Study material prepared by Prof.

Devaraj K
Prepared by Prof: Deepak C

Unit-2:
Module 1: Gas Power Cycles

Introduction
An important application of thermodynamics is the analysis of power cycles through which the energy absorbed
as heat can be continuously converted into mechanical work. A thermodynamic analysis of the heat engine cycles
provides valuable information regarding the design of new cycles or for improving the existing cycles.
The purpose of a thermodynamic cycle is either to produce power, or to produce refrigeration/pumping of
heat. Therefore, the cycles are broadly classified as follows:

1. Heat engine or power cycles.

2. Refrigeration/heat pump cycles.

Any thermodynamic cycle is essentially a closed cycle in which, the working substance undergoes a series of
processes and is always brought back to the initial state. However, some of the power cycles operate on open cycle.
It means that the working substance is taken into the unit from the atmosphere at one end and is discharged into
the atmosphere after undergoing a series of processes at the other end.

Analysis of Cycles
In air standard analysis, air is considered as the working medium. The analysis is carried out with the following
assumptions.

Assumptions
1. The working substance consists of a fixed mass of air and behaves as a perfect gas. The closed system is
considered which under goes a cycle process. Therefore, there are no intake or exhaust process.

2. The combustion process is replaced by an equivalent heat addition process form an external source. Thus
there is no change in the chemical equilibrium of the working fluid and also composition.

3. There is no exhaust process; this is replaced by an equivalent heat rejection process.

4. Compression and expansion processes in the cycle are considered as reversible adiabatic process.

5. The specific heats Cp and Cv of air remains constant and does not vary with temperature.

Carnot Cycle

Figure 1: P-V and T-S diagram of Carnot Cycle

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The T-s and p-v diagrams for a Carnot power cycle are shown in Fig.1. The cycle consists of two reversible
adiabatic and two reversible isothermal processes, The working of the cycle is as follows:
Process 1-2: Reversible isothermal heat rejection of the working substance from state 1 to state 2.
Process 2-3: Isentropic compression of the working substance from state 2 to state 3. During this process work
is done on the working substance by the surroundings.
Process 3-4: Reversible isothermal heat addition of the working substance from state 3 to state 4.
Process 4-1: Isentropic expansion of the working substance so that it comes back to its initial state. During
this process work is done by the working substance on the surroundings.

Expression for Thermal Efficiency

From the thermodynamics, for unit mass of air
Heat supplied from point 3 to 4
v4
p3 v3 ln (1)
v3
Heat rejected from point 1 to 2
v2
p1 v1 ln (2)
v1
From characteristic gas equation we can write p3 v3 = RTmax and p1 v1 = RTmin
Substituting in the above equations, we get

v2
RTmin ln
v1
v4
RTmax ln
v3
So the Work-done during the cycle is given by W = Heat supplied - Heat rejected

v4 v1
W = RTmax ln − RTmin ln (3)
v3 v2
As the compression ratio
v4 v1
rc = =
v3 v2
Substituting the above in the Work-done equation, we get

W = RTmax ln r − RTmin ln r

Workdone
Carnot Thermal Efficiency is given by =
Heat Supplied
So, Mathematically it can written as,

RTmax ln r − RTmin ln r Tmax − Tmin

ηth = → (4)
RTmax ln r Tmax
Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system (a piston and cylinder device or in a steady flow device. It
can be seen that the thermal efficiency depends only on two temperatures Tmax and Tmin and is independent of
working substance. The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed between a heat source at
temperature Tmax and a heat sink at temperature Tmin . But reversible isothermal heat transfer process is difficult
to achieve in practice, because, it would require very large heat exchangers and it would take a very long time
(a power cycle in a typical engine has to be completed in a fraction of a second). Therefore it is not practical to
build an engine that would operate on a cycle that closely approximates a Carnot cycle.
The real value of the Carnot cycle comes from the fact that it is used as a standard against which the actual
or other ideal power cycles are compared. It can be seen from the equation that the thermal efficiency the

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 Study material prepared by Prof. Devaraj K
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Carnot power cycle increases with increase in Tmax and with decrease in Tmin . Hence in actual or other ideal
cycles attempts are made in increasing the average temperature at which heat is supplied or by decreasing the
average temperature at which heat is rejected. It should also be noted that the source and sink temperatures that
can be used in practice have their limitations. The highest temperature in the cycle is limited by the maximum
temperature the components of the engine can withstand and the lowest temperature is limited by the temperature
of the cooling medium used in the cycle such as the atmospheric air, ocean, lake or a river.

Air Standard Otto Cycle

Figure 2: P-V and T-S diagram of Otto Cycle

Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark ignition engines. The cycle is named after Nikolaus A Otto, a German
who built a four – stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de Rochas
in 1862.The p–V and T–s diagrams for an Otto cycle are shown in Fig.2. The cycle consists of the following
processes:
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of air from state 1 to state 2. During this process. Work is done on air
by the surroundings.
Process 2-3: Constant volume of heating of air from state 2 till the maximum permissible temperature is
reached.
Process 3–4: Isentropic expansion of air from state 3 to state 4. During this process work is done by air on
the surroundings.
Process 4–1: Constant volume cooling of air till the air comes back to its original state.

Expression for Thermal Efficiency and Work output

No heat is added during the isentropic compression processes 1-2 and 3-4.
Heat added during the constant volume heating process 2-3 is given by,

QH = cv ∗ (T3 − T2 ) (5)

Heat rejected during the constant volume heating process 4-1 is given by,

QL = cv ∗ (T1 − T4 ) (6)

Work done during the cycle is given by,

W = QH − QL = cv (T3 − T2 ) − cv (T4 − T1 )
W
Thermal Efficiency is given by, ηth = QH

cv (T3 − T2 ) − cv (T4 − T1 )
ηth = (7)
cv (T3 − T2 )

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 Study material prepared by Prof. Devaraj K
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Further simplified as,

(T4 − T1 )
ηth = 1 −
(T3 − T2 )
1
ηth = 1 − (T3 −T2 )
(8)
(T4 −T1 )

The equation 8, gives the expression for thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle in terms of the temperatures at the
salient points of the cycles. It is possible to express the net work output and thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle
in terms of compression ratio. So, for the isentropic processes 1-2 and 3-4, we can write,

T3 v4
(γ−1) T2 v1
(γ−1)
= and =
T4 v3 T1 v2
But v2 = v3 and v1 = v4 Therefore we can write,

(T3 − T2 ) (T4 ( vv21 )(γ−1) − T1 ( vv21 )(γ−1) ) (T4 − T1 ) v1 (γ−1)

= = ( )
(T4 − T1 ) (T4 − T1 ) (T4 − T1 ) v2
(T3 − T2 ) v1
(γ−1)
=
(T4 − T1 ) v2
So the equation 8 for thermal efficiency can be written as
1 1
ηth = 1 − =1− (9)
v1 (γ−1) (γ−1)


v2
rc

From the above equation, it can be observed that the efficiency of the Otto cycle is mainly the function
of compression ratio for the given ratio of Cp and Cv . If we plot the variations of the thermal efficiency with
increase in compression ratio for different gases, the curves are obtained as shown in Fig.3, beyond certain values of
compression ratios, the increase in the thermal efficiency is very small, because the curve tends to be asymptotic.
However, practically the compression ratio of petrol engines is restricted to maximum of 9 or 10 due to the
phenomenon of knocking at high compression ratios.

Figure 3: Variation of thermal efficiency with compression ratio

Expression for Mean effective pressure

Generally it is defined as the ratio of new workdone to the displacement volume of the pistion. Let us consider
unit kg of working substance, Work done is given by,

W = cv (T3 − T2 ) − cv (T4 − T1 ) (10)

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 Study material prepared by Prof. Devaraj K
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Displacement volume is given by,

vs = (v1 − v2 )
1 RT1
vs = v1 (1 − ), But,v1 =
r p1
RT1 1
vs = (1 − )
p1 r
cv (γ − 1)T1 r − 1

vs = Since, R = cv (γ − 1) (11)
p1 r
Mean effective pressure is given by;

(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )
pm = cv (γ−1)T1 r−1
p1 ( r )
1 p1 r
pm = [(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )] (12)
cv (γ − 1) T1 r − 1
p3 T3 p3
As T2 = T1 (r)γ−1) . Let Pressure ratio is rp = p2 = T2 and T3 = p 2 T2 = rp T2 = rp T1 (r)(γ−1)

T4 v3 1
= ( )(γ−1) = ( )(γ−1)
T3 v4 r
(γ−1) 1
T4 = rp T1 (r) ∗ ( )(γ−1)
r
T 4 = rp T 1 (13)

So the mean effective pressure is given by

p1 r
(rp rγ−1 − rγ−1 ) − (rp − 1)
 
pm =
cv (r − 1)(γ − 1)
 (rγ−1 (rp − 1) − (rp − 1) 
pm = p1 r
cv (r − 1)(γ − 1)
 (r γ−1 − 1)(rp − 1) 
pm = p1 r (14)
cv (r − 1)(γ − 1)

The above expression is the equation for Mean effective pressure in terms of compression ration r, pressure ratio
rp and specific heat ratio γ

Air Standard Diesel Cycle

Figure 4: P-V and T-S diagram of Diesel Cycle

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 Study material prepared by Prof. Devaraj K
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The diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compression ignition engines (CI engines). CI engine was first proposed by
Rudolph Diesel in 1890. The diesel engine works on the principle of compression ignition. In such an engine, only
air is compressed and at the end of the compression process, the fuel is sprayed into the engine cylinder containing
high pressure air, so that the fuel ignites spontaneously and combustion occurs. Since only air is compressed
during the compression stroke, the possibility of auto ignition is completely eliminated in diesel engines. Hence
diesel engines can be designed to operate at much higher compression ratios (between 12 and 24). Also another
benefit of not having to deal with auto ignition is that fuels used in this engine can be less refined (thus less
expensive).
Air standard diesel cycle is a idealized cycle for diesel engines. It is as shown on P-v and T-s diagrams. The
processes in the cycle are as follows:
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic Compression.During this process the work is done on the air by the sur-
roundings.
Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition till the maximum permissible temperature is reached.
Process 3-5: Reversible adiabatic Compression. During this process work is done by the air on the surroundings.
Process 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection so that air comes back to its original state to complete the cycle.

Expression for Work output and Thermal Efficiency

Consider unit kg of working fluid. Since the compression and expansion processes are reversible adiabatic pro-
cesses, we can write,

Heat supplied QH = cp (T3 − T2 )

Heat Rejected QL = cv (T1 − T4 )

Work done during the cycle is given by,

W = QH − QL
W = cp (T3 − T2 ) − cv (T4 − T1 )

Now, we can write Thermal efficiency as,

W
ηth =
QH
cp (T3 − T2 ) − cv (T4 − T1 )
ηth =
cp (T3 − T2 )
1 T4 − T1
ηth =1− ( ) (15)
γ T3 − T2
The above expression gives the equation for thermal efficiency in terms of temperatures and ratio of specific heat
γ. We can get the expression for thermal efficiency in terms of compression ratio rc , cut-off ratio ρ. Now expressing
all the Temperatures in terms of T1 , γ and rc , we get.,

T2 = T1 rcγ−1
v1 v3 T3
such that,r = also cut-off ratio ρ = =
v2 v2 T2
T3 = ρT2 = ρT1 rcγ−1
T4 v3
= ( )γ−1
T3 v4
v3 v2 γ−1
T4 = ρT1 rcγ−1 ( )
v2 v4
ρ
T4 = ρT1 rcγ−1 ( )γ−1 = ργ T1
rc

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 Study material prepared by Prof. Devaraj K
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Substituting the above temperature expressions in equation 23, we get

1 ργ T1 − T1
ηth = 1 −
γ ρrcγ−1 T1 − rcγ−1 T1
ργ − 1
ηth = 1 − γ−1 (16)
γrc (ρ − 1)
From the above equation, it is observed that the thermal efficiency of the diesel engine can be increased by
increasing the compression ratio rc , by decreasing the cut-off ratio ρ and by using a large value of γ. Since the
ργ −1
quantity, γ(ρ−1) is always greater than unity, the efficiency of the diesel cycle is always lower than that of an
Otto cycle having the same compression ratio. However, practical Diesel engines uses higher compression ratios
compared to petrol engines.

Expression for Mean effective pressure

As already discussed during Otto cycle, it is defined as the ratio of new workdone to the displacement volume of
the pistion. Let us consider unit kg of working substance, Heat supplied during the diesel cycle is given,
QH = cp (T3 − T2 )
Heat rejected during the diesel cycle is given,
QL = cv (T1 − T4 )
Work done is given by,
W = QH − QL = cp (T3 − T2 ) − cv (T4 − T1 ) (17)
Displacement volume is given by,
vs = (v1 − v2 )
1
RT1
vs = v1 1 − , But, v1 =
rc p1
RT1 1

vs = 1−
p1 rc
cv (γ − 1)T1 rc − 1

vs = Since, R = cv (γ − 1) (18)
p1 rc
Mean effective pressure is given by;

γ(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )
pm =
cv (γ − 1)T1 rc − 1
( )
p1 rc
1 p1 r c
pm = [γ(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )] (19)
cv (γ − 1) T1 rc − 1
v3 v4 v4 v2 rc
As T2 = T1 (rc )γ−1) , if Cut-off ratio ρ = v2 ,re is the expansion ratio = v3 = v2 v 3 so expansion ratio re = ρ
Then, T3 = vv32 T2 = ρT2 = ρT1 (rc )(γ−1)

T4 v3 1 ρ
= ( )(γ−1) = γ−1 = ( )(γ−1)
T3 v4 re rc
ρ
T4 = ρT1 (rc )(γ−1) ∗ ( )(γ−1)
rc
T4 = ργ T1 (20)
So the mean effective pressure is given by
p1 rc
γ(ρrcγ−1 − rcγ−1 ) − (ργ − 1)
 
pm =
cv (rc − 1)(γ − 1)
 γrcγ−1 (ρ − 1) − (ργ − 1) 
pm = p1 rc (21)
cv (rc − 1)(γ − 1)
The above expression is the equation for Mean effective pressure in terms of compression ration r, cut-off ratio ρ
and specific heat ratio γ

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 Study material prepared by Prof. Devaraj K
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Difference between Actual Diesel and Otto cycles

Otto Cycle
1. Homogeneous mixture of fuel and air formed in the Carburettor is supplied to the engine cylinder.

2. Ignition is initiated by means of electric spark plug.

3. Power output is varied by means of throttle-valve near Carburettor, which controls the fuel-air mixutre
supply to the engine

Diesel Cycle
1. No carburetor is used. Air alone is supplied to the engine cylinder. Fuel is injected directly into the engine
cylinder at the end of compression stroke by means of a fuel injector. Fuel-air mixture is heterogeneous.

2. No spark plug is used. Compression ratio is high and the high temperature of air ignites fuel.

3. No throttle value is used. Power output is controlled only by means of the mass of fuel injected by the fuel
injector.

Air Standard Dual-Combustion or Limited Pressure or Semi-Diesel cycle

Figure 5: P-V and T-S diagram of Dual Cycle

The cycle is also called as the dual cycle, which is show in Figure. 5. Here the heat addition occurs partly
at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. This cycle is a closer approximation to the behaviour of the
actual Otto and Diesel engines because in the actual engines, the combustion process doesn’t exactly occur at
constant ovolume or at constant pressure but rather as in the dual cycle. Hence for most oil engines the ideal
cycle is taken as the dual cycle. The P-V and T-S diagram for the dual cycle is shown above and it consists of
follow processes,
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression.
Process 2-3: Constant volume heat addition.
Process 3-4: Constant pressure heat addition.
Process 4-5: Reversible adiabatic expansion.
Process 5-1: Constant volume heat rejection.
Consider unit kg of mass during the cyclic process,
Heat supplied during the process 2-3 and 3-4 is given by,

QH = cv (T3 − T2 ) + cp (T4 − T3 )

Heat rejected during the process 5-1 is given by,

QL = cv (T1 − T5 )

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 Study material prepared by Prof. Devaraj K
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Thermal efficiency of the cycle can be obtained by the equation

Work done
ηth =
Heat Supplied
QH − QL QL
ηth = =1−
QH QH
cv (T5 − T1 )
ηth =1−
cv (T3 − T2 ) + cp (T4 − T3 )
(T5 − T1 )
ηth =1− (22)
(T3 − T2 ) + γ(T4 − T3 )
v1
The efficiency of the cycle can be expressed in terms of the following ratios, compression ratio rc = v2 , Expansion
ratio rc = vv45 , Cut-off ratio ρ = vv34 and pressure ratio rp = pp23
We can express, rc = ρ ∗ re such that re = rρc
For the process 3-4
v4 T 4 p3 T4
ρ= = =
v3 p4 T 3 T3
T4
T3 = (23)
ρ
For the process 2-3
p2 v 2 p3 v 3
=
T2 T3
p2 T4
T2 = T3 = (24)
p3 rp ρ
For the process 1-2
T2 v1
= ( )γ−1
T1 v2
T2 = T1 (rc )γ−1
T4
T1 = (25)
rp .ρ.rcγ−1
For the process 4-5
T5 v4 1
= ( )γ−1 = γ−1
T4 v5 re
ρ γ−1
T5 = T4 γ−1 (26)
rc
Substituting the values of T1 , T2 , T3 andT5 in the expression for the efficiency equation, we get

ργ−1 T4
T4 −
rcγ−1 rp .ρ.rcγ−1
ηth = 1 − )
T4 T4 T4
( ρ − rp .ρ + γ(T4 −
ρ
1 rp .ρ − 1
ηth = 1 − γ−1 . (27)
rc (r p − 1) + γ.rp (ρ − 1)

Comparison on Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles

The important variable factors which are used as the basis for comparison of the cycles are compression ratio,
peak pressure, heat rejection and the net work. In order to compare the performance of the Otto, Diesel and Dual
combustion cycles, some of the variable factors must be fixed. In this section, a comparison of these three cycles
is made for the same compression ratio, constant maximum pressure and temperature, same heat rejection and
net work output. This analysis will show which cycle is more efficient for a given set of operating conditions.

9 Applied Thermodynamics
 Study material prepared by Prof. Devaraj K
Prepared by Prof: Deepak C

Figure 6: P-V and T-S diagram on same compression ratio and heat input

Case:1 Same compression ratio and heat input

A comparison of the cycles (Otto, Diesel and Dual) on the p-v and T-s diagrams for the same compression ratio
and heat supplied is shown in the Fig.6.
HeatSupplied
We know that, η = 1 − HeatRejected
Since all the cycles reject their heat at the same specific volume, process line from state 4 to 1, the quantity of
heat rejected from each cycle is represented by the appropriate area under the line 4 to 1 on the T-s diagram. As
is evident from the efficiency equation, the cycle which has the least heat rejected will have the highest efficiency.
Thus, Otto cycle is the most efficient and Diesel cycle is the least efficient of the three cycles.
i.e., ηotto > ηdual > ηdiesel .

Case-2: Same Maximum Temperature, pressure and Heat rejection

The air-standard Otto, Dual and Diesel cycles are drawn on common p-v and T-s diagrams for the same maximum
pressure and maximum temperature, for the purpose of comparison.

Figure 7: P-V and T-S diagram for comparison on same Maximum Temp, pressure and Heat rejection
′ ′
Otto 1 − 2 − 3 − 4 − 1, Dual 1 − 2 − 3 − 3 − 4 − 1, Diesel 1 − 2” − 3 − 4 − 1 as shown in Fig.7. Slope of constant
volume lines on T-s diagram is higher than that of constant pressure lines.
Here the otto cycle must be limited to a low compression ratio(rc ) to fulfill the condition that point 3 (same
maximum pressure and temperature) is to be a common state for all the three cycles. The construction of cycles
on T-s diagram proves that for the given conditions the heat rejected is same for all the three cycles (area under
process line 4-1).
HeatSupplied
Since, by definition, η = 1 − HeatRejected = 1 − Constant
QH
the cycle with greater heat addition will be more efficient. From the T-S diagram
′
QH−Diesel = Area under 2” − 3 , QH−Dual = Area under 2 − 3′ − 3, QH−Otto = Area under 2 − 3
It can be seen that QH−Diesel > QH−Dual > QH−Otto
and thus efficiencies are given by, ηDiesel > ηDual > ηOtto .

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 Study material prepared by Prof. Devaraj K
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Brayton Cycle
Gas turbine engines operate on either open or closed basis. The Fig. 8a is the open mode of operation which is
commonly used. In this type the atmospheric air is continuously drawn into the compressor and compressed to a
high

Figure 8: Simple Gasturbine (a) Open cycle (b) Close cycle

Figure 9: P-V and T-S diagram for Brayton cycle

11 Applied Thermodynamics
 GAS TURBINES

Unit 3:
Gas Turbines and Jet Propulsion: Classification of Gas Turbines, Analysis of open cycle gas
turbine cycle. Advantages and Disadvantages of closed cycle. Methods to improve thermal
efficiency. Jet propulsion and Rocket propulsion.

Simple Gas Turbine Cycle

A schematic diagram of a simple gas turbine power plant is shown in figure. Air is drawn from
the atmosphere into the compressor, where it is compressed reversibly and adiabatically. The
relatively high pressure is then used in burning the fuel in the combustion chamber. The air fuel
ratio is quite high (about 60:1) to limit the temperature of the burnt gases entering the turbine.
The gases then expand isentropically in the turbine. A portion of the work obtained from the
turbine is utilized to drive the compressor and the auxiliary drive, and rest of the power output is
the net power of the gas turbine plant.

A gas turbine plant works using a Brayton or joule cycle. This cycle was originated by joule, a
British engineer for use in a hot air reciprocating engine and later in about 1870 an American
engineer George Brayton tried this cycle in a gas turbine. This cycle consists of two constant
pressures and two adiabatic processes. The P-V and T-S diagrams of the cycle are as shown in
figure.
Process 1 – 2: isentropic compression in the compressor

Process 2 – 3: constant pressure heat addition in the combustion chamber

Process 3 – 4: isentropic expansion in the turbine

Process 4 -1: constant pressure heat rejection in the atmosphere or cooling of air in the
intercooler (closed cycle).

Expression of net work output:

We have net work output, WN = WT - WC

Turbine work, WT = h3 – h4
= CP (T3 – T4) since the working fluid is a perfect gas

Compressor work, WC = h2 – h1
= CP (T2 – T1)

∴WN = CP (T3 – T4) – CP (T2 – T1)

P2
Let R = = pressure ratio for compression
P1
t = T3/T1 = Temperature ratio
T T T
W N = C P T1 3 − 4 − 2 + 1
T1 T1 T1
r −1
r −1
T1 T2 T P r
We have r −1
= r −1
∴ 2 = 2 =R r

P1 r P2 r
T1 P1
T4 T4 T3
=
T1 T3 T1
r −1 r −1
P r 1 r
= 4 t= t P1 = P4 & P2 = P3
P3 R
r −1
t
∴ W N = C P T1 t − r −1
−R r
+1
r
R

Expression for Thermal Efficiency:

W N QH − QL Q
We have thermal efficiency, η th = = = 1− L
QH QH QH
Heat added, QH = h3 – h2 = CP (T3 – T2)
Heat rejected, QL = h4 – h1 = CP (T4 – T1)
T
T1 4 − 1
C (T − T1 ) T1
∴η th = 1 − P 4 = 1−
C P (T3 − T2 ) T
T2 3 − 1
T2
r −1 r −1 r −1
r −1
T P r
T3 P3 r 1 r
Now, 2 = 2 =R r
& = =
T1 P1 T4 P4 R
T2 T3 T4 T3
But as P2 = P3 & P1 = P4, it follows that = or =
T1 T4 T1 T1
T1 1 1
∴η th = 1 − i.e., η th = 1 − or η th = 1 − r −1
T2 T2 r
R
T1

From the above equation, it is seen that the efficiency of the air standard gas turbine cycle
increases with increase in pressure ratio (R) and the type of working fluid.

