Physical Fitness Overview 2nd Assessment

Module 7: Health & Flexibility

 Flexibility Science
 Introduction to Flexibility Science
 Avoiding Injury
 Flexibility and Muscle Analysis
 Flexibility Science: Duration
 Flexibility Training
 Introduction to Flexibility Training
 Types of Stretching
 Contract and Relax
 Stretching Exercises
 Introduction to Stretching Exercises
 Body Preparation
 Stretching Techniques

Module 8: Calisthenics
 Strength Development
 Introduction to Strength Development
 Varying Exercises
 Abs and Hips
 Abdominal Conditioning
 Calisthenics Exercises Part 1
 Calisthenic Exercises
 Calisthenics Exercises Part 2
 Calisthenic Exercises
 Calisthenic Partner Exercises

Module 9: Plyometrics
 Understanding Plyometrics
 Introduction to Plyometrics
 Plyometric Training Stages
 Equipment and Techniques
 Plyometric Training
 Introduction to Plyometric Training
 Volume and Intensity
 Plyometric Training Exercises

Module 10: Training in Challenging

Environments
 Training in Warm Environments
 Heat and Sweating
 Aids to Cooling
 Hydration and Acclimation
 Injury Management
 Training in Cool Environments
 Biochemistry in Cool Environments
 Side Effects in Cool Environments
 Preparation Tips
 Training at High Altitudes
 Introduction to Training at High Altitudes
 Illness at Altitude
 Maintaining Performance at Altitude

Module 11: Preventing & Treating Injuries

 Treating Inflammation Injuries
 Introduction to Inflammation Injuries
 RICE & ISE
 Use of Drugs
 Treating Inflammation Injuries
Module 7: Health & Flexibility
 Flexibility Science

Introduction to Flexibility Science

Most trainers, exercise physiologists, and health care professionals agree that
flexibility training, although often overlooked, is an important component of a
physical fitness program.
Stretching becomes even more important as athletes achieve advanced levels of
muscle strength and endurance. If optimum performance is the goal, then
adherence to a consistent flexibility program is required.
Proper muscle stretching increases flexibility and provides the following
benefits:

 Improved performance
 Reduced potential for injury
 Reduced muscle soreness
 Decreased risk and severity of low-back pain
 Increased agility
 Increased blood flow to the joints
 Avoiding Injury

Flexibility is an integral part of a conditioning program and enhances

performance by extending the range of motion in which one can optimally
perform. Proper physical conditioning is necessary for successful performance
of any physical endeavor. 

If you compete in any physical endeavor, you are at high risk for
musculoskeletal injuries. Joint stability and consequent protection against
injury are best achieved through a balanced physical conditioning program
designed to improve both muscle strength and flexibility. 

Strength and flexibility training should be considered interdependent since

both are involved in the degree and quality of movement across a joint.
Flexibility is the ability of a limb to move a joint freely through a full range of
motion.

In other cases, flexibility refers to the optimum range of motion surrounding a

particular joint that is necessary for peak performance. Range of motion is
specific to each joint and dependent upon:

 Joint surfaces & the degree of movement required for the joint to
function

 Muscles, tendons, ligaments and connective tissue associated with limb

movement around a joint

 Strength of the musculature surrounding the joint

Muscles that are strengthened should be stretched, and vice versa. An intense
strength workout can cause microtrauma to the muscles, and the process of
recovery can shorten the muscles and connective tissue. Stretching prevents
this shortening which could contribute to muscle strains or other overuse
injuries.

Flexibility training, without concurrent strength training, weakens the muscles

and connective tissue and places the joints and muscles at risk for sprains,
partial and complete dislocations, and muscle strains. Strengthening the
muscles helps stabilize the joint and improve muscular function, decreasing the
likelihood of injury. Overstretching may lead to injury.

Flexibility and Muscle Analysis

DYNAMIC & STATIC

Dynamic - the speed attained within a range of motion at the joint during
physical performance. This type of flexibility involves the intrinsic
musculature surrounding the joint and its ability to overcome resistance to
motion.

Examples:
 Throw a baseball
 Punch a boxing opponent
 Perform a martial arts kick

Static - the maximal range of motion of a joint during passive movement

induced by an external source.

The range of static flexibility is always greater than that of dynamic

flexibility!
STRETCH REFLEX
The stretch reflex and the lengthening reaction are joint-protective
mechanisms in which sensory organs, located in the muscles and tendons
surrounding a joint, are activated when muscles are stretched.
As seen in the illustration on the tab below, the two sensory organs involved in
monitoring muscle tightness are the muscle spindle cells and golgi tendon
organs (GTOs).

The stretch reflex involves muscle spindles which lie parallel to the muscle
fiber. These spindles are very sensitive to changes in muscle length. When the
muscle stretches, muscle spindles send signals to the spinal cord, which in turn,
sends signals to the muscle telling it to contract in order to protect the muscle
from potential tissue damage.
MUSCLE RESPONSE

The quadriceps muscle is quickly stretched, and the muscle spindles react by
contracting the quadriceps muscle causing the knee-jerk response.
The greater or more rapid the stretch, the greater the response of the
muscle spindles and the resultant muscle contraction!

The lengthening reaction engages GTOs, which are located in the muscle-
tendon junctions, and activates them when the tension in a tendon is increased
as a result of either muscular contraction, stretching the muscle beyond its
resting length, or a combination of the two.
When muscular tension increases, the GTOs respond by sending inhibitory
signals to the muscle; this causes the muscles to relax, and protects the muscles
and tendons from tearing due to tension overload.
 Flexibility Science: Duration

The most effective stretches are performed slowly, and held for 15 - 30
seconds. Performing the stretch slowly avoids excessive activation of the
muscle spindles and resultant muscular contraction. Holding the stretch allows
time for the muscle spindles to adapt to the new muscle length, and eventually,
to achieve greater lengths.

Flexibility Training

Introduction to Flexibility Training

There are several training methods used to develop flexibility. However, most

fall under the following general categories:

 Dynamic
 Static
 Ballistic
 Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

Types of Stretching

DYNAMIC STRETCHING
Consists of controlled movements which increase in range and speed to
gradually reach full range and speed of movement.
There is some controversy surrounding the effectiveness of dynamic stretching
and its role in the development of flexibility. Some experts believe that the
short, intermittent movements involved in this type of stretching activate the
stretch reflex and cause the stretched muscle to contract. Others maintain that
dynamic stretching is beneficial for quick, explosive activities like gymnastics.

If used, it functions best as a warm up before exercise, to enhance

performance. Dynamic stretches should mimic the activity that is to be
performed.

STATIC STRETCHING
Develops static flexibility and uses slow, controlled movements through a full
range of motion. 

This type of stretch is performed by holding a position using a part of the body,
the assistance of a partner, or some other apparatus such as a pole or the floor
(e.g., lifting one leg up and holding it with the hand; the splits). 

Slow, static stretching helps relieve muscle spasms due to exercise, and is used
for cooling down after a workout to reduce muscle fatigue and soreness.

BALLISTIC STRETCHING
Uses the momentum of the body or a limb to force a stretch past the normal
range of motion and then return to the starting position. 
Ballistic stretching incorporates bouncing or jerky movements and should
not be confused with dynamic stretching! An example of a ballistic stretch
would be bouncing down to touch toes or using the momentum of the torso to
twist the body. 
Uncontrolled arm swings, in which the arms are thrown backward and then
bounce back to the starting position are also an example. This type of
stretching does not contribute to flexibility. Instead, the repeated activation of
the stretch reflex causes muscles to contract which can lead to injury. 
This type of stretching is not recommended before exercise, because of the
risk of injury!

PNF
Considered an advanced stretching technique. It is used extensively by
physical therapists or when high degrees of both passive and dynamic
flexibility are required for performance (e.g., martial arts, ballet, gymnastics,
kick-boxing). 

