• Finding the ranges of R corresponding to each case :
By using a variable resistor, we connect it in the bread board then we make
it in series with the digital multimeter and we choose the needed value for
each case. So, we can use it directly on the circuit.
- Connect the circuit below with L = 100 mH and C = 10 nF. Set the function
generator to produce a square waveform at 400 Hz and a peak to peak
value of 1 V with offset of 0.5 V.
1. With R = 9.1kΩ, we observe the output with the probe (you may need to set
the probe to 10x). This is the overdamped case :
2. Repeat the previous step with R=1k. This is the underdamped case :

3. The critically damped case is difficult to observe as the value of R must be

set exactly to make the damping factor equal to 1. Try to use the closest
value of R to the one calculated for the critically damped case(R=6.3245 kΩ).
 - Comparing in a table between the characteristics of each damping case :

Overdamped Underdamped Cirtically damped

case case case
𝑅𝑅 (9.1×10^3) 𝑅𝑅 (1×10^3) 𝑅𝑅 (6.3245×10^3)
The damping factor α=
2𝐿𝐿
=
(2×100×10^−3)
α=
2𝐿𝐿
=
(2×100×10^−3)
α=
2𝐿𝐿
=
(2×100×10^−3)

(Damping ratio) = α = 45500 Np/s α = 5000 Np/s α = 31622.500 Np/s

1 1 1 1 1
Neper frequency ω0 =
√𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
=
√𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×10^−3×10×10^−9
ω0 =
√𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
= ω0 =
√𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
=
√𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×10^−3×10×10^−9
1
(Damping factor) / ω0 = 31622.777 rad/s
√𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×10^−3×10×10^−9
ω0 = 31622.777 rad/s
𝛼𝛼 45500 𝛼𝛼 31622.500
Resonant frequency ζ=
𝜔𝜔0
=
31622.777
ω0 = 31622.777 rad/s ζ=
𝜔𝜔0
=
31622.777
𝛼𝛼 5000
(Undamped natural ζ = 1.439 Np/rad ζ=
𝜔𝜔0
=
31622.777
ζ = 1 Np/rad

frequency) We see ζ > 1 so the damping ζ = 0.158 Np/rad We see ζ = 1 so the damping

factor is true in this case We see ζ < 1 so the damping factor is true in this case

factor is true in this case

Definition of each case The O airplane takes off very The C plane is better than the The U plane pilot is very

slowly and hence has a very O and almost (asymptotically) enthusiastic and in its excitement

high value of Rise Time as reaches the target and that goes at very high speed hence

compared to other two too at a better speed and less goes pass the target and that too

systems. Rise time being time than O. in very less time (Rise Time) as

defined as time taken to compared to other two planes.

reach the level of center of Releasing his mistake it again

the blue denoted by dotted comes back but again enthusiasm

line in the figure. Also due to kicks in and he again passes the

some navigational anomalies destination this time in opposite

it never reaches its direction. This process continues

destination and stays below until a specific time until he is

the required height. settled. We call this time as

the Settling Time and after this

time he finally reaches his

destination.
 Any general second Overdamped (α > ω0) Underdamped (α < ω0) Cirtically damped (α = ω0)

order equation can be Thus, the solution i(t) can be Let damped resonant 𝐢𝐢(𝑡𝑡) = (𝐴𝐴1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐴𝐴2 )𝐞𝐞−𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼

represented as: written as: frequency be : 𝑠𝑠1,2 = −𝛼𝛼

d𝒊𝒊𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹 di i
+ + =0 𝐢𝐢(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴1 𝐞𝐞𝑠𝑠𝟏𝟏 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐴𝐴2 𝐞𝐞𝑠𝑠2𝑡𝑡 𝛽𝛽 = �𝜔𝜔02 − 𝛼𝛼 2
d𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳 dt 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳

with general solutions where the coefficients A1 and 𝐢𝐢(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐞𝐞−𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 (𝐴𝐴1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽) + 𝐴𝐴2 sin(𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)

as: A2 of the linear combination

𝑠𝑠1 = −𝛼𝛼 + �𝛼𝛼 2 − 𝜔𝜔02 are to be determined by initial

𝑠𝑠𝟐𝟐 = −𝛼𝛼 − �𝛼𝛼 2 − 𝜔𝜔02 conditions.

o Finding the applications that each case may be useful for :

Analysis of active suspension in performed by studying various
parameters of systems like stiffness, damping coefficient settling time
etc. They form the science for which we pay ridiculous amount of
money while buying a Mercedes or BMW.

Conclusion :
In circuit analysis we study the circuit completely also we study its behaviour
during different states. Such as Steady and Transient. In steady state a system
behaves normally everything is fine with the circuit but if any fault occurs or any
input is given to the circuit suddenly or if any input is removed from the circuit then
for a very small time the circuit goes in transient state. Basically if any change
occurs in the circuit then it goes in transient mode. Generally transients last for
very short duration but it is very important to study that small duration of time. In
that small instant of time current or voltage may rise or drop to a certain value if
that happens then our circuit must sustain that conditions also so we perform
transient analysis on the system. So in our little story of the third part the three
paths takes by the planes represents the 3 time responses of Second order system
when subjected to unit step response. Main difference lies in their Rise
Time and Settling time and final steady state value achieved which dictate various
design parameters in control systems. Many complex higher order systems can be
reduced to second order systems and analysis can be performed.