Optimum Pressure Ratio for Specific Power Output

In a gas turbine cycle, T1 is the temperature of the atmosphere and T3 is the temperature of the
burnt gases entering the turbine. Temperature T3 is fixed by the metallurgical consideration of
the turbine and temperature T1 is fixed by the atmospheric condition. Between these two extreme
values of temperature, there exists an optimum pressure ratio for which the work output of the
turbine is maximum.

We have, the net work output of the turbine is,

r −1
t
W N = C P T1 t − r −1
−R r
−1 --- (1)
r
R

The optimum pressure ratio is obtained by differentiating the net work output w.r.t. the pressure
dW N
ratio and putting the derivative equal to zero i.e., =0
dR
γ −1
d t γ
Or C P T1 t − γ −1
−R −1 =0
dR γ
R
Differentiating with respect to R we get,
 1−γ −γ γ −1−γ
1− γ γ γ −1 γ
−t R − R =0
γ γ
1− 2γ
1− γ γ γ − 1 −1γ
i.e., − t R = R
γ γ
1− 2γ
γ −1 γ γ − 1 −1γ
t R = R
γ γ

−1 1 1− 2 γ
γ − −
R γ γ
or 1− 2γ
= t or R =t
γ
R
−1−1+ 2γ 2 (γ −1)
γ γ
or R = t or R =t

γ
γ
T3 2 (γ −1)
or (R )opt = t 2 (γ −1)
i.e., Ropt =
T1

Substituting this value of R in the expression for WN, we get

r −1
r r
(WN )opt = C P T1 t −
t
r −1
− t 2 ( r −1)
+1
r r
2 ( r −1)
t

1
t
= C P T1 t − 1
− t +1 2

2
t
1 1

= C P T1 t − t 2 − t 2 + 1

= C P T1 t − 2t 2 + 1

1
(WN )opt = C P T1 t 2 − 1
 1 1
η th = 1 − r −1
= 1− r −1
r r r
R 2 ( r −1)
t

∴ (η th )opt = 1 −
1
1
t2

In an ideal gas turbine plant, the compression and expansion processes are isentropic and there is
no pressure-drop in the combustion chamber. But because of irreversibilities associated in the
compressor and the turbine, and the pressure-drop in the actual flow passages and combustion
chamber, an actual gas turbine plant differs from ideal one. The T-S diagram of actual plant is
shown in figure.
 h2 S − h1
∴ Compressor efficeincy, η C =
h2 − h1
h − h4
and the turbine efficeincy, η t = 3
h3 − h4 S

Comparison between Brayton cycle and Otto cycle:

1-2-3-4 Otto cycle

1-2-31-41 Brayton cycle

For same comparison ratio and work capacity, the Brayton cycle handles a larger range of
volume and a smaller range of pressure and temperatures than does the Otto cycle.

In the reciprocating engine field, the Brayton cycle is not suitable. A reciprocating engine cannot
efficiently handle a large volume flow of low pressure gas, for which the engine size (π/4 D2L)
becomes large, and the friction losses also become more. So the Otto cycle is suitable in the
reciprocating engine field.

In turbine plants, however, the Brayton cycle, is more suitable than the Otto cycle. An I.C.
engine is exposed to the highest temperature (after the combustion of fuel) only for a short while,
and it gets time to become cool in the other processes of the cycle. On the other hand, a gas
turbine plant, a steady flow device, is always exposed to the highest temperature used. So to
protect material, the maximum temperature of gas that can be used in a gas turbine plant cannot
be as high as in I.C. engine. Also, in the steady flow machinery, it is more difficult to carryout
heat transfer at constant volume than at constant pressure. Also, a gas turbine can handle a large
volume flow of gas quite efficiently.
Classification: Gas turbine are mainly divided into two group

I Constant pressure combustion gas turbine

i) Open cycle, ii) Closed cycle

II Constant volume combustion gas turbine

In almost all the field open cycle gas turbine plants are used. Closed cycle plants were introduced
at one stage because of their ability to burn cheap fuel.

Advantages and disadvantages of closed cycle over open cycle

Advantages of closed cycle:

i) Higher thermal efficiency
ii) Reduced size
iii) No contamination
iv) Improved heat transmission
v) Improved part load η
vi) Lesser fluid friction
vii) No loss of working medium
viii) Greater output and
ix) Inexpensive fuel.

Disadvantages of closed cycle:

i) Complexity
ii) Large amount of cooling water is required. This limits its use of stationary installation
or marine use
iii) Dependent system
iv) The wt of the system pre kW developed is high comparatively, ∴ not economical for
moving vehicles
v) Requires the use of a very large air heater.
An Open cycle and Closed cycle Gas Turbine Engines

Methods to improve the performance of simple gas turbine plants

I Regenerative Gas Turbine Cycle: The temperature of the exhaust gases in a simple gas
turbine is higher than the temperature of the air after compression process. The η of the Brayton
cycle can be increased by utilizing part of the energy of the exhaust gas from the turbine in
heating up the air leaving the compression in a heat exchanger called a regenerator, thereby
reducing the amount of heat supplied from an external source and also the amount of heat
rejected.

Figure shows a single stage regenerative gas turbine cycle

Air is drawn from the atmosphere into the compressor and is compressed isentropically to state
2. It is then heated at constant pressure in the regenerator to state x by the hot burnt gases from
the gas turbine. Since the temperature of the air increases before it reaches the combustion
chamber, less amount of fuel will be required to attain the designed turbine inlet temperature of
the products of combustion. After combustion at constant pressure in the combustion chamber,
the gas enters the turbine at state 3 and expands isentropically to state 4 in the turbine. It then
enters the counter-flow regenerator as stated earlier, where it gives up a portion of its heat energy
to the compressed air from the compressor and leaves the regenerator at state y.
In an ideal cycle, the temperature of the air leaving the regenerator is equal to the temperature of
the burnt gases leaving the turbine, i.e., Tx = T4. But in practice, the temperature of the air
leaving the regenerator is less than Tx. In T-S diagram, Tx1 is the temperature of the air leaving
the regenerator in an actual plant.
T 1 − T2
∴Effectiveness of a regenerator is ε = η r = x when CP is constant.
Tx − T2

In an ideal regenerator, heat loss by the burnt gases is equal to the heat gained by the air in the
regenerator, i.e., T4 – Ty = Tx – T2,
Where Tx = T4 and Ty = T2 and hence ηr = 1
Q
η th = 1 − L
QH
For an ideal regenerative gas turbine cycle,
QL = CP (Ty – T1) = CP (T2 – T1) and
QH = CP (T3 – Tx) = CP (T3 – T4)
T
T1 2 − 1
(T − T ) T1
∴η th = 1 − 2 1 = 1 −
(T3 − T4 ) T
T3 1 − 4
T3
r −1 r −1 r −1 r −1
r −1
T P r T4 P r P r 1 r
Since 2 = 2 =R r
and = 4 = 1 =
T1 P1 T3 P3 P2 R
r −1
R r
−1 r −1
1 1
∴η th = 1 − = 1− . R r
t t
1
1− r −1
r
R
r −1
1
i.e., η th = 1 − R r
t

It is evident that the ηth of an ideal regenerative gas turbine cycle depends not only on the
pressure ratio but also on the ratio of the two extreme temperatures. For a fixed ratio of T3/T1, the
cycle η drops with increasing pressure ratio.

In practice the regenerator is costly, heavy and bulky, and causes pressure losses which brings
about a decrease in cycle η.

II Ideal regenerative cycle with inter cooling and reheat:

a) Gas turbine cycle with reheat and multistage expansion:

 Increased work output
due to reheating

Work output of the turbine is increased by multistage expansion with reheating. In the above
illustration, two-stage expansion is done in low pressure (T1) and high pressure (T21) turbines
with reheating the air in between stages.

Optimum work output for a two-stage reheat cycle:

Assumptions: The air after one stage of expansion is reheated back to its original temperature
i.e., T3 = T5

P2 P P T3
Let R = , R1 = 3 and R2 = 5 , t = = max imum cycle temperature ratio
P1 P4 P6 T1
P P
∴ R1 R2 = 3 5 P5 = P4
P4 P6
P
= 2 =R
P1
Net work output is WN = CP (T3 – T4) + CP (T5 – T6) – CP (T2 – T1)
T T T T T
= C P T1 3 − 4 + 3 − 6 − 2 + 1
T1 T1 T1 T1 T1
r −1
r −1
T P r
we have 2 = 2 =R r
T1 P1
r −1
T4 T4 T3 P r T3
= = 4 = t r −1
T1 T3 T1 P3 T1 R1 r

r −1
T6 T6 T5 P r T3
= = 6 = t r −1
T1 T5 T1 P5 T1 R2 r

r −1
t t
∴ W N = C P T1 t − r −1
+t − r −1
−R r
+1
R1 r R2 r

but R2 = R/R1
r −1
r −1
t R r
∴W N = C P T1 2t − r −1
−t 1 −R r
+1
R1 r
R

dW N
For given values of R, t and T1, WN is maximum if =0
dR1

dWR 1− γ γ −1
−1 t γ − 1 γ −1−1
∴ = C P T1 0 − t. .R1 γ − . .R1 γ − 0 + 0 = 0
dR1 γ γ −1
γ
γ
R
γ −1 1− 2γ γ −1 t −1
i.e., .t R1 γ − R1 γ =0
γ γ γ −1
γ
R
 1
− r −1 −1
1− 2 r R1 γ R1 γ
R1 r = r −1
or R r
= 1− 2 r
R r R1 r

r −1 ( r −1)
= R1
r 2
R r

Or R = R 1
2
i.e., R1 = R
R R
∴ R2 = = = R
R1 R

∴For maximum work output, R1 = R2 = R

Similarly if the cycle has ‘N’ stages of expansion, with reheating, then for maximum work
output, pressure ratio for each = (compression pressure ratio)1/N

Advantages: By employing multistage expansion with reheating in between the stages, the net
work output from the gas turbine cycle can be increased. This is illustrated on the T-S diagram
shown for a 2-stage expansion with reheating in between the stages.

Disadvantages: But disadvantage of reheating is due to the fact that additional heat has to be
supplied in order to reheat the air after each stage of expansion. This may result in a decrease in
the thermal efficiency of the cycle. This is shown in figure below.

It can be seen that for a given value of t, the thermal η of the reheat cycle increases with increase
in R and for a given value of R, the thermal η increases with increase in t. However, the thermal
η of a reheat cycle will be less than that of a simple cycle for a given value of R.

b) Gas turbine cycle with multistage compression with inter cooling in between the stages:
 P2 P4 P5
Let = R1 = R2 =R
P1 P3 P6
For maximum work output, R1 = R2 = R

The work output from a simple gas turbine cycle can be increased also by having multistage
compression with inter cooling in between the stages. The effect of having two stage
compression with inter cooling in between the stages is illustrated on the T-S diagram. It can be
seen that, a higher work output has been achieved than that of simple cycle by an amount shown
by the shaded area. The disadvantage of it is that more heat has to be supplied to heat the air than
that is required for simple cycle. This may reduce the thermal ηof the cycle.

c) Gas turbine cycle with two stage compression two-stage expansion and regenerator.
The thermal η of a gas turbine cycle may be improved by incorporating multistage compression
with intercooling between the stages and multistage expansion with reheating between the
turbines and also providing a regenerator. There is a definite saving of work due to multistage
compression with intercooling arrangement between the stages. Similarly, the work output of the
turbine is increased by multistage expansion with reheating. As a result, the net work of the plant
increases.

QL
The thermal efficiency of the cycle is given by η th = 1 −
QH
(h10 − h1 ) + (h2 − h3 )
= 1−
(h6 − h5 ) + (h8 − h7 )
Deviation of Practical gas turbine cycle from ideal cycle:
1) The working substance will not be air through out the cycle. Air is compressed in compressor
where as the products of combustion coming out of the combustion chamber is expanded in
the turbine. The value of CP and γ will be different for expansion and heating as compared to
compression process.
For compression, CP = 1.005 kJ/kg-0K, γ = 1.4
For expansion, CP = 1.135 kJ/kg-0K, γ = 1.33

2) There will be pressure loss in the piping connecting the various components of the plant.
∴the pressure with which the products of combustion enters the turbine will be less than the
 pressure with which air is coming out of the compressor i.e., the pressure ratio for expansion
will be less than pressure ratio for compression.

3)

1-2s isentropic work of compression

1-2 actual work of compression
3-4s isentropic turbine work
3-4 Actual turbine work

In a practical gas turbine cycle the compression and expansion processes are not isentropic but
adiabatic with certain amount of frictional losses. The friction losses are accounted for by
defining a parameter called isentropic efficiency.
a) Isentropic η of compression (ηC)
Isentropic work of compression T2 S − T1
ηC = =
Actual work of compression T2 − T1
b) Isentropic η of turbine (ηT)
Actual turbine work T − T4
ηT = = 3
Isentropic turbine work T3 − T4 S

To determination the air-fuel ratio:

Let ma = mass of air entering the combustion chamber
mf = mass of fuel entering the combustion chamber
CV = Calorific value of fuel
Applying SFEE to combustion chamber, we get,
ma h2 + mf CV = (ma + mf) h3
ma ma
÷by mf h2 + CV = + 1 h3
mf mf
ma ma
≅ h3 as >>>>> 1
mf mf
ma
∴ (h3 − h2 ) = CV
mf
ma CV ma CV
or = i.e., =
mf (h3 − h2 ) m f C P (T3 − T2 )

Problems:

1. In a G.T. installation, the air is taken in at 1 bar and 150C and compressed to 4 bar. The
isentropic η of turbine and the compressor are 82% and 85% respectively. Determine
(i) compression work, (ii) Turbine work, (iii) work ratio, (iv) Th. η.

What would be the improvement in the th. η if a regenerator with 75% effectiveness is
incorporated in the cycle. Assume the maximum cycle temperature to be 8250K.

Solution: P1 = 1 bar T1 = 2880K P2 = 4 bar T3 = 8250K

ηC = 0.85 ηt = 0.82

!
 r −1
T P r
Process 1-2 is isentropic i.e., 2 s = 2
T1 P1

∴ T2 s = 288 (4 )1.4 = 428.14 0 K

0.4

T2 s − T1 428.14 − 288
But η C = i.e.,0.85 = ∴ T2 = 452.87 0 K
T2 − T1 T2 − 288
r −1 0.4
T4 s P r 1 1.4
Process 3-4 is isentropic i.e., = 4 ∴ T4 s = 825 = 554.96
T3 P3 4
T3 − T4 825 − T4
But η t = i.e., 0.82 = ∴ T4 = 603.57 0 K
T3 − T4 s 825 − 554.96
(i) Compressor work, WC = CP (T2 – T1)
= 1.005 (452.87 – 288) = 165.69 kJ/kg
(ii) Turbine work, Wt = CP (T3 – T4)
= 1.005 (825 – 603.57) = 222.54 kJ/kg
Net work output WT − WC
(iii) Work ratio = WR = = = 0.255
Turbine work WT
W 222.54 − 165.69 56.85
(iv) Th. η, η th = net = =
QH C P (825 − 452.87 ) 373.99
= 15.2%
T − T2 T5 − 452.87
we have effectiveness = 5 = 0.75 =
T4 − T2 603.57 − 452.87
∴T5 = 565.890K
∴Heat supplied, QH = Q5-3 = CP(T3 – T5)
1

= 1.005 (825 – 565.89)

= 260.4 kJ/kg
WT − WC 56.85
∴η th = 1
= = 0.218
QH 260.4
0.218 − 0.152
∴Improvement in ηth due to regenerator =
0.152
= 0.436 i.e., 43.6%

"
Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles:

Gas turbine engines are widely used to power air-crafts because they are light and compact and
have a high power-to-weight ratio. Air craft gas turbine operates on an open cycle called a jet-
propulsion cycle. The ideal jet propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton cycle in
that the gases are not expanded to the ambient pressure in the turbine. Instead, they are expanded
to a pressure such that the power produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the
compressor and the auxiliary equipment, such as a small generator and hydraulic pumps. That is,
the net work output of a jet propulsion cycle is zero. The gases that exit the turbine at relatively
high pressure are subsequently accelerated in a nozzle to provide the thrust to propel the air craft.
Also, air craft gas turbine operate at higher pressure ratios (typically between 10-25), and the
fluid passes through a diffuser first, where it is decelerated and its pressure is increased before it
enters the compressor.

Air standard Jet Propulsion cycle:

An air standard Brayton or Joule cycle is the basic cycle for jet propulsion. The jet engine
consists practically of the same type of components as in gas turbine plants, namely a
compressor, a combustion chamber and a turbine. The only difference is that, the former also
consists of an inlet diffuser, where the air entering from the atmosphere is decelerated and
slightly compressed, and an exit nozzle, where the products of combustion expand to the
pressure of the surroundings with increase in relative velocity. Such a plant and the
corresponding T-S diagram are shown in Fig. In this plant, the work output of the turbine is just
sufficient to drive the compressor.

Air enters the diffuser from the atmosphere, is slightly compressed from state 1 to state 11. It
then enters the compressor, where it is further compressed to state 2. The compressed air then
flows into the combustion chamber where it burns the fuel at constant pressure from state 2 to
state 3 and the products of combustion then expand in the turbine from state 3 to state 4
developing power which is just sufficient to drive the compressor. Further expansion of the burnt
gases takes place in the exit nozzle at state 5, after which the gases make an exit into the
atmosphere with a very high velocity. The momentum of the exhaust gases flowing at high
velocity from the nozzle result in a thrust upon the aircraft on which the engine is installed. In an
actual jet propulsion plant, there is a slight pressure drop in the combustion chamber and the
processes of combustion and expansion are not strictly reversible adiabatic. The thrust of a jet
plane is the propulsive force i.e.,

F = m a (v5 − v1 ) + m f v5 where ma = mass flow rate of air,

v1 & v5 = inlet and exit velocity of the fluid
m f = mass flow rate of fuel in the combustion chamber
but since m f is very small, m f v5 term is neglected.

∴ F = m a (v5 − v1 )

Turbo jet:

Figure shows a turbo jet unit. Power produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the
compressor. The exhaust gases from the turbine which are at a higher pressure than atmosphere
are expanded in the nozzle and a very high velocity jet is produced which provides a forward
motion to the air-craft by the jet reaction (Newton’s third law of motion).
At higher speeds the turbo jet gives higher propulsion efficiency. The turbo-jets are most suited
to the air-crafts traveling above 800 km/hr. The overall η of a turbo jet is the product of the
thermal η of the gas turbine plant and the propulsive η of the jet (nozzle).
Turbo-Propellers:

Figure shows a turbo-propeller system used in air-crafts. Here expansion takes place partly in
turbine (80%) and partly (20%) in the nozzle. The power developed by the turbine is consumed
in running the compressor and the propeller. The propeller and jet produced by the nozzle give
forward motion to the aircraft.

It is having an added advantage over turbojet i.e., low specific weight and simplicity in design
and propeller i.e., high power for take-off and high propulsion η at speeds below 600 km/hr.

Its overall η is improved by providing the diffuser before compressor, which increases the
pressure rise. This pressure rise takes place due to conversion of kinetic energy of the incoming
air (equal to air-craft velocity) into pressure energy by the diffuser. This type of compression is
called ‘ram effect’.

Ram jet: Ram jet engines have the capacity to fly at supersonic speeds. A diffuser increases the
pressure of incoming air which is adequate to self ignite the fuel. In a ram jet engine the
temperature of the rammed air is always above the self ignition temperature of the fuel
employed. The ram-jet engine consists of a diffuser, combustion chamber and nozzle. The air
enters the ram-jet plant with supersonic speed and is slowed down to sonic velocity in the
supersonic diffuser, consequently the pressure suddenly increases to the formation of shock
wave. The pressure of the air is further increased in the subsonic diffuser, increasing the
temperature of air above the ignition temperature. The burning of the fuel takes place in the
combustion chamber with the help of flame stabilization. The high pressure and high temperature
gases pass through the nozzle where the pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy. The high
velocity gases leaving the nozzle is a source of forward thrust to the ram-jet.

Advantages:
i) No moving parts
ii) Wide variety of fuels may be used
iii) Light in weight
The major short coming of ram-jet engine is that it cannot be started of its own. It has to be
accelerated to certain flight velocity by some launching device. It is always equipped with a
small turbo-jet which starts the ram-jet.

Rocket Propulsion: Similar to jet propulsion, the thrust required for rocket propulsion is
produced by the high velocity jet of gases passing through the nozzle. But the main difference is
that in case of jet propulsion the oxygen required for combustion is taken from the atmosphere
and fuel is stored whereas for rocket engine, the fuel and oxidizer both are contained in a
propelling body and as such it can function in vacuum also.

Rockets are classified as follows:

I According to the type of propellants

i) Solid propellant rocket
ii) Liquid propellant rocket

II According to the number of motors

i) Single-stage rocket (consists of one rocket motor)
ii) Multi-stage rocket (consists more than one rocket motor)

FT = Fuel tank
HT = Hydrogen peroxide tank
O = Oxidizer tank
ST = Steam turbine
P1, P2 = Pumps
C.C = Combustion chamber
HG = Hot gases
N = Nozzle
Figure shows a simple type single stage liquid propellant (the fuel and the oxidizer are
commonly known as propellants) rocket. It consists of a fuel tank FT, an oxidizer tank O, two
pumps P1, P2, a steam turbine ST and a combustion chamber C.C. The fuel tank contains alcohol
and oxidizer tank contains liquid oxygen. The fuel and the oxidizer are supplied by the pumps to
the combustion chamber where the fuel is ignited by electrical means. The pumps are driven with
the help of steam turbine. Here the steam is produced by mixing a very concentrated hydrogen-
peroxide with potassium permanganate. The products of combustion are discharged from the
combustion chamber through the nozzle N. So the rocket moves in the opposite direction.

In some modified forms, this type of rockets may be used in missiles.