There are several PNF techniques, but generally, PNF consists of:
 Passive stretch,
 Isometric contraction
 Another stretch (static or dynamic)

By combining passive stretching with isometric contractions (a contraction in

which there is no change in muscle length or joint movement) with a partner or
object for resistance, PNF uses the stretch reflex and lengthening reaction to
achieve a greater range of motion. 
 Contract and Relax

When a muscle is slowly stretched and held, the resulting tension triggers the
lengthening reaction which prevents the stretched muscle fibers from
contracting.

When this stretched muscle is then isometrically contracted, the following

happens:
 During an isometric contraction, some fibers will contract, but others
will stretch even further.

 When the contraction is stopped, the contracted fibers return to their

starting position, while the stretched fibers retain their stretched
 position (due to muscle spindle accommodation) and are able to
lengthen even further.

A common PNF technique is referred to as the “contract-relax method”. This

technique uses passive stretch and isometric contractions, followed by muscle
relaxation and passive stretching to the new range of motion.
For example, if you are stretching your hamstrings, you first passively take the
stretch to the point of tightness and hold. Then isometrically contract the
hamstrings by using this muscle to apply force against an object or partner.

1. Passive stretch for 15 sec

2. Isometric contraction for 7 - 15 sec
3. Passive stretch to new end for 15 sec
4. Repeat 1 - 5 times

Stretching Exercises

Introduction to Stretching Exercises

Many individuals stretch in a misguided attempt to warm-up. However,

stretching and warm-up should be considered separate activities.

Stretching is not the same as warm-up!

A warm-up prepares the body for the activity that is to follow. Physiological
changes that occur during warm-up include an increase in:

 Muscle temperature
 Blood flow
 Oxygen delivery to the muscles & skeletal muscle metabolism

Warm-up benefits include injury prevention and an improvement in

performance.

A warm-up should always precede any physical activity whether it be

stretching, exercise or sports. Cold muscles don't stretch, and there is a high
chance of injury when stretching is performed without first warming up. 

Stretching (especially dynamic) may be part of a warm-up, but should not

exclusively comprise the warm-up.

A general warm-up involves movements (like jumping jacks & other

calisthenics movements) that are unrelated to the specific activity that is to
follow. This type of warm-up should be performed prior to high-intensity
activities, when immediate participation in the actual activity is likely to result
in joint or muscle injuries.

Body Preparation

Activity-specific warm-up occurs with a low-intensity version of the activity

that is to follow.

Examples of activity-specific warm-ups include:

 Slow jog prior to a long run
 Slow cycling in preparation for a cycling event
 Slow karate moves prior to practice.

A related warm-up starts out slowly and progresses to more intense

activity!
Depending on the intensity of exercise to be performed, a warm-up of
anywhere between 10 - 30 minutes may be required. The greater the intensity
of the workout, the longer the warm-up.

All warm-ups should be of sufficient intensity to elevate body temperature.

Sweating is a good indication that you are ready to move on to the next phase
of your workout.
Both general and activity-specific warm-ups may incorporate some type of
stretching, especially if the activity is one of high intensity. After a short period
of warming-up, some pre-exercise stretching should be done. If time is limited,
the pre-exercise stretch can be eliminated but a static stretching program
should follow every exercise session.
Exercise should not be ended abruptly, but gradually slowed, to avoid pooling
of blood in the skeletal muscles & facilitate the removal of metabolic products.
Exercise should always be followed by a cool-down and stretching session.
Since most of the benefits from stretching occur post-exercise, a 10-15 minute
stretching program should follow every exercise session, and should be
incorporated as part of the warm-down, while the muscles are still warm to
avoid muscle fatigue and soreness.
Stretching Techniques

FULL BODY STRETCHES

Up, Back & Over Press, Press & Fling
Muscle groups: Muscle groups:
Shoulders Chest
Chest Anterior Shoulder
Back

4-Way Leg Swings 4-Way Lunges

Muscle groups: Muscle groups:
Hip & Lower Leg Muscles Leg Muscles

TRUNK STRETCHES
Trunk Rotations Trunk Twisters
Muscle groups: Muscle groups:
Abdominals Abdominals
Obliques Obliques
Hip flexors

Trunk Bending
Muscle groups:
Hip flexors

UPPER BODY STRETCHES

 Neck Stretch Chest Stretch
Muscle groups: Muscle groups:
Neck Muscles Chest Muscles & Anterior
Shoulder

Swimmer’s Stretch
Muscle groups:
Chest Muscles & Anterior Shoulder

ARMS & BACK

Upper Back Stretch Posterior Shoulder Stretch
Muscle groups: Muscle groups:
Posterior Shoulders Posterior Shoulders
Upper Back
Triceps muscles

Forearm & Wrist Stretch Triceps Stretch

Muscle groups: Muscle groups:
Forearms & wrists Triceps
TRUNK, BACK & HIPS
Supine Back Stretch Overhead Trunk Side Stretch
Muscle groups: Muscle groups:
Back extensor muscles Abdominals

Hip Cross Over

Muscle groups:
Iliotibial Band & Hip Abductors

PELVIC AREA
Iliopsoas Stretch Torso Prone Stretch
Muscle groups: Muscle groups:
Iliopsoas Abdominals

Hip Stretch
Muscle groups:
Hip Extensors

OBLIQUES & GROIN

Kneeling Lunge
Muscle groups:
Iliopsoas

Groin Stretch
Muscle groups:
Hip/Leg Abductors
Module 8: Calisthenics
 Strength Development

Introduction to Strength Development

Calisthenics is a form of exercise in which no other equipment is needed but

your body.
Your body provides all the resistance needed!
Calisthenics are a traditional and integral part of many athlete’s training
programs, because they require minimal equipment and can be performed in
almost any location. Calisthenic exercises, depending on how they are
performed, can be used to develop:
 Flexibility
 Muscle Strength
 Muscle Endurance
 Muscle Power

Muscle strength and endurance exist on a continuum. Given that muscle

strength is the amount of force generated by one repetition and muscle
endurance is the ability to exert force repeatedly over time, improving muscle
strength will improve muscle endurance.
 Varying Exercises

Increasing the number of repetitions per set develops endurance. For example,
if an individual can perform only 10-12 sit-ups using proper technique, the
exercise will develop muscle strength. Once an individual can perform over
15 repetitions per set, muscle endurance is being developed.

Generally, activities of longer duration require more muscle endurance. In

general, calisthenics develops muscle endurance. There are two occasions,
however, when calisthenics develops muscle strength.
The first occasion depends on individual fitness level and how many
repetitions can be performed. Individuals who can only perform a low number
of repetitions of a calisthenic exercise (<10-12) will develop muscle strength.
Those who can perform a higher number will develop muscle endurance.

Example: if you progress from being able to do 9 pull ups to 12, you move
from developing muscular strength to muscular endurance.
The second occasion when muscle strength occurs by using calisthenics, is
when exercise is modified to overload the muscles so that they contribute to
strength development. This can be achieved by:

 Adding weight (pull-ups or push-ups while wearing a weighted pack)

 Using a buddy for resistance (having a buddy sit on your hips while
doing bent over calf raises; buddy- assisted leg extensions)
 Doing unilateral movements
 Modifying the exercise (e.g., elevating the legs during push-ups)

These modifications can be particularly helpful if weight training facilities are

not available and a strength workout is required.
Many experts contend that much of the low-back pain in athletes is due to
an overabundance of hip flexor calisthenics!
Many calisthenics, performed to strengthen the abdominal muscles, are
actually exercises for the hip flexors (muscles that move the hips and legs
toward the chest). This causes over-development of the hip flexors and under-
development of the abdominals.