Uses:
1. Long range artillery
2. Signaling and fire work display
3. Jet assisted take-off
4. For satellites
5. For space ships
6. Research
Effect of Boiler Pressure (Using Molliar Diagram i.e., h-s diagram)

We have,
(h − h ) − (h1 − h4 )
η th = 2 3 but WP << WT
h2 − h1
h − h3 (∆h )S
∴η th = 2 =
h2 − h1 (h2 − h1 )

i.e., Rankine cycle η depends on h2, h1 and ∆hS. From figure as P1″′ > P1″ > P1′ for the fixed
maximum temperature of the steam t1 and condenser pressure P2, Isentropic heat drops increases
with boiler pressure i.e., from the figure therefore it is evident that as boiler pressure increases,
the isentropic heat drop (∆h)S increases, but the enthalpy of the steam entering the turbine
decreases, with the result that the Rankine η increases. But quality of the steam at the exit of the
turbine suffers i.e., x3″′ < x3 ″ < x3′, which leads to serious wear of the turbine blades.

1
Effect of Super Heating (Using Molliar Diagram i.e., h-s diagram)

The moisture in the steam at the end of the expansion may be reduced by increasing the super
heated temperature of steam t1. This can be seen in figure where t1″′ > t1″ > t1′, but x3′ < x3″ <
x3″′. It is, therefore, natural that to avoid erosion of the turbine blades, an increase in the boiler
pressure must be accompanied by super heating at a higher temperature and since this raises the
mean average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam, the Rankine η increases.

Deviation of Actual Vapour Power cycles from Ideal cycle

The actual Vapour power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as shown in figure, as a
result of irreversibilities in various components mainly because of fluid friction and heat loss to
the surroundings.

2
Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the piping between various
components. As a result, steam leaves the boiler at a lower pressure. Also the pressure at the
turbine inlet is lower than that at the boiler exit due to pressure drop in the connecting pipes. The
pressure drop in the condenser is usually very small. To compensate these pressure drops, the
water must be pumped to sufficiently higher pressure which requires the larger pump and larger
work input to the pump.

The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the surroundings as the
steam flows through various components. To maintain the same level of net work output, more
heat needs to be transferred to the steam in the boiler to compensate for these undesired heat
losses. As a result, cycle efficiency decreases.

As a result of irreversibilities, a pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine produces a
smaller work output. Under the ideal conditions, the flow through these devices are isentropic.
The deviation of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can be accounted for by
utilizing isentropic efficiencies, defined as
W h − h4
η P = S = 1S
Wa h1 − h4
W h − h3
And η t = a = 2
WS h2 − h3 S

Numerical Problems:

1. Dry saturated steam at 17.5 bar enters the turbine of a steam power plant and expands
to the condenser pressure of 0.75 bar. Determine the Carnot and Rankine cycle
efficiencies. Also find the work ratio of the Rankine cycle.

Solution: P1 = 17.5 bar P2 = 0.75 bar ηCarnot = ? ηRankine = ?

a) Carnot cycle: At pressure 17.5 bar from steam tables,

P tS hf hfg hg Sf Sfg Sg
17 204.3 871.8 1921.6 2793.4 2.3712 4.0246 6.3958
18 207.11 884.5 1910.3 2794.8 2.3976 3.9776 6.3751

For P = 17.5 bar, using linear interpolation

3
 207.11 − 204.3
For tS, 204.3 + x0.5 = 205.710 C
1
= 478.71 K

Similarly, hf = 878.15 kJ/kg hfg = 1915.95 kJ/kg hg = 2794.1 kJ/kg

Sf = 2.3844 kJ/kg0K Sfg = 4.0011 kJ/kg0K Sg = 6.3855 kJ/kg K

Also at pressure 0.75 bar from steam tables

P tS hf hfg hg Sf Sfg Sg
0.8 93.51 391.7 2274.0 2665.8 1.233 6.2022 7.4352
0.7 89.96 376.8 2283.3 2660.1 1.1921 6.2883 7.4804

∴For 0.75 bar, using linear interpolation,

tS = 91.740C hf = 384.25 hfg = 2278.65 hg = 2662.95
Sf = 1.2126 Sfg = 6.2453 Sg = 7.4578

T1 − T2 478.71 − 364.74
The Carnot cycle η, ηC = = = 0.2381
T1 478.71

1 1
Steam rate or SSC = =
∫ δW WT − WP

Since the expansion work is isentropic, S2 = S3

But S2 = Sg = 6.3855 and S3 = Sf3 + x3 Sfg3

i.e., 6.3855 = 1.2126 + x3 (6.2453) ∴x3 = 0.828

∴Enthalpy at state 3, h3 = hf3 + x3hfg3

= 384.25 + 0.828 (2278.65) = 2271.63 kJ/kg

∴Turbine work or expansion work or positive work = h2 – h3

= 2794.1 – 2271.63 = 522.47 kJ/kg

Again since the compression process is isentropic

i.e., S4 = S1 = Sf1 = 2.3844

Hence 2.3844 = Sf4 + x4 Sfg4

= 1.2126 + x4 (6.2453) ∴x4 = 0.188

∴Enthalpy at state 4 is h4 = hf4 + x4 hfg4

4
= 384.25 + 0.188 (2278.65)
= 811.79 kJ/kg

∴Compression work, = h1 – h4 = 878.15 – 811.79

WP = 66.36 kJ/kg

1
∴ SSC = = 2.192 x 10 −3 kg / kJ
522.47 − 66.36

work ratio = rw =
∫ δw =
WT − WP 456.11
= = 0.873
+ ve work WT 522.47

b) Rankine cycle:

WT − WP (h2 − h3 ) − (h1 − h4 )
ηR = =
QH (h2 − h1 )
Since the change in volume of the saturated liquid water during compression from state 4 to state
1 is very small, v4 may be taken as constant. In a steady flow process, work W = -v∫dp
∴WP = h1S – h4 = vfP2 (P1 – P2)
= 0.001037 (17.5 – 0.75) x 105 x (1/1000)
= 1.737 kJ/kg
∴h1S = 1.737 + 384.25 = 385.99 kJ/kg

Hence, turbine work = WT = h2 – h3 = 522.47kJ/kg

Heat supplied = QH = h2 – h1S = 2.794.1 – 385.99 = 2408.11 kJ/kg

522.47 − 1.737
∴η R = = 0.2162
2408.11
1
∴ SSC = = 19204 x 10 −3 kg / kJ
522.47 − 1.737

5
 522.47 − 1737
Work ratio, rw = = 0.9967
522.47

2. If in problem (1), the turbine and the pump have each 85% efficiency, find the %
reduction in the net work and cycle efficiency for Rankine cycle.
Solution: If ηP = 0.85, ηT = 0.85
W 1.737
WP = P = = 2.0435kJ / kg
0.85 0.85
WT = ηT WT = 0.85 (522.47) = 444.09 kJ/kg

∴Wnet = WT – WP = 442.06 kJ/kg

520.73 − 442.06
∴% reduction in work output = = 15.11%
520.73
WP = h1S – h4 ∴h1S = 2.0435 + 384.25 = 386.29 kJ/kg

∴QH – h2 – h1S = 2794.1 – 386.29 = 2407.81 kJ/kg

442.06
∴η cycle = = 0.1836
2407.81
0.2162 − 0.1836
∴% reduction in cycle efficiency = = 15.08%
0.2162

Note: Alternative method for problem 1 using h-s diagram (Mollier diagram) though the result
may not be as accurate as the analytical solution. The method is as follows

Since steam is dry saturated at state 2, locate this state at the pressure P2 = 17.5 bar on the
saturation line and read the enthalpy at this state. This will give the value of h2.

As the expansion process 2-3 is isentropic, draw a vertical line through the state 2 to meet the
pressure line, P = 0.75 bar. The intersection of the vertical line with the pressure line will fix
state 3. From the chart, find the value of h3.

The value of h4 can be found from the steam tables at pressure, P = 0.75 bar, as h4 = hf4. After
finding the values of h2, h3 and h4, apply the equation used in the analytical solution for
determining the Rankine cycle η and SSC.

6
3. Steam enters the turbine of a steam power plant, operating on Rankine cycle, at 10 bar,
3000C. The condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Steam leaving the turbine is 90% dry.
Calculate the adiabatic efficiency of the turbine and also the cycle η, neglecting pump
work.
Solution:

P1 = 10 bar t2 = 3000C P3 = 0.1 bar

x3 = 0.9 ηt = ? ηcycle = ? Neglect WP

From superheated steam tables,

For P2 = 10 bar and t2 = 3000C, h2 = 3052.1 kJ/kg, s2 = 7.1251 kJ/kg

From table A – 1, For P3 = 0.1 bar

tS = 45.830C hf = 191.8 hfg = 2392.9

Sf = 0.6493 Sfg = 7.5018

Since x3 = 0.9, h3 = hf4 + x3 hfg3

= 191.8 +0.9 (2392.9)

= 2345.4 kJ/kg

Also, since process 2-3s is isentropic, S2 = S3S

i.e., 7.1251 = Sfg4 + x3S Sfg3

= 0.6493 + x3S (7.5018)

∴x3S = 0.863

∴h3S = 191.8 + 0.863 (2392.9) = 2257.43 kJ/kg

7
 h2 − h3 3052.1 − 2345.4
∴ Turbine efficiency,η t = = = 0.89
h2 − h3 S 3052.1 − 2257.43

WT h − h3
η cycle = = 2 but h1 = 191.8 kJ/kg
QH h2 − h1

3052.1 − 2345.4
= = 0.25 i.e., 25%
3052.1 − 191.8

4. A 40 mW steam plant working on Rankine cycle operates between boiler pressure of 4

MPa and condenser pressure of 10 KPa. The steam leaves the boiler and enters the
steam turbine at 4000C. The isentropic η of the steam turbine is 85%. Determine (i) the
cycle η (ii) the quality of steam from the turbine and (iii) the steam flow rate in kg per
hour. Consider pump work.
Solution:

P2 = 4 MPa = 40 bar P3 = 10 KPa = 0.1 bar

P = 40000kW t2 = 4000C ηt = 0.85 ηcycle = ? x3 = ?

m = ?

h2 = h 40 bar , 400 0 C
= 3215.7 kJ / kg and s2 = 6.7733 kJ/kg-K

h4 = h f 0.1 bar = 191.8kJ / kg

Process 2-3s is isentropic i.e., S2 = S3S

6.7733 = 0.6493 + x3S (7.5018)

∴x3S = 0.816

8
∴h3S = hf3 + x3S hfg3 = 191.8 + 0.816 (2392.9)

= 2145.2 kJ/kg

h2 − h3 3215.7 − h3
But η t = i.e., 0.85 =
h2 − h3 S 3215.7 − 2145.2

∴h3 = 2305.8 kJ/kg

∴WT = h2 – h3 = 3215.7 – 2305.8 = 909.9 kJ/kg

WP = v∫dP = 0.0010102 (40 – 0.1) 105/102

= 4.031 kJ/kg

= h1 – h4 ∴h1 = 195.8 kJ/kg

Wnet 909.9 − 4.031

(i ) η cycle = = = 29.9%
Q1 (3215.7 − 195.8)
(ii) x3 = ? we have 2305.8 = 191.8 + x3 (2392.9) ∴x3 = 0.88

(iii) P = m Wnet i.e., 40000 = m (905.87)

∴ m = 44.2 kg/s

= 159120 kg/hr

Ideal Reheat cycle: We know that, the efficiency of the Rankine cycle could be increased by
increasing steam pressure in the boiler and superheating the steam. But this increases the
moisture content of the steam in the lower pressure stages in the turbine, which may lead to
erosion of the turbine blade. ∴The reheat cycle has been developed to take advantage of the
increased pressure of the boiler, avoiding the excessive moisture of the steam in the low pressure
stages. In the reheat cycle, steam after partial expansion in the turbine is brought back to the
boiler, reheated by combustion gases and then fed back to the turbine for further expansion.

9
In the reheat cycle the expansion of steam from the initial state (2) to the condenser pressure is
carried out in two or more steps, depending upon the number of reheats used.

In the first step, steam expands in HP turbine from state 2 to approximate the saturated vapour
line (process 2-3s). The steam is then reheated (or resuperheated) at constant pressure in the
boiler (or in a reheater) process 3s-4 and the remaining expansion process 4s-5 is carried out in
the LP turbine.

Note: 1) To protect the reheater tubes, steam is not allowed to expand deep into the two-phase
region before it is taken for reheating, because in that case the moisture particles in steam while
evaporating would leave behind solid deposits in the form of scale which is difficult to remove.
Also a low reheat pressure may bring down Tm1 and hence cycle η. Again a high reheat pressure
increases the moisture content at turbine exhaust. Thus reheat pressure is optimized. Optimum
reheat pressure is about 0.2 to 0.25 of initial pressure.

10
We have for 1 kg of steam

QH = (h2 – h1S) + (h4 – h3S); QL = h5S – h6

WT = (h2 – h3S) + (h4 – h5S); WP = h1S – h6

WT − WP
∴ ηR = ;
QH
3600
Steam rate = kg / kWh
(WT − WP )
Since higher reheat pressure is used, WP work is appreciable.

2) In practice, the use of reheat gives a marginal increase in cycle η, but it increases the net work
output by making possible the use of higher pressures, keeping the quality of steam at turbine
exhaust within a permissible limit. The quality improves from x51 S to x5S by the use of reheat.

11
Ideal Regenerative cycle: The mean temperature of heat addition can also be increased by
decreasing the amount of heat added at low temperatures. In a simple Rankine cycle (saturated
steam entering the turbine), a considerable part of the total heat supplied is in the liquid phase
when heating up water from 1 to 11, at a temperature lower than T2, the maximum temperature of
the cycle. For maximum η, all heat should be supplied at T2, and feed water should enter the
boiler at 11. This may be accomplished in what is known as an ideal regenerative cycle as shown
in figures (a) and (b).

1
The unique feature of the ideal regenerative cycle is that the condensate, after leaving the pump
circulates around the turbine casing, counter-flow to the direction of vapour flow in the turbine.
Thus it is possible to transfer heat from the vapour as it flows through the turbine to the liquid
flowing around the turbine.

Let us assume that this is a reversible heat transfer i.e., at each point, the temperature of the
vapour is only infinitesimally higher than the temperature of the liquid. ∴The process 2-31
represents reversible expansion of steam in the turbine with reversible heat rejection. i.e., for any
small step in the process of heating the water ∆T (water) = - ∆T (steam) and (∆S) water = (∆S) steam.
Then the slopes of lines 2-31 and 11-4 will be identical at every temperature and the lines will be
identical in contour. Areas 1-11-b-a-1 and 31-2-d-c-31 are not only equal but congruous. ∴, all
heat added from external source (QH) is at constant temperature T2 and all heat rejected (QL) is at
constant temperature T3, both being reversible.

Then QH = h2 – h11 = T2 (S2 – S11)

QL = h31 – h4 = T3 (S31 –S4)
Since S11 – S4 = S2 – S31 or S2 – S11 = S31 – S4

QL T
∴ η Re g = 1 − = 1− 3 i.e., the η of ideal regenerative cycle is thus equal to the Carnot
QH T2
cycle η.

Writing SFEE to turbine,

h2 + h1 = WT + h11 + h31
i.e., WT = (h2 – h31) – (h11 – h1)

or WT = (h2 – h31) – (h11 – h1) --- (1)

and the WP is same as simple rankine cycle i.e., WP = (h1 – h4)

∴The net work output of the ideal regenerative cycle is less and hence its steam rate will be
more. Although it is more efficient when compared to rankine cycle, this cycle is not practicable
for the following reasons.

1) Reversible heat transfer cannot be obtained in finite time.

2) Heat exchanger in the turbine is mechanically impracticable.
3) The moisture content of the steam in the turbine is high.

2
Regenerative cycle:

3
In a practical regenerative cycle, the feed water enters the boiler at a temperature between 1 and
11 (previous article figure), and it is heated by steam extracted from intermediate stages of the
turbine. The flow diagram of the regenerative cycle with saturated steam at the inlet to the
turbine and the corresponding T-S diagram are shown in figure.

For every kg of steam entering the turbine, let m1 kg steam be extracted from an intermediate
stage of the turbine where the pressure is P2, and it is used to heat up feed water [(1 – m1) kg at
state 9] by mixing in heater (1). The remaining (1-m1) kg of steam then expands in the turbine
from pressure P2 (state 3) to pressure P3 (state 4) when m2 kg of steam is extracted for heating
feed water in heater (2). So (1 – m1 – m2)kg of steam then expands in the remaining stages of the
turbine to pressure P4, gets condensed into water in the condenser, and then pumped to heater
(2), where it mixes with m2 kg of steam extracted at pressure P3. Then (1-m1) kg of water is
pumped to heater (1) where it mixes with m1 kg of steam extracted at pressure P2. The resulting
1kg of steam is then pumped to the boiler where heat from an external source is supplied.
Heaters 1 and 2 thus operate at pressure P2 and P3 respectively. The amounts of steam m1 and m2
extracted from the turbine are such that at the exit from each of the heaters, the state is saturated
liquid at the respective pressures.

∴Turbine work, WT = 1(h2 – h3) + (1 – m1) (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h4 – h5)
Pump work, WP = WP1 + WP2 + WP3
= (1 – m1 – m2) (h7 – h6) + (1 – m1) (h9 –h8) + 1 (h11 – h10)

QH = (h2 – h11); QL = (1 – m1 – m2) (h5 – h6)

Q − QL WT − WP
∴Cycle efficiency, η = H =
QH QH
3600
SSC = kg / kWh
WT − WP

In the Rankine cycle operating at the given pressure P1 and P4, the heat addition would have been
from state 7 to state 2. By using two stages of regenerative feed water heating., feed water enters
the boiler at state 11, instead of state 7, and heat addition is, therefore from state 11 to state 2.
h − h11
Therefore (Tm1 )with regeneration = 2
S 2 − S11
h − h7
And (Tm1 )without regeneration = 2
S2 − S7
Since (Tm1)with regenerative > (Tm1)without regenerative, the η of the regenerative cycle will be higher than
that of the Rankine cycle.

The energy balance for heater 1,

m1 h3 + (1 – m1) h9 = 1 h10
h − h9
∴ m1 = 10 --- (1)
h3 − h9

The energy balance for heater 2,

4
 m2 h4 + (1 – m1 – m2) h7 = (1 – m1) h8
(h − h7 )
Or m2 = (1 − m1 ) 8 --- (2)
(h4 − h7 )
Above equations (1) and (2) can also be written alternatively as
(1 – m1) (h10 – h9) = m1 (h3 – h10)
and (1- m1 – m2) (h8 – h7) = m2 (h4 – h8)

Energy gain of feed water = energy given off by vapour in condensation.

Heaters have been assumed to be adequately insulated and there is no heat gain from, or heat loss
to, the surroundings.

In figure (a) path 2-3-4-5 represents the states of a decreasing mass of fluid.

For 1kg of steam, the states would be represented by the path 2-31-411-51. [Figure (b)].

We have WT = (h2 – h3) + (1 – m1) (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h4 – h5)

= (h2 – h3) + (h31 – h41) + (h411 – h51) [From Figure b] --- (3)

The cycle 2 – 3 – 31 – 41 – 411 – 51 – 6 – 7 – 8 – 9 – 10 – 11 – 2 represents 1kg of working fluid.

The heat released by steam condensing from 3 to 31 is utilized in heating up the water from 9 to
10.

∴ 1 (h3 – h31) = 1 (h10 – h9) --- (4)

Similarly, 1 (h41 – h411) = 1 (h8 – h7) --- (5)

From equation (3), (4) and (5),

WT = (h2 – h51) – (h3 – h31) – (h41 – h411)

5
 = (h2 – h51) – (h10 – h9) – (h8 – h7) --- (6)
Also from Ideal regenerative cycle, [Previous article]
WT = (h2 – h31) – (h11 – h1) --- (1)

The similarity of equations (6) and equation (1) from previous article is notices. It is seen that the
stepped cycle 2 – 31 – 41 – 411 – 51 – 6 – 7 – 8 – 9 – 10 – 11 approximates the ideal regenerative
cycle in Figure (1) [previous article] and that a greater no. of stages would give a closer
approximation. Thus the heating of feed water by steam ‘bled’ from the turbine, known as
regeneration, “Carnotizes” the Rankine cycle.

The heat rejected QL in the cycle decreases from (h5 – h6) to (h51 – h6). There is also loss in work
output by the amount (area under 3 – 31 + area under 41 – 411 – area under 5 – 51) as shown by
the hatched area in Figure (b). So the steam rate increases by regeneration i.e., more steam has to
circulate per hour to produce unit shaft output.

Reheat – Regenerative cycle:

6
Reheat – regenerative cycle flow diagram (Three-stages of feed water heating)

7
The reheating of steam is employed when the vapourization pressure is high reheat alone on the
thermal η is very small. ∴Regeneration or the heating up of feed water by steam extracted from
the turbine will effect in more increasing in the ηth.

Turbine work, WT = (h1 – h2) + (1 – m1) (h2 – h3) + (1 – m1) (h4 – h5) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h5 – h6)
+ (1 – m1 – m2 – m3) (h6 – h7) kJ/kg
Pump work, WP = (1 – m1 – m2 – m3) (h9 – h8) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h11 – h10)
+ (1 – m1) (h13 – h12) + 1 (h15 – h14) kJ/kg

Heat added, QH = (h1 – h15) + (1 – m1) (h4 – h3) kJ/kg

Heat rejected, QL = (1 – m1 – m2 – m3) (h7 – h8) kJ/kg

The energy balance of heaters 1, 2 and 3 gives

m1 h2 + (1 – m1) h13 = 1 x h14
m2 h5 + (1 – m1 – m2) h11 = (1 – m1) h12
m3 h6 + (1 – m1 – m2 – m3) h9 = (1 – m1 – m2) h10
From which m1, m2 and m3 can be evaluated

Numerical Problems:

1. An ideal reheat cycle utilizes steam as the working fluid. Steam at 100 bar, 4000C is
expanded in the HP turbine to 15 bar. After this, it is reheated to 3500C at 15 bar and is
then expanded in the LP turbine to the condenser pressure of 0.5 bar. Determine the
thermal η and steam rate.
Solution:

From steam tables

P = 100 bar t = 4000C = v = 0.026408m3/kg
h = 3099.9 kJ/kg
S = 6.2182 kJ/kg-K

P = 15 bar tS = 192.280C, vf = 0.0011538m3/kg, vg = 0.13167m3/kg

hf = 844.6 kJ/kg, hfg = 1845.3 kJ/kg, hg = 2789.9 kJ/kg
sf = 2.3144kJ/kg-K, sfg = 4.1262 kJ/kg-K, sg = 6.4406 kJ/kg-K

P = 0.5 bar tS = 81.350C, vf = 0.0010301 m3/kg, vg = 3.2401 m3/kg

8
 hf = 340.6 kJ/kg, hfg = 2305.4 kJ/kg hg = 2646.0 kJ/kg
sf = 1.0912 kJ/kg-K sfg = 6.5035 kJ/kg-K, sg = 7.5947 kJ/kg-K

h2 = 3099.9 kJ/kg,
Process 2-3s is isentropic, i.e., S2 = S3S
6.2182 = 2.3144 + x3S (4.1262)
∴x3S = 0.946
∴h3S = 844.6 + x3S (1845.3)
= 2590.44 kJ/kg

∴Expansion of steam in the HP turbine = h2 – h3S

= 3099.9 – 2590.44
= 509.46 kJ/kg
P = 15 bar, t = 3500C = v = 0.18653
h = 3148.7
s = 7.1044
Expansion of steam in the LP cylinder = h4 – h5s
h4 = 3148.7 kJ/kg
To find h5s:
We have S4 = S5s
7.1044 = Sf5 + x5S Sfg5
= 1.0912 + x5S (6.5035)
∴x5S = 0.925
∴h5s = 340.6 + 0.925 (2305.4) = 2473.09 kJ/kg
∴Expansion of steam in the LP turbine = 3148.7 – 2473.09
= 675.61 kJ/kg
h6 = hf for P3 =0.5 bar i.e., h6 = 340.6 kJ/kg
Pump work, WP = h1s – h6 = vf5 (P3 – P1) = 0.0010301 (100 – 0.501 x 105)
= 10.249 kJ/kg
∴h1s = 350.85 kJ/kg
∴Heat supplied, QH = (h2 – h1S) + (h4 – h3S)
= (3099.9 – 350.85) + (3148.7 – 2590.44)
= 2749.05 kJ/kg + 558.26
= 3307.31 kJ/kg
W (W )HP + (W )LP − WP
∴ η th = net =
QH QH
509.46 + 675.61 − 10.25
= = 0.355
3307.31
3600
Steam rate, SSC = = 3.064kg / kWh
Wnet

1. b) When η of the HP turbine, LP turbine and feed pump are 80%, 85% and 90% respectively.