Although both hip flexor and abdominal strength is necessary for optimum
performance, overdeveloped hip flexors play a significant role in the
development of lower back problems. Overdeveloped hip flexors not only
change the curvature of the spine, but also stress the front portion of the
vertebral discs. Hip flexor strength is necessary, but it should be balanced with
equally developed strength and flexibility in the hip extensors (muscles which
move the legs away from the chest) and abdominals.
 Abs and Hips

A balanced calisthenics workout incorporates abdominals, hip flexors and hip

extensors. It is important to include all three in your workout.
Exercises that anchor to elevate the legs and feet off of the deck are actually
working the hip flexors. When performing these types of exercises, the torso
and upper abdominals act to stabilize the pelvis during the movement. For this
reason it is suggested that hip flexor exercises be performed first.

Exercising the abdominals first causes them to become fatigued and therefore
unable to stabilize the pelvis. To strengthen the abdominals:
Identify exercises which are true abdominal exercises vs those which work the
hip flexors
 Decrease the number of hip flexor exercises performed
 Increase the number of true abdominal exercises
 Add hip extensor exercises and always use proper techniqu
Many experts contend that much of the low-back pain in athletes is due to
an overabundance of hip flexor calisthenics!
Many calisthenics, performed to strengthen the abdominal muscles, are
actually exercises for the hip flexors (muscles that move the hips and legs
toward the chest). This causes over-development of the hip flexors and under-
development of the abdominals.

Although both hip flexor and abdominal strength is necessary for optimum
performance, overdeveloped hip flexors play a significant role in the
development of lower back problems. Overdeveloped hip flexors not only
change the curvature of the spine, but also stress the front portion of the
vertebral discs. Hip flexor strength is necessary, but it should be balanced with
equally developed strength and flexibility in the hip extensors (muscles which
move the legs away from the chest) and abdominals.
Proper technique is important when performing all calisthenics. If the muscles
are not strong enough to perform an exercise properly, other muscles will come
into play. The result: the wrong muscles get developed and can lead to injury.

Abdominal Conditioning

Another change that should be incorporated in an abdominal workout is the

addition of a thick towel or an “Ab Mat” beneath the lower spine. The
anatomical range of motion for the abdominals is from 30° extension to
approximately 75-90° flexion.

When performing abdominal exercises on a flat surface the is limited exercise

to only half the normal abdominal range of motion. In other words, when
abdominal exercises are performed on a floor, only half the work necessary to
develop abdominal strength is being done.

Abdominal strength is best developed by exercises performed within the full

anatomical range of motion. By placing a towel or the Ab mat beneath your
lower spine you can achieve the right form for these exercises.
The sit-up technique has undergone many modifications. Some specific points
regarding their proper use are:

 The fingertips of the hands should just touch the back of the head. Elbows
should remain back at all times
 Concentration on using the abdominals to pull through the movement is
essential. Keeping the eyes focused on the ceiling helps prevent neck strain
and isolate the abdominals
 Lifting the torso until the shoulder blades come off the floor engages the
abdominal musculature

The focus should be on the quality of sit-ups. The same principles that govern
the muscle strength-endurance continuum apply to the abdominal musculature. 
The muscular fitness component developed is determined by the number of sit-
ups performed using a towel or “Ab Mat” beginning with 15° of extension.

If muscle strength is the goal, you may want to move to 30° extension. Once
you are performing over 15 reps per set at 30° extension, you can increase the
difficulty of the exercise by changing the position of the arms, adding weight,
or performing sit-ups on a decline. Variations in arm positioning, from the
easiest to the most difficult are outlined.
 Calisthenics Exercises Part 1

Jumping Jack

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Take a standing position with feet together and hands at sides.
Count 1: Jump up while bringing hands together over head and landing with
feet shoulder width apart
Count 2: Jump back to starting position

Aerobic: A good warm-up exercise

 Body Builder

Count: 8-count exercise

Technique: Standing position.
Count 1: Bend legs and place hands on deck
Count 2: Extend both legs backward with extended arms
 Count 3: Bend elbows, lowering chest toward deck
Count 4: Extend arms
Count 5: Separate legs while keeping arms extended
Count 6: Bring legs back together as on count 4
Count 7: Flex legs and bring them back to count 1 position
Count 8: Stand and return to starting position

Muscle groups used: Chest and leg muscles

 Neck Rotations

Count: 4-count exercise

Technique: Can be performed while lying on your back or standing

Count 1: Lift head up and over to side
Count 2: Lift head straight up
Count 3: Bring head to other side
Count 4: Return head to starting position

Muscle groups used: Neck flexors and extensors

 Push Ups

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Begin lying on stomach with hands and feet on deck, arms
extended, and head facing forward
Count 1: Bend elbows to at least a 90° angle, lowering chest toward deck
Count 2: Extend arms back to starting position

Muscle groups used: Chest, Anterior Shoulder, Triceps & Abdominal muscles

Diamond Push Ups

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Begin by lying on stomach, with feet and hands on deck, fingers
spread in a diamond shape, elbows extended, and body straight
Count 1: Bend elbows at least 90° using arms to support body weight
Count 2: Return to starting position

Muscle groups used: Triceps and muscle groups used in regular push-ups

Finger – Tip Push Ups

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Perform same as a regular push-up, but support weight on

fingertips

Muscle groups used: Forearm and muscle groups used in regular push-ups
 Diver Push Ups

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Start by assuming a leaning rest position with feet spread, palms
on deck, elbows fully extended, and hips slightly lifted
Count 1: Upper torso sweeps down toward deck between and through hands
while bending elbows. Resting position is same as down position of basic
push-up
Count 2: Upper torso sweeps back & elbows extend to return to starting
position

Muscle groups used: Chest, Forearms, Triceps & Anterior Deltoids

 Chin Ups

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Beginning at a dead hang from a horizontal bar with arms

shoulder-width apart and palms facing inward
Count 1: Pull body upward until chin touches top of bar
Count 2: Return to starting position
No kicking or kip-up allowed!

Muscle groups used: Back & Bicep

 Pull Ups

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Beginning at a dead hang from a horizontal bar with arms shoulder
width apart and palms facing outward
Count 1: Pull body upward until chin touches top of bar
Count 2: Return to starting position
No kicking or kip-up allowed!

Muscle groups used: Back & Forearms

 Incline Pull Ups

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Requires a low bar. While lying or sitting on ground, grab the bar
with both hands
Count 1: Pull upper body towards the bar at a 45° angle
Count 2: Return to starting position
Emphasis: Pull shoulder blades together during movement!

Muscle groups used: Posterior Shoulder & Triceps

 V Ups

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Lie on back with arms behind head, legs vertical

Count 1: Lift arms and upper torso toward feet
Count 2: Return to starting position
Only upper torso should elevate off deck!

Muscle groups used: Abdominals

 Crunches

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Start by lying on back with legs bent and elevated off deck and
placing hands behind head
Count 1: Lift upper torso 10 to 12 inches off ground
Count 2: Return to starting position

Variations: Legs may be bent with feet on deck, bent with knees toward chest
and feet elevated, or extended vertically. Arms may be placed in several
positions: alongside body, across chest, hands behind head, or hands clasped
above head

Muscle groups used: Abdominals

 Sit – Ups

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Lay flat on the ground and place hands depending which difficulty
you can manage.
Count 1: Lift the torso until the shoulder blades come off the floor
Count 2: Return to starting position
May be performed so that upper or entire torso is lifted off floor! Lifting
only upper torso will engage mostly abdominals; lifting entire torso will
engage internal obliques and hip flexors.

Muscle groups used: Abdominals

 Elbow To Knee Crossover

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Lie on back with hands clasped behind head. Legs can be bent at
knees, with one leg crossed over the knee of the opposite leg or bent with
knees toward chest (feet elevated from deck).
Count 1: Slowly lift and twist torso bringing one shoulder toward knee of
opposite leg
Count 2: Return to starting position & perform exercise by turning torso to
both the left and right knee
Engaging obliques requires rotation to start immediately at
beginning of exercise, not at top!

Muscle groups used: Abdominals & Obliques

 Elbow To Hip Rollover

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Lie on back with legs bent and elevated off deck
Count 1: Slowly bring both knees down together on one side until low back
begins to lift off deck
Count 2: Bring knees back to starting position, then repeat on the other side

Muscle groups used: Abdominals

Flutter Kicks

Count: 4-count exercise

Technique: Lie on back with hands under hips, legs extended, and feet
together above deck
 Count 1: lift right leg keeping it straight
Count 2: Lift left leg to the same position while returning the right leg to the
starting position
Count 3: Bring right leg back up and return left leg to starting position
Count 4: Repeat

Muscle groups used: Abdominals & Hip flexors

Reverse Crunch

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Lie on back with arms at sides

Count 1: Bring both legs off deck, bend at knees, bringing legs toward chest
Count 2: Straighten knees and lower legs down again

Muscle groups used: Abdominals & Hip flexors

 Inboard – Outboard

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Lie on back, hands under hips, feet 3 feet apart and 2 feet above
deck
Count 1: Make small circles by bringing feet out, around, up, in, and down:
inboard circles
Count 2: Change directions for outboards

Muscle groups used: Abdominals & Hip flexors

 Calisthenics Exercises Part 2

Donkey Kicks

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Performed on hands and knees. Repeat this movement using the
same leg, until a burn is felt in the hips and lower back. Then exercise the
opposite leg
Count 1: Extend one leg out and behind
Count 2: Bring it back

Muscle groups used: Hip Extensors

Prone Flutter Kicks

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Lay on the stomach and perform flutter kicks.

 Muscle groups used: Back & Hip Extensors

Prone Back Extension

Count: No-count exercise

Technique: Lie face down on deck, hands clasped behind back, lift upper torso
off deck, hold, and return to starting position. Placement of hands alters
difficulty; behind back is the easiest, behind head is more difficult, straight out
in front is the most difficult.
Avoid hyperextension of back!

Muscle groups used: Back & Hip Extensors

Superman

Count: No-count exercise

 Technique: Either lay on stomach or on hands and knees. Opposite arm and
leg are lifted and held for 3 to 5 seconds, then are slowly lowered

Muscle groups used: Back muscles & Hip Extensors

Leg Lifts

Count: 4-count exercise.

Technique: Lie on side: bend legs at a 90° angle from torso. Lift and lower top
leg. Knee and ankle should always be aligned

Muscle groups used: Hip & Thigh Abductors

Side Stretches

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Lie on side with head supported by hand. Bend top leg and place it
in front of the knee of opposite leg. Raise and lower leg until fatigued
Beneficial for rock climbing!

Muscle groups used: Hip Adductors

Head to Knee Squats

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Feet flat, shoulder width apart with arms relaxed at sides
Count 1: Keep back straight, and feet flat, bend at knees until your fingertips
pass the knees
Count 2: Return to starting position

Muscle groups used: Hip & Thigh Muscles

 Pistol Squat

Count: No-count exercise

Technique: Use one leg to support body weight: bend the leg until thigh is
almost parallel to ground and return to starting position. Repeat using the other
leg.
Don’t put excess stress on the knee by going really low!

Muscle groups used: Hip & Thigh Muscles

 Calf Raises

Count: 2-count exercise

Technique: Perform on a raised surface that allows heels to hang over the side.
Count 1: Exercise starts by letting your heals hang below the curb, then raise
yourself up onto the tips of your toes. You should feel a burn in your calves
Count 2: Return to starting position & repeat

Muscle groups used: Calf Muscles

 Calisthenic Partner Exercises

Calisthenic exercises can be modified to provide a strength workout by

increasing resistance or using a training partner.
Many experts recommend training partner assisted exercises:

 Can be performed anywhere with no equipment

 Training with a partner can motivate you
 Training with a partner will deter you from “taking it easy” during
exercise

Most partner-assisted exercises are designed to develop strength, depending on

the amount of resistance one's partner applies. As with regular calisthenics, the
muscle strength-endurance continuum applies.
Depending on the fitness goal, the partner can apply as much resistance as
necessary to control the number of repetitions.
Develop a partner-assisted exercise program:

 A warm-up and full body stretch prior to training

 Perform 1-3 sets of 6-10 reps per set each
 After completing perform a cool down
 Technique: Lead partner takes leaning-rest position. Support partner grabs
other partner's ankles and lifts them up to hip level. Lead partner then walks on
hands. May also be performed with arms bent

Muscle groups used: Shoulder, Chest, Triceps & Abdominal Muscles

Technique: Lead partner is in back or side push-up position. Support partner

grabs ankles and lifts them to thigh/hip level. Lead partner performs a
backward push-up with both arms or side push-up with one arm

Muscle groups used: Back Push-Ups - Back, Triceps & Shoulders

Side Push-Ups - Triceps, Shoulders, Upper Back & Chest
Technique: Lead partner is in Back Push-Up position. Support partner grabs
ankles and lifts them to thigh/hip level. Lead partner walks backward with
hands

Muscle groups used: Shoulders, Back & Abdominal Muscles

Technique: Lead partner lies on back. Support partner applies resistance

against movement of arms up and toward head, down and toward hips, and
straight out from body

Muscle groups used: Shoulder, Chest & Back

Technique: Trunk Drop - Lead partner kneels with hands behind head while
support partner holds ankles of lead partner. Lead partner lowers trunk until
forehead touches ground and then returns to starting position

Arm Raises - Lead partner kneels with hands extended above head while
support partner holds lead partner's ankles. Lead partner then brings hands to
the side and back to starting position

Muscle groups used: Back & Back Extensors

Technique: Lifts - Lead partner lies on back with hands behind head. Feet are
held by support partner at hip level. Lead partner then raises and lowers head
and trunk.

Trunk Twisters & Trunk Side Bends - Starting position is fireman's carry
with lead partner carrying support partner on shoulders. With feet shoulder-
width apart, lead partner twists to right and then to left. Lead partner may also
bend from waist to right and to left.
Be careful not to use momentum for movement beyond a controllable
range of motion!

Muscle groups used: Abdominals & Obliques

 Technique: Partners stand with backs to each other leaning into each other's
weight. Simultaneously, both partners squat until thighs are parallel to floor.
Both partners return to starting position keeping backs together for support

Muscle groups used: Hips, Quads & Hamstrings

Technique: Start from standing position. Support partner holds leg and

opposite arm of lead partner. Lead partner performs a squat until thigh of bent
leg is parallel to ground using support partner for balance. Lead partner returns
to starting position

Muscle groups used: Hips, Quads & Hamstrings

Technique: Lead partner holds support partner in fireman's carry. Lead partner
performs a squat until thighs are parallel to floor and then returns to standing
position. Lead partner may also perform forward and side lunges

Muscle groups used: Hips, Quads & Hamstrings

Technique: Lead partner holds support partner in fireman's carry. Using

support partner's weight for resistance, lead partner raises up on toes, and then
lowers himself

Muscle groups used: Gastrocnemius

Technique: Partner 1 in leaning rest with feet resting on shoulders of Partner
2. Lead partner bends arms to a push-up position while Partner 2 bends legs to
a squat position. Return to starting position at same time.