9
 h2 − h3 3099.9 − h3
η tHP = = 0.8 =
h2 − h3 s 3099.9 − 2590.44
∴h3 = 2692.33 kJ/kg

h4 − h5 3148.7 − h5
η tLP = = 0.85 =
h4 − h5 s 3148.7 − 2473.09
∴h5 = 2574.43 kJ/kg

h15 − h6 350.85 − 340.6

ηP = = 0.9 =
h1 − h6 h1 − 340.6
∴h1 = 351.99 kJ/kg
(h − h3 ) + (h4 − h5 ) − (h1 − h6 )
∴η th = 2
(h2 − h1 ) + (h4 − h3 )
=
(3099.9 − 2692.33) + (3148.7 − 2574.43) − (351.99 − 340.6)
(3099.9 − 351.99) + (3148.7 − 2692.33)
= 0.303 or 30.3%

∴SSC = 3.71 kg/kWh

Using Mollier-chart: h2 = 3095 kJ/kg, h3s = 2680 kJ/kg, h4 = 3145 kJ/kg

h5 = 2475 kJ/kg, h6 = 340.6 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
WP = 10.249 kJ/kg

2. Steam at 50 bar, 3500C expands to 12 bar in a HP stage, and is dry saturated at the
stage exit. This is now reheated to 2800C without any pressure drop. The reheat steam
expands in an intermediate stage and again emerges dry and saturated at a low
pressure, to be reheated a second time to 2800C. Finally, the steam expands in a LP
stage to 0.05 bar. Assuming the work output is the same for the high and intermediate
stages, and the efficiencies of the high and low pressure stages are equal, find: (a) η of
the HP stage (b) Pressure of steam at the exit of the intermediate stage, (c) Total power
output from the three stages for a flow of 1kg/s of steam, (d) Condition of steam at exit

10
 of LP stage and (e) Then η of the reheat cycle. Also calculate the thermodynamic mean
temperature of energy addition for the cycle.
Solution:

P1 = 50 bar t2 = 3500C P2 = 12 bar t4 = 2800C, t6 = 2800C

P3 = ? P4 = 0.05 bar
From Mollier diagram
h2 = 3070kJ/kg h3s = 2755 kJ/kg h3 = 2780 kJ/kg h4 = 3008 kJ/kg
h2 − h3 3070 − 2780
(a) ηt for HP stage = =
h2 − h3 s 3070 − 2755
= 0.921

(b) Since the power output in the intermediate stage equals that of the HP stage, we have
h2 – h3 = h4 – h5
i.e., 3070 – 2780 = 3008 – h5
∴h5 = 2718 kJ/kg

Since state 5 is on the saturation line, we find from Mollier chart, P3 = 2.6 bar,
Also from Mollier chart, h5s = 2708 kJ/kg, h6 = 3038 kJ/kg, h7s = 2368 kJ/kg

Since ηt is same for HP and LP stages,

h −h 3038 − h7
η t = 6 7 = 0.921 = ∴ h7 = 2420.93kJ/kg
h6 − h7 s 3038 − 2368
∴At a pressure 0.05 bar, h7 = hf7 + x7 hfg7
2420.93 = 137.8 + x7 (2423.8)
∴x7 = 0.941
Total power output = (h2 – h3) + (h4 – h5) + (h6 – h7)
= (3070 – 2780) + (3008 – 2718) + (3038 – 2420.93)
= 1197.07 kJ/kg
∴Total power output /kg of steam = 1197.07 kW
For P4 = 0.05 bar from steam tables, h8 = 137.8 kJ/kg;
WP = 0.0010052 (50 – 0.05) 102 = 5.021 kJ/kg
= h8 – h1s

11
 ∴h1s = 142.82 kJ/kg

Heat supplied, QH = (h2 – h1s) + (h4 – h3) + (h6 – h5)

= (3070 – 142.82) + (3008 – 2780) + (3038 – 2718)
= 3475.18 kJ/kg

Wnet = WT – WP = 1197.07 – 5.021 = 1192.05 kJ/kg

W 1192.05
∴η th = net = = 0.343
QH 3475.18
T
η th = 1 − o = 1 −
(273 + 32.9) = 0.343,
Tm Tm
305.9
0.657 =
Tm
∴Tm = 465.6 K

Or
h2 − h1s 3070 − 142.82
Tm = = = 492 K
S 2 − S1s 6.425 − 0.4763
3600
SSC = = 3.02kg / kWh
1192.05

3. A steam power station uses the following cycle: Steam at boiler outlet – 150 bar; reheat
at 40 bar, 5500C; condenser at 0.1 bar. Using Mollier chart and assuming that all
processes are ideal, find (i) quality at turbine exhaust (ii) cycle η (iii) steam rate.
Solution:

P2 = 150 bar t2 = 5500C P3 = 40 bar t3 = 5500C

P5 = 0.1 bar

From Mollier diagram i.e., h-s diagram

12
 h2 = h 150 bar ,5500 C = 3450kJ / kg

h4 = h 40 bar , 550 0 C
= 3562kJ / kg

h3 = 3050 kJ/kg

h5 = 2290 kJ/kg

x5 = 0.876 kJ/kg

h6 can not determined from h-s diagram, hence steam tables are used.

h6 = h f 0.1 bar = 191.8kJ / kg

Process 6-1 is isentropic pump work i.e., WP1 = v∫dP

= 0.0010102 (40 – 01) 105/103 = 4.031 kJ/kg

= (h1 – h6)

∴h1 = 195.8 kJ/kg

(i) Quality of steam at turbine exhaust = x5 = 0.876

WT − WP
(ii ) η cycle =
QH

Turbine work, WT = WT1 + WT2

= (h2 – h3) + (h4 – h5)

= (3450 – 3050) + (3562 – 2290)

= 1672 kJ/kg

QH = Q1 + QR = (h2- h1) + (h4 – h3)

= (3450 – 195.8) + (3562 – 3050)

= 3766.2 kJ/kg

1672 − 4.031 1667.97

∴η cycle = = = 0.443
3766.2 3766.2

13
 3600
(iii ) Steam rate = = 2.16kg / kWh
1667.97

4. An ideal Rankine cycle with reheat is designed to operate according to the following
specification. Pressure of steam at high pressure turbine = 20 MPa, Temperature of
steam at high pressure turbine inlet = 5500C, Temperature of steam at the end of reheat
= 5500C, Pressure of steam at the turbine exhaust = 15 KPa. Quality of steam at turbine
exhaust = 90%. Determine (i) the pressure of steam in the reheater (ii) ratio of pump
work to turbine work, (iii) ratio of heat rejection to heat addition, (iv) cycle η.
Solution:

P2 = 200 bar t2 = 5500C t4 = 5500C P5 = 0.15 bar x5 = 0.9

From Mollier diagram,

h2 = 3370 kJ/kg

h3 = 2800 kJ/kg

h4 = 3580 kJ/kg

h5 = 2410 kJ/kg

x5 = 0.915

P3 = P4 = 28 bar

But given in the data x5 = 0.9

From steam tables h6 = 226 kJ/kg

Pump work WP = v∫dP

= 0.001014 (200 – 0.15) 105/103

14
 = 20.26 kJ/kg

But WP = h1 – h6 ∴h1 = 246.26 kJ/kg

(i) Pressure of steam in the reheater = 28 bar

(ii) Turbine work WT = (h2 – h3) + (h4 – h5)

= (3370 – 2800) + (3580 – 2410)

= 1740 kJ/kg

WP
∴Ratio of = 0.0116 i.e., 1.2%
WT

(iii) QL = (h5 – h6) = (2410 – 226) = 2184 kJ/kg

QH = (h2 – h1) + (h4 – h3)

= (3370 – 226) + (3580 – 2800)

= 3924 kJ/kg

QL
∴ = 0.5565 i.e., 55.65%
QH

(iv) η cycle =
Wnet
=
(1740 − 20.26) = 0.4383 i.e., 43.8%
QTotal 3924

15
Feedwater Heaters (FWH)

A practical Regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by extracting or

bleeding, steam from the turbine at various points. This steam, which could have produced more
work by expanding further in the turbine, is used to heat the feed water instead. The device
where the feedwater heated by regeneration is called a Regenerator or a Feedwater Heater
(FWH).

A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from the steam to the
feedwater either by mixing the two streams (open feedwater heaters) or without mixing them
(closed feedwater heaters).

Open Feedwater Heaters

An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where the steam
extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.

The advantages of open heater are simplicity, lower cost, and high heat transfer capacity. The
disadvantage is the necessity of a pump at each heater to handle the large feedwater stream.

Closed Feedwater Heaters

In closed feedwater heater, the heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater
without mixing taking place. The feedwater flows through the tubes in the heater and extracted
steam condenses on the outside of the tubes in the shell. The heat released from the condensation
is transferred to the feedwater through the walls of the tubes. The condensate (saturated water at
the steam extraction pressure), some times called the heater-drip, then passes through a trap into
the next lower pressure heater. This, to some extent, reduces the steam required by that heater.
The trap passes only liquid and no vapour. The drip from the lowest pressure heater could
similarly be trapped to the condenser, but this would be throwing away energy to the condenser
cooling water. The avoid this waste, the drip pump feed the drip directly into the feedwater
stream.

A closed heaters system requires only a single pump for the main feedwater stream regardless of
the number of heaters. The drip pump, if used is relatively small. Closed heaters are costly and
may not give as high a feedwater temperature as do open heaters.

In most steam power plants, closed heaters are favoured, but atleast one open heater is used,
primarily for the purpose of feedwater deaeration. The open heater in such a system is called
deaerator.

Note: The higher the number of heater used, the higher will be the cycle efficiency. The number
of heater is fixed up by the energy balance of the whole plant when it is found that the cost of
adding another does not justify the saving in QH or the marginal increase in cycle efficiency. An

1
increase in feedwater temperature may, in some cases, cause a reduction in boiler efficiency. So
the number of heaters get optimized. Five feedwater heaters are often used in practice.

Characteristics of an Ideal working fluid

The maximum temperature that can be used in steam cycles consistent with the best available
material is about 6000C, while the critical temperature of steam is 3750C, which necessitates
large superheating and permits the addition of only an infinitesimal amount of heat at the highest
temperature.

The desirable characteristics of the working fluid in a vapour power cycle to obtain best thermal
η are as follows:
a) The fluid should have a high critical temperature so that the saturation pressure at the
maximum permissible temperature (metallurgical limit) is relatively low. It should have a
large enthalpy of evaporation at that pressure.
b) The saturation pressure at the temperature of heat rejection should be above atmosphere
pressure so as to avoid the necessity of maintaining vacuum in the condenser.
c) The specific heat of liquid should be small so that little heat transfer is required to raise the
liquid to the boiling point.
d) The saturation vapour line of the T-S diagram should be steep, very close to the turbine
expansion process so that excessive moisture does not appear during expansion.
e) The freezing point of the fluid should be below room temperature, so that it does not get
solidified while flowing through the pipe lines.
f) The fluid should be chemically stable and should not contaminate the materials of
construction at any temperature.
g) The fluid should be nontoxic, non corrosive, not excessively viscous, and low in cost.

2
Numerical Problems:

1. An ideal regenerative cycle operates with dry saturated steam, the maximum and
minimum pressures being 30 bar and 0.04 bar respectively. The plant is installed with a
single mixing type feed water heater. The bled steam pressure is 2.5 bar. Determine (a)
the mass of the bled steam, (b) the thermal η of the cycle, and (c) SSC in kg/kWh.
Solution:

P1 = 30 bar P2 = 2.5 bar P3 = 0.04 bar

From steam tables, For P1 = 30 bar, h2 = 2802.3 kJ/kg, S2 = 6.1838 kJ/kg-0k

But S2 = S3s i.e., 6.1838 = 1.6072 + x3 (5.4448)

∴x3 = 0.841

∴h3 = 535.4 + 0.841 (2281.0)

= 2452.68 kJ/kg

Also S2 = S4s i.e., 6.1838 = 0.4225 + x4 (8.053)

∴x4 = 0.715

∴h4 = 121.4 + 0.715 (2433.1)

= 1862.1 kJ/kg

At P3 = 0.04 bar, h5 = 121.4 kJ/kg, v5 = 0.001004 m3/kg

∴Condensate pump work = (h6 – h5) = v5 (P2 – P3)
= 0.001004 (2.5 – 0.04) (105/103)
= 0.247 kJ/kg

∴h6 = 0.247 + 121.4 = 121.65 kJ/kg

Similarly, h1 = h7 + v7 (P1 – P2) (105/103)

= 535.4 + 0.0010676 (30 – 2.5) 102
= 538.34 kJ/kg
a) Mass of the bled steam:

3
Applying the energy balance to the feed water heater
mh3 + (1 – m) h6 = 1 (h7)
(h7 − h6 ) (535.4 − 121.65)
∴m = = = 0.177 kg / kg of steam
(h3 − h6 ) (2452.68 − 121.65)
b) Thermal η:
Turbine work, WT = 1 (h2 – h3s) + (1 – m) (h3 – h4s)
= 1 (2802.3 – 2452.65) + (1 – 0.177) (2452.68 – 1862.1)
= 835.67 kJ/kg

Pump work, WP = (1 – m) (h6s – h5) + 1 (h1s – h7)

= (1 – 0.177) (121.65 – 121.4) + 1 (538.34 – 535.4)
= 3.146 kJ/kg

∴Wnet = WT – WP = 832.52 kJ/kg

Heat supplied, QH = 1 (h2 – h1s)

= 1 (2802.3 – 538.34)
= 2263.96 kJ/kg
Wnet 832.52
∴η th = = = 0.368 or 36.8%
QH 2263.96

c) SSC:
3600
SSC = = 4.324kg / kWh
Wnet

2. In problem (3), also calculate the increase in mean temperature of heat addition,
efficiency and steam rate as compared to the Rankine cycle (without regeneration)
h − h1 2263.96
Solution: Tm1 (with regeneration) = 2 = = 494.68k
S 2 − S1 (6.1838 − 1.6072 )
h − h6 2802.3 − 121.65
Tm1 (without regeneration) = 2 = = 465.29k
S 2 − S 6 (6.1838 − 0.4225)

∴Increase in Tm1 due to regeneration = 494.68 – 465.29 = 29.390K

WT (without regeneration) = h2 – h4 = 2802.3 – 1862.1 = 940.2 kJ/kg

WP (without regeneration) = (h1 – h5) = v5 (30 – 0.04) 102

= 0.001004 (29.96) 102 = 3.01 kJ/kg

∴h1 = 3.01 + 121.4 = 124.41 kJ/kg

4
 ∴ηth (without regeneration) =
Wnet
=
(940.2 − 3.01) = 0.349
QH 2802.3 − 124.41

∴Increase in ηth due to regeneration = 0.368 – 0.349 = 0.018 i.e., 1.8%

Steam rate (without regeneration) = 3.84 kg/kWh

∴Increase in steam rate due to regeneration = 4.324 – 3.84

= 0.484 kg/kWh

3. Steam at 20 bar and 3000C is supplied to a turbine in a cycle and is bled at 4 bar. The
bled-steam just comes out saturated. This steam heats water in an open heater to its
saturation state. The rest of the steam in the turbine expands to a condenser pressure of
0.1 bar. Assuming the turbine efficiency to be the same before and after bleeding, find:
a) the turbine η and the steam quality at the exit of the last stage; b) the mass flow rate
of bled steam 1kg of steam flow at the turbine inlet; c) power output / (kg/s) of steam
flow; and d) overall cycle η.
Solution:

P1 = 20 bar t1 = 3000C P2 = 4 bar P3 = 0.1 bar

From steam tables,
For P1 = 20 bar and t1 = 3000C
v2 = 0.12550 h2 = 3025.0 S2 = 6.7696
For P2 = 4 bar, h3 = 2737.6, ts = 143.63
hf = 604.7, hfg = 2132.9, Sf = 1.7764, Sfg = 5.1179, Sg = 6.8943
For P2 = 0.1 bar, 45.83, 191.8, 2392.9, 2584.8, 0.6493, 7.5018, 8.1511
We have, S2 = S3s i.e., 6.7696 = 1.7764 + x3 (5.1179)
∴x3 = 0.976
∴h3s = 604.7 + 0.976 (2132.9) = 2685.63 kJ/kg
h − h3 3025 − 2737.6
∴η t = 2 = = 0.847
h2 − h3 s 3025 − 2685.63
S3 = S4s i.e., 6.8943 = 0.6493 + x4 (7.5018)

∴x4s = 0.832
∴h4s = 191.8 + 0.832 (2392.9) = 2183.81kJ/kg

5
 h3 − h4
But ηt is same before and after bleeding i.e., η t =
h3 − h4 s
2737.6 − h4
i.e., 0.847 =
2737.6 − 2183.81
∴h4 = 2268.54 kJ/kg
∴h4 = hf4 + x4 hfg4 ∴x4 = 0.868

b) Applying energy balance to open heater, mh3 + (1 – m) h6s = 1 (h7)

h − h6
∴m = 7
h3 − h6
Condensate pump work, (h6s – h5) = v5 (P3 – P2)
= 0.0010102 (3.9) 102 = 0.394 kJ/kg
∴h6s = 191.8 + 0.394 = 192.19 kJ/kg

Similarly, h1s = h7 + v7 (P1 – P2)

= 604.7 + -.0010839 (16) 102 = 606.43 kJ/kg
604.7 − 192.19
∴m = = 0.162
2737.6 − 192.19

c) Power output or WT = (h2 – h3) + (1 – m) (h3 – h4)

= (3025 – 2737.6) + (1 – 0.162) (2737.6 – 2268.54)
= 680.44 kJ/kg

For 1kg/s of steam, WT = 680.44 kW

Wnet
d) Overall thermal efficiency, η 0 =
QH
WP = (1 – m) (h6s – h5) + 1 (h1s – h7)
= (1 – 0162) (192.19 – 191.8) + 1 (606.43 – 604.7)
= 2.057 kJ/kg

Wnet = 680.44 – 2.057 = 678.38 kJ/kg

QH = 1 (h2 – h1s) = (3025 – 606.43) = 2418.57 kJ/kg

678.38
∴η 0 = = 0.2805
2418.57

Using Moiller Diagram

6
4. Steam at 50 bar, 3500C expands to 12 bar in a HP stage, and is dry saturated at the
stage exit. This is now reheated to 2800C without any pressure drop. The reheat steam
expands in an intermediate stage and again emerges dry and saturated at a low
pressure, to be reheated a second time to 2800C. Finally, the steam expands in a LP
stage to 0.05 bar. Assuming the work output is the same for the high and intermediate
stages, and the efficiencies of the high and low pressure stages are equal, find: (a) η of
the HP stage (b) Pressure of steam at the exit of the intermediate stage, (c) Total power
output from the three stages for a flow of 1kg/s of steam, (d) Condition of steam at exit
of LP stage and (e) Then η of the reheat cycle. Also calculate the thermodynamic mean
temperature of energy addition for the cycle.
Solution:

P1 = 50 bar t2 = 3500C P2 = 12 bar t4 = 2800C, t6 = 2800C

P3 = ? P4 = 0.05 bar
From Mollier diagram
h2 = 3070kJ/kg h3s = 2755 kJ/kg h3 = 2780 kJ/kg h4 = 3008 kJ/kg
h − h3 3070 − 2780
(a) ηt for HP stage = 2 =
h2 − h3 s 3070 − 2755
= 0.921

7
(b) Since the power output in the intermediate stage equals that of the HP stage, we have
h2 – h3 = h4 – h5
i.e., 3070 – 2780 = 3008 – h5
∴h5 = 2718 kJ/kg

Since state 5 is on the saturation line, we find from Mollier chart, P3 = 2.6 bar,
Also from Mollier chart, h5s = 2708 kJ/kg, h6 = 3038 kJ/kg, h7s = 2368 kJ/kg

Since ηt is same for HP and LP stages,

h −h 3038 − h7
η t = 6 7 = 0.921 = ∴ h7 = 2420.93kJ/kg
h6 − h7 s 3038 − 2368

∴At a pressure 0.05 bar, h7 = hf7 + x7 hfg7

2420.93 = 137.8 + x7 (2423.8)
∴x7 = 0.941
Total power output = (h2 – h3) + (h4 – h5) + (h6 – h7)
= (3070 – 2780) + (3008 – 2718) + (3038 – 2420.93)
= 1197.07 kJ/kg
∴Total power output /kg of steam = 1197.07 kW
For P4 = 0.05 bar from steam tables, h8 = 137.8 kJ/kg;
WP = 0.0010052 (50 – 0.05) 102 = 5.021 kJ/kg
= h8 – h1s
∴h1s = 142.82 kJ/kg

Heat supplied, QH = (h2 – h1s) + (h4 – h3) + (h6 – h5)

= (3070 – 142.82) + (3008 – 2780) + (3038 – 2718)
= 3475.18 kJ/kg

Wnet = WT – WP = 1197.07 – 5.021 = 1192.05 kJ/kg

W 1192.05
∴η th = net = = 0.343
QH 3475.18
T
η th = 1 − o = 1 −
(273 + 32.9) = 0.343,
Tm Tm
305.9
0.657 =
Tm
∴Tm = 465.6 K

Or
h2 − h1s 3070 − 142.82
Tm = = = 492 K
S 2 − S1s 6.425 − 0.4763
3600
SSC = = 3.02kg / kWh
1192.05

8
5. Steam at 30 bar and 3500C is supplied to a steam turbine in a practical regenerative
cycle and the steam is bled at 4 bar. The bled steam comes out as dry saturated steam
and heats the feed water in an open feed water heater to its saturated liquid state. The
rest of the steam in the turbine expands to condenser pressure of 0.1 bar. Assuming the
turbine η to be same before and after bleeding determine (i) the turbine η, (ii) steam
quality at inlet to condenser, (iii) mass flow rate of bled steam per unit mass rate at
turbine inlet and (iv) the cycle η.

Solution:

P2 = 30 bar t2 = 3500C P3 = 4 bar P4 = 0.1 bar

h3 = hg at P3 = 4 bar, = 2737.6 kJ/kg

From superheated steam tables,

h2 = h3 = hg P3 = 4 bar = 2737.6 kJ / kg

h2 = h P2 =30 bar & t 2 =350 0 C

= 3117.5 kJ / kg and S2 = 6.7471 kJ/kg-K

h5 = h f P5 = 0.1bar = 191.8 kJ / kg

h7 = h f P7 = 4 bar = 604.7 kJ / kg

Process 2-3s is isentropic, i.e., S2 = S3S

6.7471 = 1.7764 + x3S (5.1179)

9
 ∴x3S = 0.971

∴h3S = hf3 + x3S hfg3

= 604.7 + 0.971 (2132.9)

= 2676.25 kJ/kg

Process 3-4s is isentropic i.e., S3 = S4S

i.e., 6.8943 = 0.6493 + x4S (7.5018)

∴x4S = 0.832

∴h4S = 191.8 + 0.832 (2392.9) = 2183.8 kJ/kg

Given, ηt (before bleeding) = ηt (after bleeding)

h2 − h3 3117.5 − 2737.6
We have, ηt (before bleeding) = = = 0.86
h2 − h3 S 3117.5 − 2676.25

h3 − h4 2737.6 − h4
∴ 0.86 = = ∴ h4 = 2261.33kJ / kg
h3 − h4 S 2737.6 − 2183.8

But h4 = hf4 + x4 hfg4

2261.33 = 191.8 + x4 (2392.9)

∴x4 = 0.865

i.e., Dryness fraction at entry to condenser = x4 = 0.865

iii) Let m kg of steam is bled. Applying energy balance to FWH,

mh3 + (1 – m) h6 = h7

We have WP1 = (h6 – h5) = v∫dP

= 0.0010102 (4 – 0.1) 105/103

= 0.394 kJ/kg

∴h6 = 0.394 + 191.8 = 192.19 kJ/kg

Substituting,

10
 m (2737.6) + (1 – m) 192.19 = 604.7

∴m = 0.162 kg

Also, WP2 = (h1 – h7) = v∫dP

= 0.0010839 x (30 – 4) 102

= 2.82 kJ/kg

∴h1 = 2.82 + 604.7 = 607.52 kJ/kg

WT = WP [(h2 − h3 ) + (1 − m )(h3 − h4 )] − [(1 − m )(h6 − h5 ) + (h1 − h2 )]

∴η cycle = =
QH (h2 − h1 )
ηcycle = 0.31

6. In an ideal reheat regenerative cycle, the high pressure turbine receives steam at 20 bar,
3000C. After expansion to 7 bar, the steam is reheated to 3000C and expands in an
intermediate pressure turbine to 1 bar. A fraction of steam is now extracted for feed
water heating in an open type FWH. The remaining steam expands in a low pressure
turbine to a final pressure of 0.05 bar. Determine (i) cycle thermal η, (ii) specific steam
consumption, (iii) quality of steam entering condenser.
Solution:

h2 = h 20 bar , 300 0 C
= 3025kJ / kg and s2 = 6.7696kJ/kg-K

Process 2-3 is isentropic

i.e., S2 = S3

6.7696 = 1.9918 + x3 (4.7134)

∴x3 = 1.014

11
i.e., state 3 can be approximated as dry saturated.

∴ h3 = h 7 bar , dry sat . = 2762kJ/kg

∴ h4 = h 7 bar , 3000 C = 3059.8kJ / kg and s4 = 7.2997 kJ/kg-K

Process 4-5 is isentropic i.e., S4 = S5

7.2997 = 1.3027 + x5 (6.0571)

∴x5 = 0.99

∴h5 = hf5 + x5 hfg5 = 417.5 + 0.99 (2257.9) = 2652.9 kJ/kg

Process 5-6 is isentropic i.e., S5 = S6

7.2997 = 0.4763 + x6 (7.9197)

∴x6 = 0.862

∴h6 = 137.8 + 0.862 (2423.8) = 2226.1 kJ/kg

h7 = h7 = h f 0.05 bar = 137.8 kJ/kg

Neglecting WP1, h8 = h7, Also neglecting WP2, h9 = h1

∴ h9 = h f 1 bar = 417.5 kJ/kg

Applying energy balance to FWH

mh5 + (1 – m) h8 = h9

i.e., m (2652.9) + (1 – m) 137.8 = 417.5 ∴m = 0.111 kg/kg of steam

(h2 − h3 ) + (h4 − h5 ) + (1 − m )(h5 − h6 )

(i ) ηC = = 0.35
(h2 − h1 ) + (h4 − h3 )
3600
(ii ) SSC = = 3.57 kg / kWh
Wnet

(iii) Quality of steam entering condenser, x6 = 0.862

12
7. The net power output of a regenerative – reheat cycle power plant is 80mW. Steam
enters the high pressure turbine at 80 bar, 5000C and expands to a pressure P2 and
emerges as dry vapour. Some of the steam goes to an open feed water heater and the
balance is reheated at 4000C at constant pressure P2 and then expanded in the low
pressure turbine to 0.05 bar. Determine (i) the reheat pressure P2, (ii) the mass of bled
steam per kg boiler steam, (iii) the steam flow rate in HP turbine, (iv) cycle η. Neglect
pump work. Sketch the relevant lines on h-s diagram. Assume expansion in the turbines
as isentropic.
Solution:

P = 80000 kW P1 = 80 bar t2 = 5000C P2 = ? t3 = 4000C

P3 = 0.05 bar m = ? m S = ? ηcycle = ?

h2 = h 80 bar , 5000 C = 3398.8kJ / kg and s2 = 6.7262

Process 2-3 is isentropic i.e., S2 = S3 = 6.7262 kJ/kg-K

Given state 3 is dry saturated i.e., S3 = 6.7262 = S g P2

From table A – 1, for dry saturated steam, at P = 6.0 bar, Sg = 6.7575

13
 and at P = 7.0 bar, Sg = 6.7052

Using linear interpolation,

6.0 − 7.0
∆P = x(6.7262 − 6.7052 ) = 0.402 bar
(6.7575 − 6.7052)
∴(i) P2 = 6 + 0.402 = 6.402 bar

∴ h3 = h P2 = 6.4 bar

From table A – 1, For P = 6 bar hg = 2755.5 Sg = 6.7575

For P = 7 bar, hg = 2762.0 Sg = 6.7052

2762 − 2755.5
∴ For P = 6.4 bar ⇒ x(0.4 ) + 2755.5 = 2758.1kJ / kg
1

∴h3 = 2758.1 kJ/kg

h4 = h 6.4 bar , 4000 C

From superheated steam tables, For P = 6.0 bar, h = 3270.6 s = 7.709

P = 7.0 bar, h = 3269.0 s = 7.6362

∴For 6.4 bar, h4 ⇒ 3269.96 kJ/kg

S4 ⇒ 7.6798 kJ/kg-K

Process 4-5 is isentropic, S4 = S5

i.e., 7.6798 = 0.4763 + x5 (7.9197)

∴x5 = 0.909

∴h5 = 137.8 + 0.909 (2423.8) = 2342.41 kJ/kg

h6 = h f 0.05 bar = 137.8kJ / kg

h7 = h6 (since WP1 is neglected)

h8 = h f 6.4 bar = 681.1kJ / kg

h1 = h8 (since WP2 is neglected)

14
(ii) Applying energy balance to FWH,

mh3 + (1 – m) h7 = h8

m (2758.1) + (1 – m) 137.8 = 681.1

∴m = 0.313 kg/kg of steam

(iii) W1 = WHP = (h2 – h3) = (3398.8 – 2758.1)

= 640.7 kJ/kg

W2 = WLP = (1 – m) (h4 – h5)

= (1 – 0.313) (3269.96 – 2342.41)

= 637.2 kJ/kg

∴Wnet = W1 + W2 = 1277.9 kJ/kg

Power 80000
∴Steam flow rate through HP turbine = = = 62.6kg / s
Wnet 1277.9

(iv) ηcycle = ? QH = (h2 – h1) + (1 – m) (h4 – h3) = 3069.35 kJ/kg

Wnet 1277.9
∴η cycle = = = 0.42
QH 3069.35

8. In a single heater regenerative cycle, the steam enters the turbine at 30 bar, 4000C and
the exhaust pressure is 0.01 bar. The feed water heater is a direct contact type which
operates at 5 bar. Find (i) thermal η and the steam rate of the cycle, (ii) the increase in
mean temperature of heat addition, η and steam rate as compared to the Rankine cycle
without regeneration. Pump work may neglected.
Solution:

15
P2 = 40 bar t2 = 4000C P4 = 0.01 bar P3 = 5 bar

From h-s diagram,

h2 = h 30 bar , 4000 C = 3230kJ / kg

h3 = 2790 kJ/kg

h4 = 1930 kJ/kg

h5 = 29.3 kJ/kg

h7 = 640.1 kJ/kg

Since pump work may neglect, h6 = h5 & h1 = h7

(i) ηcycle = ?

Let m = mass of steam bled per kg boiler steam

Applying SFEE to FWH,

mh3 + (1 – m) h6 = h7

m (2790) + (1 – m) 29.3 = 640.1

∴m = 0.221 kg/kg of boiler steam

WT = (h2 – h3) + (1 – m) (h3 – h4)

= (3230 – 2790) + (1 – 0.221) (2790 – 1930)

= 1109.73 kJ/kg

16
QH = (h2 – h1) = (3230 – 640.1)

= 2589.9 kJ/kg

WT
∴η cycle = = 0.428 Since WP is neglected
QH

3600
(ii ) steam rate = = 3.24kg / kWh
WT

QH
(iii) Mean temperature of heat addition, ∆Tm =
s 2 − s5

From h-s diagram, s2 = 6.83 kJ/kg-K

From steam tables, s5 = 0.1060 kJ/kg-K

2589.9
∴ ∆Tm = = 385.2 0 K
(6.83 − 0.106)
Case (ii) Rankine cycle without Regeneration:

From h-s diagram,

h2 = 3230 kJ/kg

h3 = 1930 kJ/kg

17
 h4 = 29.3 kJ/kg

h1 = h4

S2 = 6.83 kJ/kg-K

S4 = 0.1060 kJ/kg-K

WT (h2 − h3 )
(i ) η cycle = =
QH (h2 − h1 )

1300
= = 0.41
3200.7

3600
(ii ) Steam rate = = 2.76kg / kWh
WT

3200.7
(iii) Mean temperature of heat addition, ∆Tm = = 476 0 K
(6.83 − 0.106)
Comparison ∆Tm ηcycle Steam rate

Rankine cycle with 385.2 K 0.428 3.24 kg/kWh

regeneration

Rankine cycle without 4760K 0.41 2.76kg/kWh

regeneration

∴Increase w.r.t - 0.19 0.044 0.174

Rankine cycle i.e., (-19%) (4.4%) (17.4%)

18
 UNIT-1 COMBUSTION THERMODYNAMICS

1.1 Introduction
All conventional fossil fuels, whether, solid, liquid or gaseous, contain basically carbon and
hydrogen which invariably react with the oxygen in the air forming carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide or water vapour. The heat energy released as a result of combustion can be utilized for
heating purposes or for generation of high pressure steam in a boiler or as power from an engine or
a gas turbine.

The solid fuels are burned in beds or in pulversied from suspended in the air stream. The
liquid fuels are burned either by vaporising and mixing with air before ignition, when they behave
like a gaseous fuel. The gaseous fuels are either burned in burners when the fuel and air are
premixed or the fuel and air flow separately in to a burner or a furnace and simultaneously mix
together as combustion proceeds.

The Kg-mole or gram-mole is widely used in combustion calculations as a unit of weight.

The molecular weight of any substance in kg represents one kilogram mole or 1K mole. 1Kmol of
hydrogen has a mass of 2.016Kg and 1Kmol of carbon has a mass of 12Kg.

Consider a reaction
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O 1.1
(12+4.032) + 64 → 44 + 2 (2.032 + 16)

16.032kg of methane reacts with 64Kg of oxygen to form 44kg of carbon dioxide and
36.032kg of water. We can also simply state that 1Kmol of methane reacts with 2Kmol of oxygen
to form 1Kmol of carbon dioxide and 2K mol of water, this has advantage of permitting easy
conversion between the mass and volumetric quantities for the gaseous fuel and the product of
combustion. If the gases are considered ideal then according to Avogadro hypothesis, all gases
contain the same number of molecules per unit volume. It implies that 1K mole of any gaseous
substance occupies the volume of 22.4m3 at NTP i.e., 1.013bar and 273K.
CH4 + 202 → CO2 + 2H2O 1.2
1 volume of methane reacts with 2 volume of oxygen to form one volume of CO2 and two volumes
of H2O. Therefore in any reactions, the mass in confirmed but the no. of mol or volumes may not
be considered.

(i) C +O2 → CO2

On mass basis (12) + (32) → (44)
1 Mol (C) + 1 Mol (O2) → 1 Mol (CO2)
(ii) 2C +O2 → 2CO
On mass basis (24) + (32) → (56)
Volume basis 2 Mol (C) + 1 Mol (O2) → 2Mol (CO)

(iii) 2C +O2 → 2CO2

On mass basis (56) + (32) → (88)

2 Mol (CO) + 1 Mol (O2) → 2 Mol (CO2)

1.2 Combustion Stoichometry

A balanced chemical equation for complete Combustion of the reactions with no excess air
in the product is known as a stiochiometric equation. A stiochiometric mixture of the reactants is
one in which the molar proportions of the reactants are exactly as given by the stiochiometric
coefficients, so that no excess of any constituent is present. In general a chemical reaction may be
written as
aA + bB - cC + dD 1.3
Where the reactants A and B react to form the products C and D. The small letters a, b, c and d are
known as the stiochiometric coefficients.

For the combustion of any fuel the most common oxidizer is air which is a mixture of 21%
O2 and 79% N2 (on volume basis). One mol of oxygen is accompanied by 79/21 (3.76) mol of
Nitrogen. The Chemical equation for the stiochiometric combustion of carbon with air is written
as

C + O2 + 3.76N2 → CO2 + 3.76N2 1.4

The minimum amount of air required for the complete combustion of a fuel is known as
theoretical air. However in practice it is difficult to achieve complete combustion with theoretical
air. Therefore fuel requires some excess air for different application and may vary from 5% ~ 20%
and in gas turbine it may go up to 400% of theoretical quantity.
1.3 Theoretical air required for complete combustion.

If the fuel composition is known, the requirement of oxygen or air can be calculated either by mass
balance or by mole method.
Consider a equation
C + O2 → CO2 1.5
(12) + (32) → (44)
Or 1 + 8/3 → 11/3
Or 1 Kg C + 8/3 Kg O2 → 11/3 kg CO2
Similarly
 2C + O2 → 2CO 1.6
2(12) + (32) → 2(28)
Or 1 Kg C + 32/24 Kg O2 → 56/24 kg CO
Or 1 Kg C + 4/3 Kg O2 → 7/3 kg CO

Similarly

1 Kg CO + 4/7 Kg O2 → 11/7 kg CO2 1.7

On molal basis

1K mol C + 1K mol O2 → 1K mol CO2

1K mol C + ½ K mol O2 → 1K mol CO
1K mol C + ½ K mol O2 → 1K mol CO2

1.4 Conversion of Gravimetric analysis to volumetric basis and vice versa

If the composition of fuel is given on gravimetric (or weight) basis it can be converted to
volumetric (or mole) basis as follows. Divide the weight of each constituents of the mixture by its
molecular weight. This will give the relative volume (or mole) of each constituents. Add all the
relative volumes of the constituents then,

Indivisual (relative) volume of the constituents X 100

Total volume of all the constituents

will give the %age by volume of each constituents in the fuel.

If the volumetric composition of a fuel is given, it can be converted to gravimetric (or weight) basis
as follows. Multiply the indivisual volume of each constituent by its molecular weight. This will
give relative weight of each constituent. Add all the relative weights of the constituents then

Indivisual weight of the constituents X 100

Total(reative)weights of the constituents

will give the %age by weight of each constituent in the fuel.

1.4.1 Calculation of the minimum amount of air for a fuel of known composition.

Example 1
Calculate the minimum volume of air required to burn one Kg of coal having the following
composition by weight

C = 72.4%, H2 5.3%, N2 = 1.81, O2 = 8.5%, moisture 7.2%

S = 0.9% and ash 3.9%

On weight basis:
Taking 1kg coal as basis weight of oxygen required to burn 1kg of coal

C + O2 → CO2

0.724 x 32/12 = 1.93 kg

0.53x 16/2 = 0.424 kg
0.009x32/32 = 0.009 kg
Total O2 = 2.363 kg per kg of coal

But 0.085kg O2 is available in coal, therefore O2 required

= 2.363 – 0.085 = 2.278kg per Kg of coal.
Air contains 23% of oxygen by weight. Therefore the weight of the air supplied is

2.278x 100/23 = 9.9 kg per kg of coal

Density of air required at NTP
P v = mRT
P= m/v RT = ρRT,

ρ = Molecular weight
Volume
= P/RT = 1.013x105/287x273 = 1.29 kg/m3
Therefore volume of air required = 9.9(kg)/1.29(kg) = 7.67 m3

On mole basis
Consider 100kg of coal

C = 72.4/12 = 6.03K mol, O2 = 8.5/32 = 0.265K mol

H2 = 5.3/2 = 2.65K mol, H2O = 7.2/18 = 0.4K mol

N2 = 1.8/28 = 0.064K mol, S = 0.9/32 = 0.028K mol

1K mol C + 1K mol O2 → 1Km CO2

Therefore 6.03 K mol of carbon requires

6.03 K mol of oxygen

1 K mol H2 + ½ K mol O2 → 1K mol H2O

H2 - 2.65 x ½ = 1.325K mol
S- 0.028x1 = 0.028
Total O2 required 6.03 + 1.325 + 0.028 = 7.383

The oxygen present in coal 0.265K mol

Net O2 required = 7.383 – 0.265 = 7.118K mol

Air required

7.118x100/21 = 33.89K mol / 100kg of coal = 0.3389K mol / 1kg coal

Volume of air supplied

0.3389K mol/kg X 22.4m3 = 7.59m3/kg of coal

Example 2

Calculate the volumetric analysis of the flue gases when coal burns with 20% excess air from the
previous calculation the actual air required 33.89K mol/100kg coal. Therefore the actual air is
33.89 x 120/100 = 40.67K mol/ 100 kg coal

The amount of N2 associated with this

40.67 x 79/100 = 32.13K mol

The amount of O2 present 40.67 x 21/100 = 8.54K mol

The actual amount of O2 required was 7.118K mol excess O2 will appear in exhaust gas = 8.54 –
7.118 = 1.422K mol.

Therefore:
CO2 = 6.03K mol
SO2 = 0.028K mol
N2 = 32.13K mol (air) + 0.064 (fuel)
= 32.194K mol
O2 = 1.422K mol os excess oxygen.
Therefore the Total volume = (6.03 + 0.028 + 32.194 + 1.422)
= 39.674K mol

The volumetric composition of the gas

CO2 = (6.03/39.674) x 100 = 15.12%

SO2 = (0.028/39.674) x 100 = 0.07%
N2 = (32.13/39.674) x 100 = 81.15%
O2 = (1.422/39.674) x 100 = 3.58%

1.5 Calculation of the composition of fuel and excess air supplied from the exhaust gas
analysis:
Some times the composition of fuel is unknown and it becomes necessary to judge whether the
amount of air supplied is sufficient or not, or excess. This can be obtained by analyzing the sample
of exhaust gases.
Example 3
The composition of dry flue gases obtained by burning a liquid fuel containing only hydrogen and
carbon is CO2 10.7%, O2 5.1%, N2 84.2%. Calculate the composition of fuel by weight and excess
air used.

Solution: consider 100K mol of dry flue gases. They will contain 10.7K mol of O2 (from CO2) +
5.1K mole of (as max. oxygen) = 15.8K mol
Using nitrogen balance the actual air used 84.2 x 100/79 = 106.58K mol of dry flue gases and
oxygen in the air supplied 106.58 x 21/100 = 22.38K mol. Therefore the amount of O2 present in
the water produced by the combustion of H2 is 22.38 – 15.8 = 6.58K mol O2. We know that 1 K
mole of H2 combines with ½ K mol O2 to produce water. Therefore the amount of hydrogen
present is 6.58x2 = 13.16K mol/100K mol of dry flue gases, and the carbon present is 12X10.7 =
128.4kg/100K mol of dry flue gas. Therefore the composition of fuel (by weight) is 128.4kgC
and 26.32Kg H2 on the %age basis.
C = (128.4/(128.4+26.32) x 100 = 82.99%
H = (26.32/(128.4+26.32) x 100 = 17.01%

Excess air supplied

The amount of O2 required to burn 10.7K mol C is 10.7K mol and to burn 13.16K mol H2 is 13.16
X ½ = 6.58
Total O2 required = 10.7 + 6.58 = 17.28K mol/100K mol of dry flue gases
%age of excess air = (22.38 – 17.28)/(17.28) x 100 = 29.5%

1.6 Dew point of products:

The product of combustion containing water vapour are known as wet products. The water vapour
present in combustion product is cooled down to a point of condensation the vapour turn in to
liquid and volume will be reduced. Knowing the partial pressure exerted by the water before
condensing, it is possible to find the saturation temp. corresponding to partial pressure from the
steam tables.
1.7 Flue gas analysis
A fuel has the following %age volumetric analysis
H2 = 48 CH4 : 26, CO2 : 11, CO : 5, N2 = 10
The %age volumetric analysis of the dry exhaust gases in CO2:8.8, O2: 5.5, N2: 85.7
Determine the air/fuel ratio by volume if air contains 21% O2 by volume
Solution: the chemical equation for the reaction of 100 moles of fuel gas with air may be written
as
48H2 + 26CH4 + 11CO2 + 5CO + 10N2 + x (O2 + 3.76N2) → aCO2 + bH2O + cO2 + dN2

Carbon balance (C) → 26 + 11 + 5 = a = H2

H2 → 48 + 52 = b = 100
O2 → 11 + 2.5 + x = a + c (i)
N2 → 10 + 3.76x = d (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) we, have

From (i) 11 + 2.5 + x = 100/2 + a + c

13.5 + x = 50 + a + c
Adding 10 + 3.76x = d
23.5 + 4.76x = 50 + a + c + d
Or a + c + d = 4.76x – 26.5
% CO2 by volume in dry gas
(a/a+c+d) x 100 = 8.8
or (42/4.76x – 26.5) = 0.088
4.76x = 503.77
AF = Total mol air = 503.77 = 5.038%
Total mol fuel 100

Example 4

A blast furnace gas has the following volumetric analysis H2 CO-24%, CH4 – 2%, CO2-6%, O2-3%
and N2-56%

Determine the Ultimate gravimetric analysis

Given volumetric analysis, H2 – 9%, CO-24%, CH4 – 2%, CO2-6%, O2-3% and N2-56%
Solution: The volumetric analysis may be converted into mass or granite metric analysis by
completing the table as follows:
Constituent Volume in Molecular Proportional Mass in kg per kg of % by mass =
1m3 of mass (b) mass the gas (d)=(c)/ Σ © (d)x100
flue gas (c)=(a)x(b)
(a)
CO 0.24 28 6.72 6.72/18.48 = 0.36 36%
CH4 0.02 16 0.32 0.32/18.48 = 0.0173 1.73%
CO2 0.06 44 2.64 264/18.48 = 0.142 14.2%
O2 0.03 32 0.96 0.96/18.48 = 0.0519 5.19%
N2 0.56 14 7.84 7.84/18.48 = 0.42 42%
Σc = 18.48 Σ (d) = 1 100

The volumetric analysis of flue gas components becomes

CO-0.36, CH4 – 0.0173, CO2- 0.142, O2-0.0519 and N2-0.42

Example 5
Determine the fuel gas analysis and air fuel ratio by weight when fuel oil with 84.9% carbon,
11.4% hydrogen, 3.2% sulphur, 0.4% oxygen and 0.1% ash by weight is burnt with 20% excess
air, assume complete combustion.