Muscle groups used: Partner 1 - Chest, Triceps, Anterior Shoulder &

Abdominals
Partner 2 - Hips, Quads & Hamstrings
Module 9: Plyometrics
 Understanding Plyometrics

Introduction to Plyometrics

Plyometrics is an advanced training technique that should be performed with

the guidance and expertise of other experienced practitioners.
Plyometric exercise involves explosive types of activities that convert muscle
strength into muscle power. Such movements include, jumping onto and down
from objects, bounding up and down stairs and highspeed sending and
receiving. Whenever you run, jump, catch or throw, a plyometric movement is
performed.
Plyometric movements can place considerable stress on the body!

Plyometric training is very intense, highly specific, and if done improperly it

may be injurious.
It should not be routinely incorporated into training programs!

Plyometric exercises train the muscles to reach maximal strength in the

shortest
time possible.
Muscle Strength + Speed = Muscle Power

The rapid application of force is the goal of plyometric training. Plyometric

exercises will not train an energy system as seen with aerobic or strength
conditioning; rather such exercises train the neuromuscular system so that it
may respond more quickly to increased loads. By making use of the inherent
elasticity of the muscles and certain neuromuscular reflexes, plyometric
exercises enhance the speed and distance an object moves.
 Plyometric Training Stages

Activation
Plyometric exercises help develop explosive strength and speed in fast twitch
muscle fibers. These exercises use the inherent stretch-recoil properties of
muscle (the eccentric tension generated when the muscles are lengthened) to
enhance subsequent shortening or concentric contractions.

Examples of this phase include taking the arm back into position prior to
throwing a baseball or bending the knees prior to jumping. Thus athletes that
rely on explosive strength and speed, such as sprinters and basketball players,
include plyometrics in their training programs.

A plyometric movement can be broken down into three phases:

 Lengthening phase (eccentric contraction1)
 Amortization phase

1
Eccentric contraction - lengthening of the muscles
 Take-off (concentric contraction2)
Contraction
During the lengthening phase, the muscle creates tension like a spring being
stretched. This type of contraction, called an eccentric contraction, occurs
when performing movements such as jumping down from an object, running
downhill, or lowering a weight.
During an eccentric contraction, tension is built into the muscle as it lengthens.
The take-off occurs via concentric contraction of the muscles. During this
phase, the muscle shortens as it contracts, and actual work is performed.

Amortization
The amortization phase is the period of time from the beginning of the
lengthening phase to the beginning of the take-off phase. This is the most
important phase when it comes to plyometric training. During this phase, the
muscle must convert the muscular tension generated during the lengthening
phase to acceleration in a selected direction during the takeoff phase. The goal
2
Concentric contraction – shortening of the muscles
of plyometric training is to decrease the amount of time in the amortization
phase and thereby increase speed.
Plyometric training should never be undertaken if you have any leg, hip,
arm or shoulder injury!
Plyometric exercises should be undertaken only once an adequate strength
base has been developed. Most sources define an adequate strength base for
lower body plyometrics as the ability to squat or leg press 1.5 to 2 times your
body weight for 1RM.
For upper body plyometrics, larger athletes (>115kg), should be able to bench
press their body weight and smaller athletes (<115 kg), should be able to bench
press 1.5 times their body weight.

Equipment and Techniques

Several steps can be taken to ensure that plyometrics training is safe. These
measures include using:
 Appropriate surface
 Footwear equipment
 Proper technique
Plyometrics should not be performed on hard surfaces such as concrete or
steel, nor should they be performed on soft surfaces such as sand. The best
surface is a grass field, followed by artificial turf. The surface should never be
too thick since that will increase the time in the amortization phase.

Recommended shoes are those that provide ankle and arch support, lateral
stability, and have a wide, non-slip sole.
Boxes that are used for box jumps should have a non-slip top and should never
exceed a height of 1.2 m.

Medicine balls are commonly used for many of the exercises. This is a ball that
weighs no more than 10% of your typical training weight. For example, if you
regularly train with a 90 kg bench press, then the medicine ball you use should
be no more than 9 kg. These balls can be covered with leather, plastic, rubber,
or any type of fabric.
As with other exercises, attention should be paid to proper technique. For
example, when performing lunges, the knee angle should not exceed 90°. Any
movement beyond this angle will place undue stress on knee cartilage and
ligaments. Keeping the knee directly over and in line with the big toe will help
maintain technique. The step should be straight out, not to the side.

Fatigue from high-volume training can compromise technique and result in

injury. When technique begins to fail, it is time to stop the exercise and rest.
 Plyometric Training

Introduction to Plyometric Training

Plyometrics training should be tailored to account for individual characteristics

and the activity for which one is training. More stress will be placed on the
muscles, joints, and connective tissue of heavier individuals.
Bigger people should not perform high-intensity plyometric exercises!
People with any type of musculoskeletal injury should not consider
plyometrics training and should be cleared by a professional prior to
plyometric training.
The overload principal is the basis for any training program. The three basic
variables used in the overload principal are:
 The frequency of training
 The volume or duration of training
 The intensity of training
By increasing any one or a combination of these variables within a training
program, one can continuously and safely overload the system that is to be
trained.
For plyometric training, the range is usually from 1 - 3 sessions per week,
depending on the sport and season. Frequency is a crucial factor that must be
considered when it comes to plyometric training.

To avoid injury, plyometric training should be implemented on no more than

three days a week. It is vital that you recover fully between each session.

Common signs that you are not recovered from training include:
 Tightness in hamstrings
 Pain in shins
 Muscular pain in calves
 Volume & Intensity

Volume
The volume for plyometric training is defined as the number of foot contacts or
landings per session. When trying to determine the volume that you should
exert during a plyometric training session, the most important factor to
consider is your fitness level.

The different levels and their concurrent numbers of landings per session based
on fitness level:
 Beginners: 80-100 landings per session
 Intermediate: 100-120 landings per session
 Advanced: 120-140 landings per session
Intensity
The intensity for plyometrics training is the level of stress placed on the
neuromuscular system, the connective tissue, and the joints. It is determined by
the type of exercises performed. For example, skipping is a low intensity
exercise while in-depth box jumps are of higher intensity.

Guidelines:
 Vertical jumps are more stressful than horizontal jumps
 One leg landing is more stressful than landing on two feet
 The higher off the ground the body, the more forceful the landing and
the more stressful the exercise
 Adding external weight to the body also increases the stress
Variables
When designing a plyometric program, it is best to increase only one variable
per session to reduce the likelihood of injury. In general frequency is held
constant while either the volume or the intensity is increased. In advanced
plyometrics, when high intensity exercises are performed, volume should
decrease, since these exercises place significant stress on the muscles, joints,
and connective tissues.

Program
 Plyometric Training Exercises

SQUAT JUMP: Start in squat position and explosively jump upward to

maximum height. Land in squat position and immediately repeat jump until all
repetitions are complete.

SPLIT SQUAT: Start in lunge position. Explosively jump off front leg using
calves of back leg to propel body upward. Maintain same position when
landing and immediately repeat jump until all repetitions are complete.
Perform exercise with other leg forward.
CYCLED SPLIT SQUAT JUMP: Start in lunge position. Explosively jump
off front leg using calves of back leg to propel body upward. While in midair,
switch legs so back leg is in front during landing. Land in lunge position and
immediately repeat jump, switching legs each time.

TANDING TRIPLE JUMP: Start with legs shoulder-width apart, arms

slightly behind body. Using legs and arms to propel body, jump upward and as
far forward as possible. Land on right foot, and immediately jump off right
foot and land on left foot. Immediately jump off left foot and land on both feet.
When performing next set, land on left foot first, switching to right and then
both feet. Repeat until all repetitions are completed.
Try to travel as far as possible between each jump!

DOUBLE LEG HOP: Start with feet shoulder-width apart, arms at sides.
Jump up and as far forward as possible. Bring feet toward buttocks while in
midair. Land and repeat jump until all repetitions are completed.
Goal - to achieve maximum distance!