Solution: Consider 1kg of fuel

Oxygen required / Kg of fuel

For burning of 1kg C - 0.849 x32/12

For burning of 1kg H - 0.114 x16/2
For burning of 1kg S - 0.032 x32/32
Total O2 required is 3.208 kg.
Amount of O2 contained in the fuel = 0.004Kg
Net O2 supplied / kg of fuel = 3.208 – 0.004
= 3.204 kg O2
Net air supplied = 3.204x100/23 = 13.93 kg/kg of fuel

When 20% excess air supplied

Total air supplied = 13.93 x 1.2 = 16.716 kg/kg of fuel.

N2 actually supplied = 16.716 x 77/100 = 12.871 kg/kg of fuel
O2 actually supplied = 16.716 x 23/100 = 3.845 kg/kg of fuel
Total free O2 in fuel gas = 3.845 – 6.204
= 0.641 kg/kg of fuel
Total free N2 in fuel gas = 12.87 kg/kg of fuel

Flue gas analysis:

C converted to CO2 = 0.849x44/12 = 3.113 kg CO2

H converted to H2O = 0.114x18/2 = 1.026 kg H2O
S converted to SO2 = 0.032x64/32 = 0.064 kg SO2

Flue gas / kg of fuel:

= 3.113 + 1.26 + 0.064 + 0.641 + 12.871

CO2 H2O SO2 O2 N2
= 17.715kg.

Therefore:

CO2 = (3.113/17.715)x100 = 17.573%

SO2 = (0.064/17.715)x100 = 0.36%

O2 = (0.641/17.715)x100 = 3.618%

H2O = (1.026/17.715)x100 = 5.79%

N2 = (12.871/17.715)x100 = 72.656%

Air fuel mixture ratio is = 16.716 : 1

Example 6

A blast furnace gas has the following volumetric analysis.

H2 = 9%, CO = 24%, CH4 = 2%, CO2 = 6%, O2 = 3% and N2 = 56 %

Determine the ultimate gravimetric analysis.

Solution:

Total H2 in the blast furnace gas.

% volumetric analysis = 9H2 + 2H4
Proportional mass = % volumetric analysis X mol. Mass of element
= (9x2) + (2x4) = 18 + 8 = 26 kg.
Total ‘C’ in the blast furnace gas.
% of volumetric analysis = 24C + 2C + 6C
Proportional mass = (24+2+6) x 12
= 384 kg
Total O2 in the blast furnace gas

% of volumetric analysis = 24xO + 6O2 + 3O2

Proportional mass = (24+16) x 9 (32)
= 672 kg
Total N2 in the blast furnace gas

% of volumetric analysis = 56 N2
Proportional mass of N2 = 56 x 28 = 1568 Kg.

Total weight of blast furnace gas:

= 384kg C + 26kg H2 + 672kg O2 + 1568kg N2
= 2650kgs

Gravimetric %age compositon:

C = (384/2650)x100 = 14.49%

H2 = (26/2650)x100 = 0.98%

O2 = (672/2650)x100 = 25.36%

N2 = (1568/2650)x100 = 59.17%

Example 7
The analysis of coal used in a boiler trial is as follows. 82% carbon, 6% hydrogen, 4% oxygen, 2%
moisture and 8% ash. Determine the theoretical air required for complete combustion of 1kg of
coal. If the actual air supplied is 18kg per kg of coal the hydrogen is completely burned & 80%
carbon burned to CO2 ,the reminder is CO, Determine the volumetric analysis of the dry products
of combustion.
Solution: For complete combustion.

O2 required is
For carbon - 0.82 = 2.186 kg of O2
For hydrogen - 0.006 = 0.48 kg of O2
Total O2 required = 2.666kg.
Net O2 supplied = Total O2 required – O2 present in the fuel
= 2.66 – 0.004
= 2.662 kg/kg of coal

Theoretical minimum air required for complete combustion [C burns to CO2 totally]
Air supplied = 2.626x100/23 = 11.417 kg/kg of coal

Flue gas analysis:

But actually only 80% carbon is burns to CO2
CO2 = 0.8 x 0.82 x44/12 = 2.405kg of CO2

20% carbon is burnt to CO

CO = 0.2 x 0.82 x 28/12 = 0.383 kg of CO

O2 actually required for 80% carbon burnt to CO2

= 0.8 x 0.82 x 3232/12 = 1.749 kg of O2
O2 actually required for 20% carbon burnt to CO
= 0.2 x 0.82 x 16/12 = 0.219 kg of O2

O2 required by Hydrogen:
= 0.06 x 8 = 0.48 kg of O2.

H2O produced = 0.06 x 9 = 0.54 kg of H2O

But actual air supplied = 18kg
Actually O2 supplied = 18 x23/100 = 4.14 kg of O2
Free O2 in the flue gas = 4.14 + 0.04 – 1.749 – 0.219 – 0.48
= 1.732 kg of O2/kg of coal
N2 in the flue gas = 18x77/100 = 13.86 kg/kg of coal

Volumetric analysis of the dry products of combustion.

CO2 = (2.405/44)x 100 = 0.0546m /K. mol

CO = (0.383/28) x 100 = 0.0137 m3/K.mol

O2 = (1.732/32)x 100 = 0.0541m3/K.mol

N2 = (13.86/28)x 100 = 0.495m3/K.mol

In % of volume:

CO2 = (0.0546/0.6174)x 100 = 8.84%

CO = (0.0137/0.6174)x 100 = 2.22%

O2 = (0.0541/0.6174)x 100 = 8.76%

N2 = (0.495/0.6174)x 100 = 80.70%

1.8 Enthalpy of reaction

Enthalpy of a reaction is defined as the difference between the enthalpy of the products at a
specified state and the enthalpy of the reactants at the same state for a complete reaction. For
combustion process, the enthalpy of a reaction is usually referred to as the “enthalpy of
combustion” it is obviously a very useful property for analyzing the combustion processes of fuels.
However there are so many different fuels and fuel mixtures that is not practical to list enthalpy of
combustion values for all possible cases. Besides, the enthalpy of combustion is not of much use
when the combustion is incomplete. Therefore a more practical approach would be have a more
fundamentally property to represent the chemical energy of an element or compound at some
reference state. This property is the “enthalpy of formation” which can be viewed as the enthalpy
of a substance at a specified state due to its chemical composition. To establish a starting point it is
assigned the enthalpy of formation for all stable elements such as O2, N2, H2 and C a value of zero
at standard reference state of 25oC and 1 atm. For all stable compounds.
In a chemical reaction bonds are broken in the reactants and new bonds formed in the products.
Energy is required to break bonds and energy is released when bonds are formed. The energy
associated with a chemical reaction depends on the number and type of bonds broken and/or formed.

Every chemical species has a certain amount of "heat content," or enthalpy, H, which cannot be
measured. However, differences in enthalpy can be measured. The net energy change for a reaction
performed at constant pressure is the enthalpy change for the reaction. This enthalpy change, H ,
has units kJ/mol and is defined:
[C + H (fuel)] + [O2 + N2 (Air)] -> (Combustion Process) -> [CO2 + H2O + N2 (Heat)]

where

C = Carbon, H = Hydrogen, O = Oxygen, N = Nitrogen

(1) ΔH = H(products) – H(reactants)

If energy is given off during a reaction, such as in the burning of a fuel, the products have less heat
content than the reactants and ΔH will have a negative value; the reaction is said to be
exothermic. If energy is consumed during a reaction, ΔH will have a positive value; the reaction
is said to be endothermic.

The enthalpy change for a chemical change is independent of the method or path by which the
change is carried out as long as the initial and final substances are brought to the same temperature.
This observation, known as HESS'S LAW, has important practical utility.

Thermochemical equations may be treated as algebraic equations: they may be written in the
reverse direction with a change in the sign of ΔH – even though the reverse reaction may not
actually occur; they may be added and subtracted algebraically; the equation and associated
ΔH value may be multiplied or divided by factors. Hess's Law allows the calculation of enthalpy
changes that would be difficult or impossible to determine directly, i.e. by experiment.

The enthalpy change for the reaction:

(2) 2C (s) + O2 (g) → 2CO (g)

cannot be determined directly because carbon dioxide will also form. However, H can be
measured for:

(3) C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ΔH = –393.5 kJ

(4) 2CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) ΔH = –566.0 kJ

Multiplying equation (3) by 2 gives equation (5), and reversing equation (4) gives equation (6):

(5) 2C (s) + 2O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) ΔH = –787.0 kJ

(6) 2CO2 (g) ↔ 2CO (g) + O2 (g) ΔH = +566.0 kJ

Adding equations (5) and (6) gives the desired information:

(2) 2C (s) + O2 (g) → 2CO (g) ΔH = –221.0 kJ

For a reaction in which a compound is formed from the elements, the enthalpy change is called
the heat of formation, Hf o, for the compound. The superscript "o" indicates standard conditions
of one atmosphere pressure. Equation (2) and (3) are such reactions. Some others:

(7) S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g) ΔH = –296.9 kJ

(8) Mg (s) + Cl2 (g) → MgCl2 (s) ΔH = –641.8 kJ

In reactions (2), (3), (7), and (8) ΔH for the reaction is ΔHf o for the compound. For the reaction:

(9) 2S (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g) ΔH = –790.4 kJ

the heat of reaction is associated with the formation of two moles of SO3. But heat of formation
is per mole of compound, so ΔHfo for SO3 is half of –790.4, or –395.2 kJ.

Extensive listings of heats of formation are available in handbooks. With these values of H of ,
you can calculate virtually any heat of reaction. The heat of a reaction is the sum of H f o values
for the products minus the sum of ΔHfo values for the reactants. Expressed as a formula:

(10) ∆Hrxn = Σ∆H f products- Σ∆H f reactants

o ° ° o

Heats of formation for several compounds are given below. Note that the phase of the compound
is important when choosing a ΔHf
for a free element is zero.

o o
STANDARD HEATS OF FORMATION, H f , kJ/mole, at 25 C

AgCl (s) –127.1 Ca(OH)2 (s) –986.1 K3PO4 (aq) –2002.9

AgNO3 (aq) –100.7 Ca(OH)2 (aq) –1002.9 K2SO4 (aq) –1409.2
AlCl3 (s) –695.4 HCl (g) –92.3 MgCl2 (aq) –797.1
AlCl3 (aq) –1027.2 HCl (aq) –167.4 Mg(NO3)2 (aq) –875.1
Al(OH)3 (s) –1272.8 H2O (g) –241.8 NaCl (aq) –407.1
Al2(SO4)3 (aq) –3753.5 H2O (l) –285.8 NaHCO3 (s) –947.7
BaCl2 (aq) –873.2 H3PO4 (aq) –1294.1 NaNO3 (aq) –446.2
Ba(NO3)2 (aq) –951.4 H2SO4 (l) –814.0 NaOH (aq) –469.4
BaSO4 (s) –1473.2 H2SO4 (aq) –888.0 Na2SO4 (aq) –1387.0
CaCl2 (aq) –877.8 KOH (aq) –481.2 ZnCl2 (aq) –487.4

EXAMPLE: Using ΔH
f data calculate the heat of reaction for:
o

(11) AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

ΔH = [ΔHf AgCl (s) + ΔHf NaNO3 (aq)] – [ΔH

f AgNO3 (aq) + ΔH
f NaCl (aq)]
o o o o

= [(–127.0) + (–446.2)] – [(–100.7) + (–407.1)]

= [–573.2] – [–507.8] = –573.2 + 507.8 = –65.4 kJ

EXAMPLE Using ΔHf data calculate the heat of reaction for

o f

(12) 2 AgNO3 (aq) + MgCl2 (aq) → 2 AgCl (s) + Mg(NO3)2 (aq)

ΔH = [2 ΔHf AgCl (s) + ΔHf Mg(NO3)2 (aq)] – [2 f AgNO3 (aq) + ΔH MgCl2

o o ΔH o o (aq)]

= [2(–127.0) + (–875.1)] – [2(–100.7) + (–797.1)]

= [–1129.1] – [–998.5] = –1129.1 + 998.5 = –130.6 kJ

 Note: the values off ΔH o
chemical equation.

are multiplied by the stiochiometric coefficients from the balanced

(13) 2C (s) + O2 (g) → 2CO (g) ΔH = –221.0 kJ

(14) C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ΔH = –393.5 kJ
(15) 2H2 (g) + O2 → 2H2O (g) ΔH = –483.6 kJ
(16) 2H2 (g) + O2 → 2H2O (l) ΔH = –571.8 kJ

(17) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s) ΔH = –178.1 kJ

(18) 2Ca (s) + O2 (g) → 2CaO (g) ΔH = –1271.0 kJ

Using Hess' Law with appropriate equations from (13)-(18), above, calculate H for each
of the following reactions:

1) H2O (l) → H2O (g)

2) C (s) + H2O (g) → CO (g) + H2 (g)
3) Ca (s) + H2O (g) → CaO (s) + H2 (g)
4) CO (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
5) 2Ca (s) + 2C (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2CaCO3 (s)

Using heats of formation values from page T-56 calculate H for each of the following
reactions:

6) 2Al (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)

7) 2Al (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
8) 2Al (s) + 3ZnCl2 (aq) → 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3Zn (s)
9) 3BaCl2 (aq) + Al2(SO4)3 (aq) → 3BaSO4 (s) + 2AlCl3 (aq)
10) Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)
11) BaCl2 (aq) + 2AgNO3 (aq) → 2AgCl (s) + Ba(NO3)2 (aq)
12) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
13) 2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 6H2O (l)
14) AlCl3 (aq) + 3NaOH (aq) → Al(OH)3 (s) + 3NaCl (aq)
15) 3KOH (aq) + H3PO4 (aq) → K3PO4 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
Answers to Problems

1) +44.1 kJ 9) –76.9 kJ
2) +131.3 kJ 10) –19.2 kJ
3) –393.7 kJ 11) –130.8
4) –283.0 kJ 12) –111.7
5) –2414.2 kJ 13) –258.7
6) –1390.8 kJ 14) –58.7 kJ
7) –1089.5 kJ 15) –122.6
8) –592.2 kJ

1.9 Internal Energy of Combustion: It is defined as the difference between the internal
energy of the products and the internal energy of the reactants when complete
combustion occurs at a given temperature and pressure.
Uc = Up – UR

= Σp ne (hf + Δh – pv ) - ΣR ni (hf + Δh – pv )

1.10 Combustion efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of ideal fuel-air to the actual fuel-air ratio

ηcomb = (F/A) ideal

(F/A) actl

Example 8
Consider the following reaction, which occurs in a steady state, steady flow processes.

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O (l)

The reactants and products are each at total pressure of 0.1Mpa and 25oC. Determine the
heat transfer for per K mol of fuel entering the combustion chamber.

Solution : using the values of enthalpy of formation

Q = hf = Σp nehf - ΣR nihf

ΣR nihf = (hf) CH4 = -74873KJ

Σp nehf = (hf) CO2 + 2 (hf) H2O (l)
= - 393522+2 (-2852830) = - 965182KJ

Therefore Q = - 965182 – (-74873) = - 890309KJ

Example 9
A small gas turbine uses C8H18 ® as fuel and 400% theoretical air. The air and fuel
enters at 25oC and the products of combustion leaves at 900K. The output of the engine
and the fuel consumption are measured and it is found that the specific fuel consumption
is 0.25kg/Sec of fuel per MW out put. Determine the heat transfer from the engine per K
mol of fuel. Assume complete combustion
Solution:
The combustion equation is

C8H18 + 4 (12.5)O2 + 4 (12.5) ( 3.76)N2 - 8CO2 + 9H2O + 37.5O2 + 188N2

By first law

Q + ΣR ni (hf + Δh); = W + Σp ne (hf + Δh)

ΣR ni (hf + Δh) = (hf) C8H18 = 250105KJ/K mol fuel at 25oC

Considering the products

Σp ne (hf + Δh) = nCO2 (hf + Δh) CO2+ nH2O (hf + Δh) H2O + nO2 (Δh)O2 + nN2 (Δh)N2

hf of O2, N2 = O Δh = Enthalpy of formation from 298oK to 900K

Therefore Σp ne (hf + Δh) = 8 (- 393522+288030)+9(-241826+21892)

+37.5(19249)+188(18222) = -755769KJ/K mol fuel.
W = 1000(KW) X 114 Kg = 456920KJ/K mol
0.25 K mol

Therefore Q = -755769+456920- (-250105) = -48744KJ/K mol fuel

 CHAPTER 1

Testing of I.C.Engines
1.1. Introduction: - The basic task in the design and development of I.C.Engines is to
reduce the cost of production and improve the efficiency and power output. In order to
achieve the above task, the engineer has to compare the engine developed by him with
other engines in terms of its output and efficiency. Hence he has to test the engine and
make measurements of relevant parameters that reflect the performance of the engine. In
general the nature and number of tests to be carried out depend on a large number of
factors. In this chapter only certain basic as well as important measurements and tests are
described.

1.2. Important Performance Parameters of I.C.Engines:- The important performance

parameters of I.C. engines are as follows:

(i) Friction Power,

(ii) Indicated Power,

(iii) Brake Power,

(iv) Specific Fuel Consumption,

(v) Air – Fuel ratio

(vi) Thermal Efficiency

(vii) Mechanical Efficiency,

(viii) Volumetric Efficiency,

(ix) Exhaust gas emissions,

(x) Noise

1.3. Measurement of Performance Parameters in a Laboratory

1.3.1. Measurement of Friction Power:- Friction power includes the frictional losses
and the pumping losses. During suction and exhaust strokes the piston must move against
a gaseous pressure and power required to do this is called the “pumping losses”. The
friction loss is made up of the energy loss due to friction between the piston and cylinder
walls, piston rings and cylinder walls, and between the crank shaft and camshaft and their
bearings, as well as by the loss incurred by driving the essential accessories, such as
water pump, ignition unit etc.

Following methods are used in the laboratory to measure friction

power:

(i) Willan’s line method;

(ii) From the measurement of indicated power and brake power;

(iii) Motoring test;

(iv) Retardation test;

(v) Morse Test.

1.3.1.1. Willan’s Line Method:- This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation
method. In this method a graph of fuel consumption (vertical axis) versus brake power
(horizontal axis) is drawn and it is extrapolated on the negative axis of brake power (see
Fig. 1).The intercept of the negative axis is taken as the friction power of the engine at

1.0
Fuel 0.8
consumption
(g/s) 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

5 10 15 20 25
Brake power (kW)
Friction Power

Figure.1 Willan’s line method

that speed. As shown in the figure, in most of the power range the relation between the
fuel consumption and brake power is linear when speed of the engine is held constant and
this permits extrapolation. Further when the engine does not develop power, i.e. brake
power = 0, it consumes a certain amount of fuel. This energy in the fuel would have been
spent in overcoming the friction. Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the
horizontal axis will be the work representing the combined losses due to friction,
pumping and as a whole is termed as the frictional loss of the engine. This method of
measuring friction power will hold good only for a particular speed and is applicable
mainly for compression ignition engines.

The main draw back of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated
from data between 5 and 40 % load towards the zero line of the fuel input. The
directional margin of error is rather wide because the graph is not exactly linear.

1.3.1.2.From the Measurement of Indicated Power and Brake Power:- This is an ideal
method by which friction power is obtained by computing the difference between the
indicated power and brake power. The indicated power is obtained from an indicator
diagram and brake power is obtained by a brake dynamometer. This method requires
elaborate equipment to obtain accurate indicator diagrams at high speeds.

1.3.1.3.Morse Test:- This method can be used only for multi – cylinder IC engines. The
Morse test consists of obtaining indicated power of the engine without any elaborate
equipment. The test consists of making, in turn, each cylinder of the engine inoperative
and noting the reduction in brake power developed. In a petrol engine (gasoline engine),
each cylinder is rendered inoperative by “shorting” the spark plug of the cylinder to be
made inoperative. In a Diesel engine, a particular cylinder is made inoperative by cutting
off the supply of fuel. It is assumed that pumping and friction are the same when the
cylinder is inoperative as well as during firing.

In this test, the engine is first run at the required speed and the brake
power is measured. Next, one cylinder is cut off by short circuiting the spark plug if it is a
petrol engine or by cutting of the fuel supply if it is a diesel engine. Since one of the
cylinders is cut of from producing power, the speed of the engine will change. The engine
speed is brought to its original value by reducing the load on the engine. This will ensure
that the frictional power is the same.

If there are k cylinders, then

Total indicated power k

when all the cylinders are working = ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + …………...+ ipk = ∑ipj
j=1

k
We can write ∑ipj = Bt + Ft ………………………………………..(1)
j=1

where ipj is the indicated power produced by j th cylinder, k is the number of cylinders,
 Bt is the total brake power when all the cylinders are producing power and Ft is the total
frictional power for the entire engine.

If the first cylinder is cut – off, then it will not produce any power, but it will have
frictional losses. Then
k
we can write ∑ipj = B1 - Ft………………………………………..(2)
j=2

where B1 = total brake power when cylinder 1 is cut - off and

Ft = Total frictional power.

Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1) we have the indicated power of the cut off cylinder. Thus

ip1 = Bt – B1 ………………………………………..(3).

Similarly we can find the indicated power of all the cylinders, viz., ip2, ip3, …..ipk. Then
the total indicated power is calculated as
k
(ip)total = ∑ipj ……………………………………….(4)
j=1

The frictional power of the engine is therefore given by

Ft = (ip)total – Bt ……………………………………(5)

The procedure is illustrated by some examples worked out at the end of the chapter.

1.4. MEASUREMENT OF INDICATED POWER

The power developed in the cylinder is known as Indicated Horse Power and is designated
as IP.

The IP of an engine at a particular running condition is obtained from the indicator

diagram. The indicator diagram is the p-v diagram for one cycle at that load drawn with the
help of indicator fitted on the engine. The construction and use of mechanical indicator for
obtaining p-v diagram is already explained.

A typical p-v diagram taken by a mechanical indicator is shown in Figure 2.

 Figure.2 p-v diagram taken by mechanical indicator

The areas, the positive loop and negative loop, are measured with the help of a planimeter
and let these be Ap and An cm2 respectively, the net positive area is (Ap – An). Let the actual
length of the diagram as measured be L cm, then the average height of the net posiive area
is given by
h=(Ap-An)/L in centimetre

The height multiplied by spring-strength (or spring number) gives the indicated mean
effective pressure of the cycle.

Imep=(Ap-An)*S/L …..(6)

Where S is spring scale and it is defined as a force per unit area required to compress the
spring through a height of one centimeter (N/m2/cm).

Generally the area of negative loop An is negligible compared with the positive loop and it
cannot be easily measured especially when it is taken with the spring used for taking
positive loop. Special light springs are used to obtain the negative loop. When two
different springs are used for taking the p-v diagram of positive and negative loop, then the
net indicated mean effective pressure is given by

Pm=Ap*Sp/L-An*Sn/L ..…(7)

Where Sp = Spring strength used for taking p-v diagram of positive loop, (N/m2 per cm)
Sn = Spring strength used for taking p-v diagram of negative loop, (N/m2 per cm)
Ap = Area in Cm2 of positive loop taken with spring of strength Sp
An = Area in Cm2 of positive loop taken with spring of strength Sn
Sometimes spring strength is also noted as spring constant.
The IP developed by the engine is given by
IP=PmLAn/L …..(8)
Where ‘n’ is the number of working strokes per second.
The explanation of this expression is already given in the last chapter.

1.5. MEASUREMENT OF B.P

Part of the power developed in the engine cylinder is used to overcome the internal friction.
The net power available at the shaft is known as brake power and it is denoted by B.P. The
arrangement used for measuring the BP of the engine is described below:

(a) Prony Brake. The arrangement of the braking system is shown in Figure 3. It
consists of brake shoes made of wood and these are clamped on to the rim of the
brake wheel by means of the bolts. The pressure on the rim is adjusted with the
help of nut and springs as shown in Fig 2. A load bar extends from top of the brake
and a load carrier is attached to the end of the load bar. Weight kept on this load
carrier is balanced by the torque reaction in the shoes. The load arm is kept
horizontal to keep the arm length constant.

Figure.3

The energy supplied by engine to the brake is eventually dissipated as heat. Therefore,
most of the brakes are provided with a means of supply of cooling water to the inside rim of
the brake drum.

The BP of the engine is given by

B.P (brake power) = 2*π*N*T/60 watts =2*π*N*T/60*1000 Kw ….. (9)

Where T = (W.L) (N-m)
Where W = Weight on load carrier, (N)
And L = Distance from the centre of shaft to the point of load-meter in
meters.

The prony brake is inexpensive, simple in operation and easy to construct. It is, therefore,
used extensively for testing of low speed engines. At high speeds, grabbing and chattering
of the band occur and lead to difficulty in maintaining constant load. The main
disadvantage of the prony brake is its constant torque at any one band pressure and
therefore its inability to compensate for varying conditions.

1.5.1 Hydraulic Dynamometer.

The BP of an engine coupled to the dynamometer is given by

B.P (brake power) = 2*π*N*W*R/60*1000 = WN(2*π*R/60*1000) Kw

The working of a prony brake dynamometer is shown in figure 4

Figure.4 Hydraulic dynamometer

In the hydraulic dynamometer, as the arm length (R) is fixed, the factor [2 R/(60x1000)] is
constant and its value is generally given on the name plate of the dynamometer by the
manufacturer and is known as brake or dynamometer constant. Then the BP measured by
the dynamometer is given by
B.P = WN …..(10)
K
Where W = Weight measured on the dynamometer, N
K = Dynamometer constant (60*1000/2*pi*R)
and N = RPM of the engine.

The arm length ‘R’ is selected in such a way that K is a whole number.
These dynamometers are directly coupled with the engine shaft.

1.5.2 Electric Dynamometer:

The electric generator can also be used for measured BP of the engine. The output of the
generator must be measured by electrical instruments and corrected for generator
efficiency. Since the efficiency of the generator depends upon load, speed and temperature,
this device is rather inconvenient to use in the laboratory for obtaining precise
measurement. To overcome these difficulties, the generator stator may be supported in ball
bearing trunnions and the reaction force exerted on the stator of the generator may be
measured by a suitable balance. The tendency to rotate or the reaction of the stator will be
equal and opposite to the torque exerted on the armature, which is driven by the engine
which is shown in
Figure 5.

Figure.5

The electric dynamometer can also used as a motor to start and drive, the engine at various
speeds.

There are other types of dynamometers like eddy current dynamometer, fan brake and
transmission dynamometers used for measurement of large power output.

1.5.3 Eddy current Type Dynamomter

The ‘eddy-current’ dynamometer is an effect, a magnetic brake in which a toothed steel
rotor turns between the poles of an electromagnet attached to a trunioned stator. The
resistance to rotation is controlled by varying the current through the coils and hence, the
strength of the magnetic field. The flux tends to follow the smaller air gaps at the ends of
the rotor teeth and eddy currents are set up within the metal of the pole pieces, resulting in
heating the stator. The heat energy is removed by circulating water through a water jacket
formed in the stator. Figure 6 shows the “Heenan eddy-current dynamometer”.
 Figure.6
The power output of eddy-current dynamometer is given by the equation where C is eddy-
current dynamometer constant.

The advantages of eddy-current dynamometer are listed below:

1. High absorbing power per unit weight of dynamometer.

2. Level of field excitation is below 1% of the total power handled by the
dynamometer.
3. The torque development is smooth as eddy current developed smooth.
4. Relatively higher torque is provided under low speed conditions.
5. There is no limit to the size of dynamometer.

1.5.4 Swinging Field Dynamometer

The arrangement of swinging field dynamometer and corresponding diagram of electric
connections are shown in Figure 7.
 Figure.7

A swinging field DC dynamometer is basically a DC shunt motor. It is supported on

trunnion bearings to measure the reaction torque that the outer casing and field coils tend to
rotate with the magnetic drag. Therefore, it is named as “Swinging field”. The Torque is
measured with an arm and weighting equipment in the usual manner.

The choice of dynamometer depends on the use for which the machine is purchased. An
electric dynamometer is preferred as it can operate as motor used for pumping or generator
for testing the engine. Also, engine friction power can also be measured by operating the
dynamometer in the motoring mode.

An eddy-current or hydraulic dynamometer may be used because of low initial coast and an
ability to operate at high speeds. The armature of the electric dynamometer is large and
heavy compared with eddy-current dynamometer and requires strong coupling between
dynometer and engine.

1.6 MEASUREMENT OF I.P OF MULTI-CYLINDER ENGINE (MORSE TEST)

This method is used in multi-cylinder engines to measure I.P with out the use of indicator.
The BP of the engine is measured by cutting off each cylinder in turn. If the engine
consists of 4-cylinders, then the BP of the engine should be measured four times cutting
each cylinder turn by turn. This is applicable to petrol as well as for diesel engines. The
cylinder of a petrol engine is made inoperative by “shorting” the spark plug whereas in case
of diesel engine, fuel supply is cut-off to the required cylinder.

If there are ‘n’ cylinders in an engine and all are working, then
(B.P)n = (I.P)n – (F.P)n …..(11)
Where F.P is the frictional power per cylinder.
If one cylinder is inoperative then the power developed by that cylinder (IP) is lost and the
speed of the engine will fall as the load on the engine remains the same. The engine speed
can be resorted to its original value by reducing the load on the engine by keeping throttle
position same. This is necessary to maintain the FP constant, because it is assumed that
the FP is independent of load and depends only on speed of the engine.

When cylinder “1” is cut off; then

(B.P)n – 1 = (I.P)n – 1 – (F.P)n …..(12)
By subtracting Eq. (23.7) from Eq.(23.6), we obtain the IP of the cylinder which is not
firing i.e., (B.P)n – (B.P)n-1 = (IP)n – (IP)n-1 = I.P1
Similarly IP of all other cylinders can be measured one by one then the sum of IPs of all
cylinders will be the total IP of the engine.

This method of obtaining IP of the multicylinder engine is known as ‘Morse Test’.

1.8 MEASUREMENT OF FUEL CONSUMPTION

Two glass vessels of 100cc and 200cc capacity are connected in between the engine and
main fuel tank through two, three-way cocks. When one is supplying the fuel to the engine,
the other is being filled. The time for the consumption of 100 or 200cc fuel is measured
with the help of stop watch.

A small glass tube is attached to the main fuel tank as shown in figure. When fuel rate is to
be measured, the valve is closed so that fuel is consumed from the burette. The time for a
known value of fuel consumption can be measured and fuel consumption rate can be
calculated.

Fuel consumption kg/hr = Xcc X Sp. gravity of fuel

1000 x t

1.9 MEASUREMENT OF HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY COOLING WATER

The heat carried away by cooling water is generally measured by measuring the water flow
rate through the cooling jacket and the rise in temperatures of the water during the flow
through the engine.

The inlet and out let temperatures of the water are measured by the thermometers inserting
in the pockets provided at inlet to and outlet from the engine. The quantity of water
flowing is measured by collecting the water in a bucket for a specified period or directly
with the help of flow meter in case of large engine. The heat carried away by cooling water
is given by

Where Qw = Cpmw(Two – Twi) kJ/min.

Mw = mass of water/min.
Twi = Inlet temperature of water, oC
Two = Out let temperature of water, oC
Cp = Specific heat of water.

1.10 MEASUREMENT OF HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY EXHAUST GASES

The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel used can be calculated by using the equation if the
exhaust analysis is made
ma = NXC
33 (C1 + C2)
And heat carried away by the exhaust gas per kg of fuel supplied can be calculated as
Qg = (ma +1) Cpg (Tge – Ta) kJ/kg of fuel ….(16)
Where (ma + 1) = mass of exhaust gases formed per kg of fuel supplied to engine
Cpg = Specific heat of exhaust gases
Tge = Temperature of exhaust gases coming out from the engine oC.
Ta = Ambient temperature oC or engine room temperature.

The temperature of the exhaust gases is measured with the help of suitable thermometer or
thermocouple.

Another method used for measuring the heat carried away by exhaust gases is to measure
the fuel supplied per minute and also to measure the air supplied per minute with the help
of air box method. The addition of fuel and air mass will be equal to the mass of exhaust
gases.

And exhaust gas calorimeter is commonly used in the laboratory for the measurement of
heat carried by exhaust gases.

1.10.1Exhaust Gas Calorimeter

The exhaust gas calorimeter is a simple heat exchanger in which, part of the heat of the
exhaust gases is transferred to the circulating water. This calorimeter helps to determine
the mass of exhaust gases coming out of the engine.

The arrangement of the exhaust gas calorimeter is shown in fig. 23.5.

 Figure.8

The exhaust gases from the engine exhaust are passed through the exhaust gas calorimeter
by closing the valve B and opening the valve A. The hot gases are cooled by the water flow
rate is adjusted with the help of valve of ‘C’ to give a measurable temperature rise to water
circulated.

If it is assumed that the calorimeter is well insulated, there is no heat loss except by heat
transfer from the exhaust gases to the circulating water, then
Heat lost by exhaust gases = Heat gained by circulating water.
Therefore mg , Cpg (Tgi – Tgo) = mw. Cpw (Two – Twi)
Where Tgi = The temperature of the exhaust gases entering the calorimeter, oC
Tgo = The temperature of the exhaust gases leaving the calorimeter, oC
Twi = The temperature of water entering the calorimeter, oC
Two = The temperature of water leaving the calorimeter, oC
mw = Mass of water circulated through the exhaust gas calorimeter, generally
measured.
mg = Mass of exhaust gases (unknown)
Cpg = specific heat of exhaust gases.
Cpw = Specific heat of water.
C pw  Two − Twi 
∴ mg =  mw …(17)
C pg  Tgi − Tgo 

As all the quantities on the RHS are known the gas flow rate can be determined.
Then the heat carried away by the exhaust gases is given by
Qg = mg Cpg. (Tge – Ta) ….(18)
Where Tge = Temperature of exhaust gases just leaving the engine exhaust valve, oC
Ta = Ambient temperature, oC
Usually valve connections are provided as shown in figure so that the exhaust gases are
exhausted to the atmosphere during normal operation by closing the valve A and opening
the valve B. Only when the apparatus is to be used, the valve A is opened and valve B is
closed so that the gases pass through the calorimeter.

The heat carried by the gases is also given by

Qg = Heat carried by water passing through exhaust gas calorimeter + Heat in exhaust gases
above atmoshpheric temperature after leaving the exhaust gas calorimeter.
= mw Cpw (Two – Twi) + mg Cpg (Tgo – Ta) …(19)
If sufficient water is circulated to reduce the value of Tgo to very near to Ta, then the second
term on the RHs is small and,
Qg = mw Cpw (Two – Twi) ….(20)

1.11 HEAT BALANCE SHEET

A heat balance sheet is an account of heat supplied and heat utilized in various ways in the
system. Necessary information concerning the performance of the engine is obtained from
the heat balance.
The heat balance is generally done on second basis or minute basis or hour basis.
The heat supplied to the engine is only in the form of fuel-heat and that is given by
Qs = mf X CV
Where mf is the mass of fuel supplied per minute or per sec. and CV is the lower calorific
value of the fuel.
The various ways in which heat is used up in the system is given by
(a) Heat equivalent of BP = kW = kJ/sec. = 0 kJ/min.
(b) Heat carried away by cooling water
= Cpw X mw (Two – Twi) kJ/min.
Where mw is the mass of cooling water in kg/min or kg/sec circulated through the cooling
jacket and (Two – Twi) is the rise in temperature of the water passing through the cooling
jacket of the engine and Cpw is the specific heat of water in kJ/kg-K.
(c) Heat carried away by exhaust gases
= mg Cpg (Tge – Ta) (kJ/min.) or (kJ/sec)
Where mg is the mass of exhaust gases in kg/min. or kg/sec and it is calculated by using
one of the methods already explained.

Tg = Temperature of burnt gases coming out of the engine.

Ta = Ambient Temperature.
Cpg = Sp. Heat of exhaust gases in (kJ/kg-K)
(d) A part of heat is lost by convection and radiation as well as due to the leakage of
gases. Part of the power developed inside the engine is also used to run the accessories as
lubricating pump, cam shaft and water circulating pump. These cannot be measured
precisely and so this is known as unaccounted ‘losses’. This unaccounted heat energy is
calculated by the different between heat supplied Qs and the sum of (a) + (b) (c).

The results of the above calculations are tabulated in a table and this table is known as
“Heat Balance Sheet”. It is generally practice to represent the heat distribution as
percentage of heat supplied. This is also tabulated in the same heat balance sheet.
Heat input per minute kcal (kj) % Heat expenditure per kcal (kj) %
minute
Heat supplied by the Qs 100% (a) Heat in BP. -- --
combustion fuel (b) Heat carried by
jacket cooling -- --
water
(c) Heat Carried by
exhaust gases -- --
(d) Heat
unaccounted for -- --
= Qs – (a + b +
c)
Total Qs 100% 100%
A sample tabulation which is known as a heat balance sheet for particular load condition is
shown below:

NOTE: The heat in frictional FP (IP – BP) should not be included separately in heat
balance sheet because the heat of FP (frictional heat) will be dissipated in the cooling water,
exhaust gases and radiation and convection. Since each of these heat quantities are
separately measured and heat in FP is a hidden part of these quantities; the separate
inclusion would mean that it has been included twice.

The arrangement either for measuring the air or measuring the mass of exhaust gas is
sufficient to find the heat carried away by exhaust gases. In some cases, both arrangements
are used for cross-checking. Heat carried away by exhaust gases is calculated with the help
of volumetric analysis of the exhaust gases provided the fraction of carbon in the fuel used
is known.

1.12 . Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption: This is defined as the mass of fuel
consumption per hour in order to produce an indicated power of one kilo watt.
.
3600 m
Thus, indicated specific fuel consumption = isfc = --------------- kg/kWh …..(13)

ip

1.13.Brake Specific fuel consumption:- This defined as the mass of fuel consumed per
hour,
in order to develop a brake power of one kilowatt.
.
3600 m
Thus, brake specific fuel consumption = bsfc = --------------- kg/kWh ……..(14)
bp
1.14. Thermal Efficiency : There are two definitions of thermal efficiency as applied
to IC engines. One is based on indicated power and the other on brake power.The one
based on indicated power is called as ‘indicated thermal efficiency”, and the one based
on brake power is known as “brake thermal efficiency”.

Indicated thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of indicated power to the energy
available due to combustion of the fuel.
Indicated Power in kW
Thus ηith = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Mass flow rate of fuel in kg/s) x (Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg )

ip
Or ηith = --------------- ………………………………………………..(15)
m x CV

Similarly brake thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power to energy
available due to combustion of the fuel.

bp
Or ηbth = --------------- ………………………………………………..(16)
m x CV

1.15.Mechanical Efficiency: Mechanical efficiency takes into account the mechanical

losses in an engine. The mechanical losses include (i) frictional losses, (ii) power
absorbed by engine auxillaries like fuel pump, lubricating oil pump, water circulating
pump, magneto and distributor, electric generator for battery charging, radiator fan etc.,
and (iii) work requited to charge the cylinder with fresh charge and work for discharging
the exhaust gases during the exhaust stroke. It is defined as the ratio of brake power to
indicated power. Thus

bp

ηmech = -------- ……………………………(17)

ip

1.16. Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual mass of air
drawn into the cylinder during a given period of time to the theoretical mass which
 should have been drawn in during the same interval of time based on the total piston
displacement, and the pressure and temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.

Vactual
Thus ηv = ----------------- …………………………(18)
Vth

where n is the number of intake strokes per minute and Vs is the stroke volume of the
piston.

2. Illustrative examples:

Example 1:- The following observations have been made from the test of a four
cylinder, two – stroke petrol engine. Diameter of the cylinder = 10 cm; stroke = 15 cm;
speed = 1600 rpm; Area of indicator diagram = 5.5 cm2; Length of the indicator
diagram = 55 mm; spring constant = 3.5 bar/cm; Determine the indicated power of the
engine.

Given:- d = 0.1 m; L = 0.15 m ; No. of cylinders = K = 4; N = 1600 rpm; n = N (two –

stroke); a = 5.5 cm2; length of the diagram = ld = 5.5. cm; spring constant = ks = 3.5
bar/cm ;
To find: indicated power, ip.
 a ks
Solution: Indicated mean effective pressure = pim = ---------------
ld

5.5 x 3.5
or pim = -------------- = 3.5 bar = 3.5 x 10 5 N / m2
5.5

pim LAnK 3.5 x 105 x 0.15 x (π/4) x 0.12 x 1600 x 4

Indicated power = ip = ---------------- = ---------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 43.98 kW

Example 2:- A gasoline engine (petrol engine) working on Otto cycle consumes 8 litres
of petrol per hour and develops 25 kW. The specific gravity of petrol is 0.75 and its
calorific value is 44,000 kJ/kg. Determine the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine

Given:- Volume of fuel consumed/hour = y/t = 8 x 10 3 / 3600 cc/s ;

ip = 25 kW; CV = 44,000 kJ/kg;

Specific gravity of petrol = s = 0.75

To find: ηith ;
ys . 8 x 10 3 x 0.75
Solution: Mass of fuel consumed = m = ----- = --------------------- = 1.67 x 10 − 3 kg/s.
1000 t 1000 x 3600

ip 25
Indicated thermal efficiency = ηith = -------------- = ----------------------------
m CV 1.67 x 10 − 3x 44000

= 0.3402 = 34.02 %.

Example 2.3:- The bore and stroke of a water cooled, vertical, single-cylinder, four
stroke diesel engine are 80 mm and 110 mm respectively.The torque is 23.5 N-
m.Calculate the brake mean effective pressure.
What would be the mean effective pressure and torque if the engine rating is 4 kW at
1500 rpm?

Given:- Diameter = d = 80 x10 − 3 = 0.008 m ; stroke = L = 0.110 m; T = 23.5 N-m;

To find (i) bmep ; (ii) bmep if bp = 4 kw and N= 1500 rpm.

Solution: (i) Relation between brake power (bp) and brake mean effective pressure
(bmep) is given by

2πNT (bmep)LAn
bp = ------------ = ---------------
60,000 60,000

Hence bmep = (2πNT) / (LAn) = (2πNT) / {(Lπd2 /4) N/2}

16T 16 x 23.5
= ------------- = ---------------- = 5.34 x 10 5 N / m2 = 5.34 bar
d2L 0.08 2 x 0.11

(ii) when bp = 4 kw and N = 1500 rpm, we have

60,000 bp 60,000 x 4
bmep = -------------- = -------------------------------------------
LAn 0.110 x (π/4) x 0.08 2 x (1500 / 2)

= 5.79 x 10 5 N/m2 = 5.79 bar.

60,000 bp 60,000 x 4
Also bp = 2πNT / 60,000 or T = ---------------- = -------------------- = 25.46 N – m.
2πN 2 x π x 1500

Example 4:-Find the air fuel ratio of a four stroke, single cylinder, air cooled engine
with fuel consumption time for 10 cc is 20.4 s and air consumption time for 0.1 m3is 16.3
s. The load is 7 N at the speed of 3000 rpm. Find also the brake specific fuel
consumption in kg/kWh and brake thermal efficiency.Assume the density of air as 1.175
kg/m3 and specific gravity of the fuel to be 0.7. The lower heating value of the fuel is 43
MJ/kg and the dynamometer constant is 5000.

Given:- y = 10 cc ; t = 20.4 s ; Va = 0.1 m3; ta = 16.3 s ; W = 7 N ; N = 3000 rpm;

ρa = 1.175 kg/m3; s = 0.7 ; CV = 43 x 10 3 kJ/kg; Dynamometer constant = C = 5000.

To find:- (i) ma / mf ; (ii) bsfc ; (iii) ηbth.

0.1 x 1.175
Solution: (i) Mass of air consumed = ma = ---------------- = 7.21 x 10 − 3 kg/s.
16.3
ys 10 x 0.7
Mass of fuel consumed = mf = --------- = ------------------ = 0.343 x 10 − 3 kg/s
1000 t 1000 x 20.4
 ma 7.21 x 10 − 3
Air fuel ratio = --------- = ------------------- = 21
mf 0.343 x 10 − 3

7 x 3000
(ii) Brake power = bp = WN / C = ------------- = 4.2 kW
5000

mf x 3600 0.343 x 10 −3 x 3600

bsfc = ------------------- = ---------------------------- = 0.294 kg/kWh
bp 4.2

bp 4.2
(iii) bith = --------------- = ----------------------------------- = 0.2848 = 28.48 %.
mf CV 0.343 x 10 −3 x 43 x 10 3

Example 2.5:- A six cylinder, gasoline engine operates on the four stroke cycle. The bore
of each cylinder is 80 mm and the stroke is 100 mm. The clearance volume in each
cylinder is 70 cc. At a speed of 4000 rpm and the fuel consumption is 20 kg/h. The torque
developed is 150 N-m. Calculate (i) the brake power, (ii) the brake mean effective
pressure, (iii) brake thermal efficiency if the calorific value of the fuel is 43000 kJ/kg and
(iv) the relative efficiency if the ideal cycle for the engine is Otto cycle.