DOUBLE LEG SPEED HOP: Stand with feet together, arms at sides and
slightly extended behind body. Jump up and out as far as possible while
bringing feet toward buttocks. Land in starting position, and immediately
repeat jump until all repetitions are completed. Feet should be kept together
throughout.
Concentrate on speed, then distance, and last on height!

SINGLE LEG SPEED HOP: Begin with 1 foot ahead of the other. Rock onto
front leg and push off. Bring knee of push-off leg up and as high as possible
while in midair. Non-jumping leg is held flexed throughout. Land on right foot,
and immediately repeat exercise until all repetitions using one leg are
completed. Repeat using other leg to push off.
Concentrate on speed, distance, and last on height!

ALTERNATE LEG BOUND: Begin with one foot ahead of the other. Rock
onto front leg and push-off. Bring knee of push-off leg up and as high as
possible while in midair. Think of hanging in the air, to increase distance
traveled. Prepare legs and arms for landing. Land on opposite leg and
immediately repeat bound, alternating legs with each bound until all repetitions
are completed.
Goal - to cover as much distance as possible!

COMBINATION BOUND: Begin with 1 foot ahead of the other, as if taking

a step. Rock onto front leg and push off. Bring knee of push-off leg up and as
high as possible while in midair. Land on right foot, and immediately explode
off right foot and land on right foot again. Immediately explode off right foot
and land on left foot.
After landing on left foot, immediately jump off left foot and then land on right
foot. Foot sequence is right-right-left. Repeat sequence until all repetitions
using one foot are completed. Repeat using opposite leg.

SINGLE LEG TUCK: Stand on one leg, arms slightly behind body. Using
arms and leg propel body upward as high as possible. While in midair, bring
knee of jumping leg toward chest and quickly grasp knee with hands and
release. Land and repeat jump until all repetitions are complete.
No extra jumps between repetitions are allowed!

DOUBLE LEG VERTICAL POWER JUMP: Start in squat position, arms

slightly behind body. Using arms and legs, explosively jump as high as
possible while reaching upward. Land and repeat immediately. Repeat jump
until all repetitions are complete.
No extra jumps in between repetitions are allowed!
MEDICINE BALL SIT-UP: Starting position for lead partner is sitting on the
deck, legs on the deck, shoulder-width apart and flexed at a 90° angle. Support
partner stands 1.5 to 2m in front of lead partner holding medicine ball. Support
partner passes medicine ball to lead partner at chest level. Lead partner catches
medicine ball and allows the weight of the ball to push the upper body back
and down. When the lower back touches the, lead partner immediately sits up
and performs a chest pass to support partner.

MEDICINE BALL CHEST TOSS: This exercise may be performed using a

partner or a wall and a medicine ball that rebounds. Holding medicine ball at
chest level, throw ball forward with a pushing motion. Keep arms slightly
extended following release. After ball rebounds off wall or your partner returns
it, catch ball with arms extended, swing the weight and momentum of ball as
resistance against flexing arms.

MEDICINE BALL PUSH-UP: Start in push-up position with hands

supported by medicine ball. Quickly move hands off medicine ball and drop
toward deck. Catch weight of body as it drops with arms slightly wider than
shoulder-width apart and flexed. Chest should almost touch medicine ball.
Rapidly extend arms to propel body upward. At maximal height, arms should
be placed on medicine ball as in starting position. Catch weight of body and
immediately repeat exercise.
PUSH-UP WITH A CLAP: Starting position is same for push-up. Flex arms,
bringing body toward deck, as if performing a push-up. Using arms to propel
body upward, immediately push body off deck in time for hands to clap prior
to landing in starting position. Repeat exercise.
Module 10: Training in Challenging Environments
 Training in Warm Environments

Heat and Sweating

Acclimation is defined as the continuous or repeated exposure to heat, cold, or

some new environment, so as to provoke physiologic or biochemical changes
that allow you to better tolerate the new environment.
Physical training in extreme conditions presents special challenges. Even
highly accomplished athletes can be quickly overcome by “environmental
exposure” injuries, if proper preparation is overlooked or if signs and
symptoms of impending illness are ignored.

Exercising in hot, humid environments imposes a significant challenge on the

body. The human body maintains tight control of body temperature through
several different mechanisms.
Under conditions which impose large heat loads the primary mechanism for
cooling is evaporative cooling. Relative humidity is the most important factor
governing evaporative cooling:
High Humidity = Limited Evaporative Cooling
As the temperature of the body core rises it warms the blood and pumps it to
the skin to cool off.
Sweat is released and absorbs the heat from the warmed blood. As sweat is
warmed, it is vaporized the same way boiling water turns to steam and thus
removes a large amount of heat from the body.

Only sweat that evaporates can effectively cool the body! Sweat that
“drips” is essentially wasted fluid and provides little or no cooling effect!
 Aids to Cooling

Evaporative Cooling
The body maximizes evaporative cooling by:

 Increasing Heart Rate: An increase in the heart rate increases blood flow to
the skin and results in greater heat transfer to sweat and vapor.
 Increasing Sweat Volume: Beginning to sweat earlier and recruiting more
sweat glands increases the rate of sweat production, therefore cooling.

The degree of danger posed by a hot environment is usually determined by the

wet bulb-globe temperature (WB-GT). If the WB-GT is over 30.5° C with a
relative humidity of 60% or above, exercise should be avoided or undertaken
with caution.
Cooling Blocks
When you exercise in temperatures that are higher than you normally exercise
in, your body will react accordingly and try to cool itself in order to return
itself as close as possible to its normal temperature of 37 ° C.

There are a variety of factors that can hinder or delay the body in cooling itself
when overheated:

 Humid Heat: As the humidity increases, evaporative cooling slows due to

saturation of the air with moisture.
 Skin Disorders: Injuries such as deep thermal burns, sunburn or rashes will
prevent or hinder sweating.
 Clothing: Any clothing that is impermeable to water vapor will compromise
cooling.
Acclimation
Adapting to a hot environment can take 1 – 3 weeks. For physically fit
individuals, 75% of acclimation occurs during the first week of heat exposure.
During this time, sustained physical activity is more difficult and onset of
fatigue occurs with minimal physical exertion.
Acclimation involves two parts:
 Cardiovascular adaptations: Changes that gradually lead to a lower heart
rate for a given workload or intensity of exercise. This is the most rapid
change during acclimation to heat.
 Sweating: Sweating begins earlier with exertion; sweat rate is higher and can
be sustained for longer periods of time. Sweat also becomes more dilute thus
saving essential body electrolytes.
 Hydration and Acclimation

Maintain Aerobic Fitness

A solid base of endurance training established before you enter a hot
environment will ease the cardiovascular strain encountered during
acclimation. Pre-acclimation endurance training must be rigorous enough to
raise core temperatures for acclimation to be most beneficial. Aerobically fit
individuals will retain heat acclimation longer once removed from a hot
environment than less fit people.

Aerobic fitness will help speed the acclimation process but is not a
substitute for it!

Exercise in a Hot Environment

Any form of physical exercise will speed up acclimation. However, the
intensity will be lower than what you are used to. If the environmental
conditions permit, gradually increase the intensity of exercise until you reach
the desired workload or level of training.
Hydration & Acclimation Loss
Acclimation results in an earlier onset of sweating as well as an increase in the
sweating rate, which lead to an increased need for fluids.
Acclimated people may produce as much as 8l – 10l of sweat per day. When
training in hot environments, a minimum of 9l of water per day should be
consumed, but not more than 5 cups per hour. Drinking at frequent intervals
will decrease the risk of a potentially fatal heat stroke.

Heat acclimation cannot be maintained unless there is repeated heat exposure

and even if repeated exposure is maintained, other factors may cause a loss of
acclimation:
 Sleep loss
 Alcohol
 Dehydration
 Salt depletion
 Illness/Infections
 Cessation of physical activity

After 2 weeks of working in a hot environment, it will take 3 to 4 weeks before

most of the adaptations are lost.
 Injury Management

Heat Cramps
Heat cramps are painful contractions of muscles, usually in the extremities,
following vigorous exercise. They occur most commonly in unacclimatized
people. No specific cause is known (possibly depletion of electrolytes), but
such cramps usually resolve when acclimation is complete.

Heat Exhaustion
Heat exhaustion is a potentially serious injury resulting primarily from
dehydration and electrolyte depletion. The affected individual may feel light-
headed, dizzy, nauseous, fatigued, or develop a headache.
If heat exhaustion is suspected, the injured individual should be placed in a
cool location if possible and given replacement fluids by mouth or
intravenously.

Heat Stroke
Heat stroke is a life threatening injury in which the affected individual loses
the ability to regulate temperature and is overcome by soaring body
temperatures (greater than 40° C). Such high temperatures can irreversibly
injure vital organs and result in death, if not rapidly treated.
Many factors may contribute - even well hydrated people may become victims
if they ignore the warning signs and symptoms.

To stay safe while exercising in hot conditions:

 Plan workout to avoid peak heat of the day
 Plan for decreased physical performance the first 2 weeks
 Maintain proper hydration
 Be aware of any illness that may predispose to dehydration
 Always be aware of the warning signs of heat illness & slow down or
stop if signs or symptoms of heat injury become apparent
 Avoid drugs and other substances that predispose to dehydration or
heat injuries
 Training in Cool Environments

Biochemistry in Cool Environments

Cold climates are harsh environments and pose a great threat to survival. An
unprotected man in an extremely cold environment will perish much faster
than when exposed to extreme heat. In cold weather, the human body attempts
to maintain a warm core temperature primarily by physiologic mechanisms and
behavioral adaptations:

 Increased Metabolic Heat Production: This occurs as the body's fuels are
metabolized at the cellular level. Shivering represents involuntary muscle
contractions that can increase the body’s metabolic rate 5–6 times above
normal.

 Peripheral Vasoconstriction: Blood vessels near the surface of the skin

constrict or narrow in an effort to divert warm blood away from the cool
surface of the skin.

 Behavioral Adaptations: Mans greatest asset in cold weather is his ability

to create a warm micro-environment by wearing appropriate protective
clothing or seeking shelter. He can also increase resting metabolic heat
production by 10 times through vigorous exercise.

What is a cold environment? As with a hot environment, the temperature alone

is not necessarily the best indicator of coldness. In the heat, humidity, and in
the cold, the wind, can greatly change comfort levels.
In the cold, the wind accelerates heat loss by replacing the warm layer of air
surrounding the body with colder air. As a rule, you can be sure it is a cold
environment when the ambient temperature is below -9° C and the wind speed
is greater than 40 kph. Such environments pose potential dangers to those
exposed for any length of time.

Side Effects in Cool Environments

Poor Adaptation
Unlike acclimation to hot environments, there is little evidence to suggest that
there is a significant physiologic adaptation to the cold. There is evidence to
suggest that hands which are exposed to the cold for 30min per day for 3
weeks will receive more blood flow and gradually become more “functional”.
However, there is great heat loss through hands conditioned in this manner.
To put it simply, there is very little reward for consistently engaging in
physical exercise in colder temperatures than you are used to. Your body never
really adapts to the cold and you put yourself at risk of contracting a range of
cold weather injuries.

A range of factors can make it increasingly difficult for your body to adapt to
the cold. The main factors experienced by athletes who train in cold weather
conditions are:

 Inadequate Energy Intake: Reduces the ability to generate “metabolic”

heat.

 Injury or Poor Physical Conditioning: Inhibits ability to generate heat

through vigorous exercise.

 Dehydration: Places greater demands on the heart and speeds up fatigue.

 Low Percentage of Body Fat: Subcutaneous fat has insulating properties

which help protect against heat loss.

 Alcohol: Increases peripheral blood flow which promotes heat loss and
causes core temperature to fall more rapidly.

Hypothermia
During exercise in the cold, your body usually produces enough heat to
maintain its normal temperature. As you get fatigued, however, you slow down
and your body produces less heat. Hypothermia develops when the body
cannot produce heat as fast as it is losing it.
A lowering of body core temperature below 35°C is not an uncommon cold
injury and mild hypothermia is a relatively easy injury to treat. Moderate to
severe hypothermia is less common and should be treated as a medical
emergency.

Some warning signs of a falling body core temperature include:

 Uncontrollable shivering
 Slurred speech
 Clumsiness
 Slowed thought process

Taking immediate action

 Always handle those suspected of having hypothermia gently.
Do not allow them to perform vigorous exercise to warm up as this may
cause cardiac arrest!

 Remove wet clothing and place the individual in dry blankets or a sleeping
bag with 1-2 dry and warm people if possible.

 Never completely immerse a hypothermia patient in warm/hot water.

This may result in cardiac arrest!

 Passive rewarming is usually satisfactory for mild hypothermia, but may not
be adequate for severe cases. Gentle rewarming is the safest method of
restoring normal body temperature.
Frostbite
Frostbite is a freezing injury which most commonly affects the hands and feet.
However, it can occur to any surface of the body that is not adequately
protected.

Symptoms often follow a progressive pattern to include the initial sensation of

cold followed by numbness and eventually pain during rewarming. The skin
may appear normal or appear pale.
All cases of frostbite require evaluation at a definitive medical treatment
facility!

Preparation Tips

Special attention should be paid to nutritional requirements in cold

environments. Energy requirements may increase because of the increased
work associated with performing physical tasks in cold weather and the caloric
losses to shivering which can rapidly deplete glycogen stores.
Carbohydrates are an excellent source of energy for replenishing depleted
glycogen. Plenty of foods such as pasta, breads or potatoes in order to
replenish glycogen stores are needed.
Training in a cold environment can be quite dangerous and risky. In order to
stay safe when training in cold conditions, follow the key points outlined
below:

 Check weather conditions and dress appropriately

 Allow for a longer warm up
 Avoid profuse3 sweating
 Replenish body fuel during endurance events
 Maintain hydration
 Avoid drugs that cause dehydration: alcohol & caffeine
 Be aware of the signs of cold injury
 Use gentle rewarming for hypothermia victims

3
profuse - extravagant, plentiful
 Training at High Altitudes

Introduction to Training at High Altitudes

An athlete’s performance can suffer dramatically when they ascend to a high

altitude. Several factors contribute to this decline in performance, but the most
significant factor is hypoxia or lack of oxygen available to do work at higher
altitudes.
Decreased oxygen at altitude reduces the maximal aerobic capacity of an
athlete up to 2% every 100m rise above 1,500m. Therefore, an elite endurance
athlete may only be able to perform at 65% to 85% of maximal aerobic
capacity at 3km when compared to sea level.

Many changes occur during extended exposure to high altitudes; most occur
after 2 to 3 weeks. The major adaptations that affect performance and ability to
do work include:
 Increased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.
 Increased density of blood supply to and within muscle.
 Increased oxygen carrying capacity of muscle.
 Increased respiratory rate.
Athletes that compete in anaerobic events - sprinters or weight lifters - may
notice no initial difference in performance because sustained maximal
oxygenation of muscle tissue is not necessary.

Illness at Altitude

In general, temperature decreases 6.5° C every 1,000m rise in elevation. At

extreme altitudes, the combined effects of hypoxia and hypothermia may make
sustained aerobic activity extremely difficult if not impossible.

Relative humidity falls as one ascends. Combined with the increased

ventilatory rate experienced at altitude, significant water loss can occur from
the normally moist respiratory passages. Cold temperatures will also cause an
increase in urinary output and together these two sources of water loss can
result in rapid dehydration.

AMS
Acute Mountain sickness or AMS is typically a mild illness resulting from
ascents to altitudes above 2,500m or ascents at a rate greater than 300m per
day above 2500m.

Symptoms include:
 Headache
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Fatigue
 Poor appetite

The symptoms usually disappear within a few days. Some individuals,

however, may have to descend to gain relief. Life threatening complications of
AMS include High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) and High Altitude
Cerebral Edema (HACE); both require immediate descent.
Treatment:
Taking 125mg of Acetazolamide (Diamox) by mouth 2×day, 24h – 48h prior
to or during ascent.
This medication should only be given under the direction of a physician!

When participating in high altitude operations, you should report any of the
following symptoms to your team leader or medical officer:
 Cough or progressive shortness of breath
 Coughing up blood
 Progressive symptoms of headache
 Mental confusion or difficulty thinking
 Visual disturbances
 Lack of urination in excess of 8 hours
 Excessive irregular breathing

Maintaining Performance at Altitude

Weight Loss
Most people who ascend to 4,000m or higher will experience a weight loss of
up to 5% in the first 2 weeks. Some of this loss is muscle mass and appears to
result from a decrease in the size of individual muscle fibers.
There are several reasons:
 Increased energy expenditure
 Decreased appetite & sense of taste due to hypoxia
 Loss of body water

Acclimation
Prolonged exposure to altitude will bring several physiologic changes and
result in improved exercise tolerance.
At levels above 3,000m, maximal aerobic capacity is limited and is lower than
what would be measured at sea level. Below the 3000m mark, maximal aerobic
capacity may approach sea level values, but usually after a 2 week acclimation
period. Because of this, elite endurance athletes may experience aerobic
deconditioning with extended stays at altitude.
Pollutants
Pollutants are substances in the environment which lower the environment’s
quality. Originally, air pollutants were thought to be only byproducts of the
industrial revolution. However, many pollutants are produced naturally. For
example, volcanoes emit sulfur oxides and ash, and lightning produces ozone.
There are two classifications of air pollutants:
 Primary - produced directly by industrial sources such as CO & SO
 Secondary - created by the primary pollutant’s interaction with the
environment such as O3 & sulfates
Smog is a combination of primary and secondary pollutants!

Some pollutants have negative effects on the body. For example, CO binds to
hemoglobin and reduces the amount of oxygen carried in the blood. O 3 and
oxides irritate the air passageways in the lungs, while other pollutants irritate
the eyes. Inhaled pollutants irritate the respiratory tract and make the person
less able to perform aerobically.
The following are some ways to deal with air pollution while exercising:
 Avoid exposure to pollutants
 In areas of high ozone concentration, train early in the day or after dark
 Avoid exercising near heavily traveled streets and highways during rush
hours
Module 11: Preventing & Treating Injuries
 Treating Inflammation Injuries

Introduction to Inflammation Injuries

One of the hazards of being an athlete is becoming injured. Sustaining either a

sudden injury or an overuse musculoskeletal injury can mean loss of work
days, forced rest, and pain for a period of days to weeks.

The goal is NOT to have you treat your own injuries, but rather to be informed
so that you will seek appropriate help when needed. For rapid recovery a
reconditioning program is a wise step which starts immediately after the injury.
Such programs are designed to arrest the inflammatory process, promote
healing, and accelerate the return to training.

Sudden, traumatic, or acute injuries to the musculoskeletal tissue quickly result

in inflammation, a process characterized by localized warmth, swelling,
redness and pain. If left unchecked, however, the inflammatory process rapidly
leads to:
 Tissue congestion4
 Stiffness
 Weakness
 Decreased range of motion
 Loss of normal function

RICE & ISE

Treatments for Training- Related Injuries:

 RICE = Rest, Ice, Compression & Elevation
 ISE = Ice, Stretching & Exercise

A highly successful Sports Medicine approach to accelerate the healing of any

injury is to first decrease the inflammatory process, and then increase the range
of motion at the joint. RICE and ISE are the approaches used to achieve these
goals.

4
Tissue congestion - a large blood or lymphatic flow at a specific point between the skin
and the muscles, causing a blockage
RICE
Appropriate for all strains and sprains. In general, if one cannot bear weight
on the extremity, rest is indicated and x-rays to rule out a fracture should be
completed as soon as practical.

Rest - applying no or only partial weight to the extremity & crutches should be
used for locomotion.
Relative Rest - decreasing pain causing activities and replacing them with
other activities that are pain-free.

Ice - applying ice until swelling has stabilized. Ice serves a variety of important
roles:
 Reduces swelling
 Decreases muscle spasm and pain
 Allows for less painful range of motion
 Enhances blood flow

To prevent skin or nerve damage, do not keep ice on for more than 20
minutes, especially when applying to the elbow, wrist, or the knee. All soft
tissue or joint injuries, except open wounds, will benefit by immediate
application of ice. Ice can be applied either passively or actively.
Passive application is when you take some form of ice and apply it to the
injured body part.
Active application is when you take the ice and massage the injured part with
the ice.
The normal response to ice includes cold, burning, aching and finally
numbness over the affected part. This progression occurs over 7-10 minutes.
Compression - applying an Ice wrap or similar compression wrap to the
injured part for periods of 2-4 hours.

Elevation - placing the injured part above the level of the heart; this allows
gravity to help reduce the swelling and fluid accumulation.

Use of Drugs

ROM
The term range of motion is used to describe the extent to which a particular
joint can be moved. Achieving complete range of motion is the goal, but
sometimes injuries restrict it.

During the 20min icing session, you should attempt to move the injured part
through a pain-free ROM . Days later you can attempt a resistance activity
which stresses the injured part while moving the joint through a ROM that can
be tolerated.
An example would be moving the ankle up and down against resistance
applied by holding a towel under the foot.

Anti- Inflammatory Drugs

In the case of an acute injury which involves bleeding or swelling, NSAIDs5
should not be started for 2 to 3 days or until the swelling has stabilized.

NSAIDs are often used as the first treatment for overuse injuries because they
are effective and decrease the symptoms due to inflammation. NSAIDs are
used in training related injuries when there is inflammation caused by:
 Tendonitis
 Bursitis
 Sprains
 Strains

NSAIDs should only be taken under the supervision of medical personnel!

5
NSAIDs - Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
They carry the risk of a range of side effects:
 Gastrointestinal distress
 Gastrointestinal bleeding
 Increased blood pressure
 Decreased ability of blood to clot
 Exacerbation of asthma
 Potential kidney damage with long-term use

Treating Inflammation Injuries]

After the pain and swelling of a sports-related injury is reduced and the desired
range of motion is achieved, consult a professional to design a reconditioning
exercise program with the goal of a rapid return to full activity.

The exercises prescribed will be specific to the site and type of injury, and will
work towards the maximizing of flexibility, endurance, speed, strength and
power. Each of these goals should be completed before returning to
unrestricted activity.
Strength & Flexibility
Closely linked. If flexibility is not balanced around a joint, or strength is
maintained through only part of the range of motion, the risk of delayed
healing or re-injury is high.

Endurance
The muscle quickly becomes deconditioned during the body's repair process
and fatigues. In an injured ankle for example, it may feel strong when rested
but be prone to re-injury as the muscles and tendons around it become fatigued
with activity. Both individual muscle endurance and cardiovascular endurance
should be improved.

Power
A deconditioned muscle is prone to re-injury when called upon to perform a
power move. Strategies for developing power include rapid motion against
resistance.

Sustained Speed
Provides the injured part to anaerobic activity and coordination of movement.
Interval training several times per week is an excellent supplement to the
rehabilitation of a lower extremity injury, provided the operator performs the
activity below the pain threshold.