Given:- K = 6 ; n = N /2 ; d = 8 cm ; L = 10 cm ; Vc = 70 cc ; N = 4000 rpm ; mf = 20

kg/h ; T = 150 N-m ; CV = 43000 kJ/kg ;

To find:- (i) bp ; (ii) bmep ; (iii) ηbth ; (iv) η Relative.

Solution: 2π NT 2 x π x 4000 x 150 (i) bp =

------------ = --------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 62.8 kW

60,000 bp 60,000 x 62.8

(ii) bmep = -------------------- = --------------------------------------------
LAnK 0.1 x (π / 4) x 0.08 2 x (4000/2) x 6

= 6.25 x 10 5 N/m2 = 6.25 bar

bp 62.8
(iii) ηbth = ----------------------- = ------------------------------ = 0.263 = 26.3 %.
mf CV (20 / 3600) x 43,000
(iv) Stroke volume = Vs = (π / 4) d2 L = (π / 4) x 8 2 x 10 = 502.65 cc

Vs + Vc 502.65 + 70
Compression Ratio of the engine = Rc = ------------ = --------------------- = 8.18
Vc 70

Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle = η Otto = 1 – (1/ Rcγ – 1)

1
= 1 − ---------------------- = 0.568 = 56.8 %
8.18 0.4

Hence Relative efficiency = ηRelative = η bth / η Otto = 0.263 / 0.568 = 0.463 = 46.3 %.

Example 2.6:- An eight cylinder, four stroke engine of 9 cm bore, 8 cm stroke and with a
compression ratio of 7 is tested at 4500 rpm on a dynamometer which has 54 cm arm.
During a 10 minute test, the dynamometer scale beam reading was 42 kg and the engine
consumed 4.4 kg of gasoline having a calorific value of 44,000 kJ/kg. Air at 27 C and 1
bar was supplied to the carburetor at a rate of 6 kg/min. Find (i) the brake power, (ii) the
brake mean effective pressure, (iii) the brake specific fuel consumption, (iv) the brake
specific air consumption, (v) volumetric efficiency , (vi) the brake thermal efficiency and
(vii) the air fuel ratio.

Given:- K = 8 ; Four stroke hence n = N/2 ; d = 0.09 m; L = 0.08 m; Rc = 7; N = 4500

rpm; Brake arm = R = 0.54 m ; t = 10 min ; Brake load = W = (42 x 9.81) N

.
mf = 4.4 kg ; CV = 44,000 kJ/kg ; Ta = 27 + 273 = 300 K ; pa = 1 bar; ma = 6 kg/min;
. .
To find:- (i) bp ; (ii) bmep ; (iii) bsfc ; (iv) bsac ; (v) η v ; (vi) ηbth ; (vii) ma / mf

Solution:
2π NT 2π NWR 2 x π x 4500 x (42 x 9.81) x 0.54
(i) bp = ----------- = ------------ = --------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000 60,000

= 104.8 kW

60,000 bp 60,000 x 104.8

(ii) bmep = ------------- = ------------------------------------------------
LAnK 0.08 x (π / 4) x 0.09 2 x (4500 / 2) x 8

= 6.87 x 10 5 N/m2 = 6.87 bar.

 .
(iii) mass of fuel consumed per unit time = mf = mf / t = 4.4 x 60 / 10 kg/h

= 26.4 kg/h
.
mf 26.4
Brake specific fuel consumption = bsfc = ----------- = ------------- = 0.252 kg / kWh
bp 104.8
.
ma 6 x 60
(iv) brake specific air consumption = bsac = ------------- = ------------------
bp 104.8

= 3.435 kg / kWh

bp 104.8
(v) ηbth = --.-------------- = ----------------------------- = 0.325 = 32.5 %.
mf CV (26.4 / 3600) x 44,000
.
(vi) Stroke volume per unit time = Vs = (πd2/4) L n K

π
= ------ x (0.092) x 0.08 x (4500 / 2) x 8
4

= 9.16 m3 / min.
.
ma Ra Ta
. 6 x 286 x 300
Volume flow rate of air per minute = Va = ------------- = --------------------
pa 1 x 10 5

= 5.17 m3 / min
. .
Volumetric efficiency = ηv = Va / Vs = 5.17 / 9.16 = 0.5644 = 56.44 %.
. .
(vii) Air fuel ratio = ma / mf = 6 /(4.4 / 10) = 13.64

Example 2.7:- A gasoline engine working on four- stroke develops a brake power of 20.9
kW. A Morse test was conducted on this engine and the brake power (kW) obtained when
each cylinder was made inoperative by short circuiting the spark plug are 14.9, 14.3,
14.8 and 14.5 respectively. The test was conducted at constant speed. Find the indicated
power, mechanical efficiency and brake mean effective pressure when all the cylinders
are firing. The bore of the engine is 75mm and the stroke is 90 mm. The engine is running
at 3000 rpm.
Given:- brake power when all cylinders are working = Bt = 20.9 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 1 is inoperative = B1 = 14.9 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 2 is inoperative = B2 = 14.3 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 3 is inoperative = B3 = 14.8 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 4 is inoperative = B4 = 14.5 kW ;

N = 3000 rpm ; d = 0.075 m ; L = 0.09 m ;

To find:- (i) (ip)total ; (ii) ηmech ; (iii) bmep ;

Solution:

(i) (ip)total = ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + ip4 = (Bt – B1) + (Bt – B2) + (Bt – B3) + (Bt – B4)

= 4Bt – (B1 + B2 + B3 + B4) = 4 x 20.9 – (14.9 + 14.3 + 14.8 + 14.5)

= 25.1 Kw

Bt 20.9
(ii) ηmech = ------------- = --------- = 0.833 = 83.3 %
(ip)total 25.1

60,000 Bt 60,000 x 20.9

(iii) bmep = --------------- = --------------------------------------------------
LAnK 0.09 x (π / 4) x 0.075 2 x (3000 / 2) x 4

= 5.25 x 10 5 N / m2 = 5.25 bar.

Example 2.8:- The following observations were recorded during a trail of a four –
stroke, single cylinder oil engine.
Duration of trial = 30 min ; oil consumed = 4 litres ; calorific value of oil = 43 MJ/kg ;
specific gravity of fuel = 0.8 ; average area of the indicator diagram = 8.5 cm2; length of
the indicator diagram = 8.5 cm; Indicator spring constant = 5.5 bar/cm; brake load =
150 kg; spring balance reading = 20 kg; effective brake wheel diameter = 1.5 m ; speed
= 200 rpm ; cylinder diameter = 30 cm ; stroke = 45 cm ; jacket cooling water = 10
kg/min ; temperature rise of cooling water = 36 C. Calculate (i) indicated power, (ii)
brake power, (iii) mechanical efficiency, (iv) brake specific fuel consumption, (v)
indicated thermal efficiency, and (vi) heat carried away by cooling water.
 Given:- t = 30 min ; y = 4000 cc; CV = 43 x10 3 kJ/kg; s = 0.8 ; area of the diagram = a =

8.5 cm2; length of the diagram = ld = 8.5 cm ; indicator spring constant = ks = 5.5 bar /

cm; W = 150 x 9.81 N ; Brake radius = R = 1.5 / 2 = 0.75 m; N = 200 rpm ; d = 0.3 m ;
.
L = 0.45 m ; mw = 10 kg/min ; ∆Tw = 36 C; Spring Balance Reading = S = 20 x 9.81 N
.
To find:- (i) ip ; (ii) bp ; (iii) ηmech ; (iv) bsfc ; (v) ηith ; (vi) Qw

Solution:
a 8.5
(i) pim = ------- ks = ----------- x 5.5 = 5.5 bar = 5.5 x 105 N/m2
ld 8.5
pim L A n K 5.5 x 10 5 x 0.45 x (π / 4) x 0.32 x (200 / 2) x 1
ip = ------------------- = ------------------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 29.16 kW

2π N(W – S) R 2 x π x 200 x (150 – 20)x 9.81 x 0.75

(ii) bp = ----------------------- = ------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 20.03 kW

(iii) ηmech = bp / ip = 20.03 / 29.16 = 0.687 = 68.7 %.

. ys 4000 x 0.8
(iv) Mass of fuel consumed per hour = mf = ------------- x 60 = ------------------ x 60
1000 t 1000 x 30

= 6.4 kg / h.
. 6.4
bsfc = mf / bp = ------------- = 0.3195 kg/kWh
20.03

ip 29.16
(v) ηith = ---.--------- = -------------------------------- = 0.3814 = 38.14 %.
mf CV (6.4 / 3600) x 43 x 10 3
. .
(vi) Qw = m Cp ∆Tw = (10 / 60) x 4.2 x 36 = 25.2 kW
Example 2.9:- A four stroke gas engine has a cylinder diameter of 25 cm and stroke 45
cm. The effective diameter of the brake is 1.6 m.The observations made in a test of the
engine were as follows.
Duration of test = 40 min; Total number of revolutions = 8080 ; Total number of
explosions = 3230; Net load on the brake = 80 kg ; mean effective pressure = 5.8 bar;
Volume of gas used = 7.5 m3; Pressure of gas indicated in meter = 136 mm of water
(gauge); Atmospheric temperature = 17 C; Calorific value of gas = 19 MJ/ m3 at NTP;
Temperature rise of cooling water = 45 C; Cooling water supplied = 180 kg.
Draw up a heat balance sheet and find the indicated thermal efficiency and brake
thermal efficiency. Assume atmospheric pressure to be 760 mm of mercury.

Given:- d = 0.25 m ; L = 0.45 m; R = 1.6 / 2 =0.8 m; t = 40 min ; Ntotal = 8080 ;

Hence N = 8080 / 40 = 202 rpm ntotal = 3230 ;

Hence n = 3230 / 40 = 80.75 explosions / min; W = 80 x 9.81 N; pim = 5.8 bar ;

.
Vtotal = 7.5 m3; hence V = 7.5 / 40 = 0.1875 m3/min; pgauge = 136 mm of water (gauge);

Tatm = 17 + 273 = 290 K; (CV)NTP = 19 x 10 3 kJ/ m3 ; ∆Tw = 45 C;

.
mw = 180 / 40 = 4.5 kg/min; patm = 760 mm of mercury

To find:- (i) ηith ; (ii) ηbth ; (iii) heat balance sheet

Solution:
pim L A n K 5.8 x 10 5 x (π / 4) x 0.252 x 0.45 x 80.75
(i) ip = ------------------ = ----------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 17.25 kW.

2π N W R 2 x π x 202 x (80 x 9.81) x 0.8

bp = --------------------- = ------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 13.28 kW

Pressure of gas supplied = p = patm + pgauge = 760 + 136 / 13.6 = 770 mm of mercury
. .
Volume of gas supplied as measured at NTP = VNTP = V (TNTP / T)(p / pNTP)

0.1875 x 273 x 770

= -------------------------- = 0.17875 m3 / min
290 x 760
 . .
Heat supplied by fuel = Qf = VNTP (CV)NTP = 0.17875 x 19 x 103 = 3396.25 kJ/min

Heat equivalent of bp in kJ/min = 13.28 x 60 = 796.4 kJ/min

.
Heat lost to cooling water in kJ/min = mw Cp ∆Tw = 4.5 x 4.2 x 45 = 846.5 kJ/min

Friction power = ip – bp = 17.25 – 13.28 = 3.97 kW

Hence heat loss due to fiction, pumping etc. = 3.97 x 60 = 238.2 kJ/min

Heat lost in exhaust, radiation etc (by difference) = 3396.25 – (896.4 + 796.4 + 238.2)

= 1465.15 kJ/min

Heat Balance Sheet:

Item Heat Energy Input Heat Energy spent

No. (kJ/min) (percent) (kJ/min) (percent)

1 Heat supplied by fuel 3396.25 100.00

2 Heat equivalent of bp 896.4 26.4

3 Heat lost to cooling

Water 796.4 23.4

4 Heat equivalent of fp 238.2 7.0

5 Heat unaccounted
(by difference) 1465.15 43.2

Total 3396.25 100.0 3396.25 100.0

Example 2.10:- A test on a two-stroke engine gave the following results at full load.

Speed = 350 rpm; Net brake load = 65 kg ; mean effective pressure = 3 bar ; Fuel
consumption = 4 kg/h ; Jacket cooling water flow rate = 500 kg/h ; jacket water
temperature at inlet = 20 C ; jacket water temperature at outlet = 40 C ; Test room
temperature = 20 C ; Temperature of exhaust gases = 400 C; Air used per kg of fuel =
32 kg ; cylinder diameter = 22 cm ;stroke = 28 cm; effective brake diameter = 1 m ;
Calorific value of fuel = 43 MJ/kg ; Mean specific heat of exhaust gases = 1 kJ/kg –K.
Find indicated power, brake power and draw up a heat balance for the test in kW and in
percentage.
Given:- Two stroke engine. Hence n = N ; N = 350 rpm ; W = (65 x 9.81) N ;
. .
pim = 3 bar ; mf = 4 kg/h ; mw = 500 kg/h ; Twi = 20 C ; Two = 40 C ; Tatm = 20 C ;
. .
Teg = 400 C ; ma / mf = 32 ; d = 0.22 m ; L = 0.28 m ; Brake radius = R = ½ m ;

CV = 43,000 kJ/kg ; (Cp) eg = 1.0 kJ/(kg-K) ;

To find:- (i) ip ; (ii) bp ; and (iii) heat balance;

Solution: pim LAn 3 x 10 5 x 0.28 x (π/4) x 0.22 2 x 350

(i) ip = -------------- = ----------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 18.63 kW.

2π N WR 2 x π x 350 x (65 x 9.81) x 0.5

(ii) bp = ------------- = ---------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 11.68 kW.
.
(iii) Heat supplied in kW = mf CV = (4 / 3600) x 43,000

= 47.8 kW
.
Heat lost to cooling water = mw (Cp)w [Two – Twi]

= (500 / 3600) x 4.2 x [40 – 20]

= 11.7 kW.
. .
Heat lost in exhaust gases = (ma + mf) (Cp)eg [Teg – Tatm]

(32 + 1 ) x 4
= --------------- x 1.0 x [400 – 20]
3600

= 13.9 kW
Heat balance sheet:

Heat Input kW % Heat Expenditure kW %

Heat supplied by fuel 47.8 100 Heat in bp 11.68 24.4

Heat lost to cooling

Water 11.70 24.5

Heat lost to exhaust

Gases 13.90 29.1

Unaccounted heat
(by difference) 10.52 22.0

Total 47.80 100 Total 47.80 100.0

 Refrigeration
Definition
Refrigeration is the process of providing and maintaining temperature of the system
below that of the surrounding atmosphere.
Carnot Cycle
The reversed carnot cycle can be considered in refrigeration system.

T2
C.O.P = where T2 < T1
T2 − T1

Unit of Refrigeration
The common unit used in the field of refrigeration is known as Ton of
refrigeration.
A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat required to be
removed to produce one ton (1000kg) of ice within 24 hours when the initial
condition of water is 0ºC
1000 x335
Ton of refrigeration = = 3.5 kJ/s
24 x3600
Consider a refrigerator of T tons capacity,
Refrigeration capacity = 3.5 kJ/s
Heat removed from
refrigerator = Refrigeration effect =R.E. kJ/s
Power of the compressor =work/kg of refrigerant x mass flow rate

Air Refrigeration system working on

Bell-coleman cycle

In air refrigeration system, air is used as the refrigerant which always remains in the
gaseous phase. The heat removed consists only of sensible heat and as a result, the
coefficient of performance (C.O.P) is low.
The various processes are:
Process 1-2:
The air leaving the evaporator enters a compressor. Where it is compressed
isentropically to higher pressure and temperature.
Process 2-3:
This high pressure, high temperature air, then enters a cooler where it is cooled at
constant pressure to a low temperature.
Process 3-4: This high pressure, low temperature air is then expanded in an expander to
lower pressure and temperature in a isentropic manner.At point 4, the temperature of the
air will be lowest.
Process 4-1: This low temperature air is then passed through the heater coils where it
absorbs heat from the space to be cooled namely the refrigerator and the air gets heated
back to the initial temperature, but in the process, it cools the refrigerator. And the cycle
repeats.
Air refrigeration system

Expression C.O.P when compression and expansion are Isentropic

Refrigeration Effect = Heat removed from the refrigerator
= C p (T1 − T4 )kJ / kg
 P V − PV   P V − P V 
Work input = WC − WE = γ  2 2 1 1  − γ  3 3 4 4 
 γ −1   γ −1 

 γ 
Work input = WC − WE =  [R(T2 − T1 ) − R(T3 − T4 )]
 γ −1 
 γR 
Wnet =  [(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )]
 γ −1 
γR
But Cp =
γ −1
Wnet = C p [(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )]
 Pr ocess 1 - 2 is isentropic
γ −1
T2  P2 γ
=  - - - -(2)
T1  P1 
Pr ocess 3 - 4 is isentropic
γ −1 γ −1
T3  P3 γ P γ
=   =  2  - - - -(3)
T4  P4   P1 
From (2) and (3)
T2 T3
=
T1 T4

RE C p (T1 − T4 )
C.O.P = =
Work C p [(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )]

C.O.P =
(T1 − T4 ) =
1
− −(1)
[(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )] T2 − T3 − 1
T1 − T4
T2 T1
=
T3 T4
T2 T
−1 = 1 −1
T3 T4
T2 − T3 T1 − T4
=
T3 T4
T2 − T3 T3
= - - - - - (4)
T1 − T4 T4

From (1) and (4)

1
C.O.P =
T3
−1
T4
T4
C.O.P =
T3 - T4
For Polytropic process
Net work
 n  γ − 1 
Wnet =   C p [(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )]
 n − 1  γ 
T4
COP =
(T3 − T4 ) n  γ − 1 
 n − 1  γ 

Advantages of air refrigeration system

1. Air is cheap, easily available.
2. It is not flammable.
3. For a given capacity, weight of air refrigeration system is less compared to other
system and hence it is widely used for aircraft cooling.
Disadvantages
1. Since heat removed by air consists only of sensible heat, weight of air required is
high.
2. C.O.P of the system is low compared to other systems.
Problem 1
A cold storage is to be maintained at -5°C (268k) while the surroundings are at 35°C. the
heat leakage from the surroundings into the cold storage is estimated to be 29kW. The
actual C.O.P of the refrigeration plant is one third of an ideal plant working between the
same temperatures. Find the power required to drive the plant. (VTU Jan
2007)

Solution : -
T1 = 35°C = 308k T2 = 5°C = 268k
C.O.P of the ideal plant is nothing but
C.O.P based on carnot cycle.
T2
∴ C.O.P ideal =
T1 − T2
268
= = 6.7
308 − 268
 1
Actual C.O.P = idealC.O.P
3
1
= x6.7 = 2.233
3

Q2 = The heat removed from low temperature reservoir (cold storage) must be equal to
heat leakage from surroundings to the cold storage(which is 29kw)

Q2 = 29kW
Q2
Actual C.O.P =
W
Q2 29
W= =
Actual C.O.P 2.233
Power required = 12.98 kW

Problem 2
A refrigeration machine of 6 tones capacity working on Bell coleman cycle has an upper
limit pressure of 5.2 bar. The pressure and temperature at the start of the compression are
I bar and 18°C respectively. The cooled compressed air enters the expander at 41°C.
assuming both expansion and compression to be adiabatic with an index of 1.4.
Calculate:-
(i) Co-efficient of performance.
(ii) Quantity of air circulated per minute.
(iii) Piston displacement of compressor and expander
(iv) Bore of compression and expansion cylinder when the unit runs at 240 rpm and is
double acting with stroke length =200 mm
(v) Power required to drive the unit

Solution : -
T1 = 18°C P1 = 1bar
T3 = 41°C P2 = 5.2bar
Work input = C p [(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )]
= 1.005[(466 − 291) − (314 − 196 )] = 57 kJ / kg

Re griferation effect
C.O.P =
Work input
95.42
= = 1.67
57
Re frigeration capacity = 6 tons = 6x3.5 = 21kJ/s

Re griferation capacity
Mass of air/sec =
R.E
21
= = 0.22kg / s
95.42
Power required = workdone/kg of air x Mass of air/sec
= 57 x 0.22 = 12.54kW
Mass of air/min = 0.22x60 = 13.2kg/min

mRT1 13.2 x0.287 x 291

V1 = = 2
= 11m3 / min
P1 1x10
Piston displacement of compressor V1 = 11m3 / min
mRT4 13.2 x0.287 x196
V4 = = 2
= 7.42m3 / min
P4 1x10
Piston displacement of expander V4 = 7.42m3 / min
π
But V1 = 2 d12 LN
4
π
11 = 2 d12 x0.2 x 240
4
d1 = diameter of compressor cylinder = 0.38m = 38cm
π
V4 = 2 d 22 LN
4
π
7.42 = 2 d12 x0.2 x 240
4
d1 = diameter of expander cylinder = 0.313m = 31.3cm
 Problem3 An air refrigerator system operating on Bell Coleman cycle, takes in air from
cold room at 268 K and compresses it from 1 bar to 5.5 bar the index of compression
being 1.25. the compressed air is cooled to 300 K. the ambient temperature is 20ºC. Air
expands in expander where the index of expansion is 1.35.
Calculate:
i) C.O.P of the system
ii) Quantity of air circulated per minute for production of 1500 kg of ice per day at
0°C from water at 20ºC.
iii) Capacity of the plant.

Solution
γ −1
P  γ 1.25−1
T2 = T1  2  = 268(5.5) 1.25
 P1 
= 376.8K

γ −1 1.35−1
P γ  1  1.35
T4 = T3  4  = 300  = 192.83K
 P3   5.5 

 n  γ − 1 
WC =   C p (T2 − T1 )
 n − 1  γ 
 1.25  1.4 − 1 
=  1.005(376.8 − 268) = 156.2kJ / kg
 1.25 − 1  1.4 

 n  γ − 1 
WE =   C p (T3 − T4 )
 n − 1  γ 
 1.35  1.4 − 1 
=  1.005(300 − 192.83) = 118.69kJ / kg
 1.35 − 1  1.4 

Network = WC − WE = 156.2 − 118.69 = 37.5kJ / kg

R.E = C p (T1 − T4 ) = 1.005(268 − 192.83) = 75.54kJ / s
RE 75.54
C.O.P = = =2
work 37.5
Heat extracted/kg of ice = C pw (20 − 0) + L
= 4.187(20) + 335 = 418.74kJ/kg
1500
Mass of ice produced/sec = = 0.0173kg / s
24x3600

Actual heat extracted/sec = 418.74x0.0173

7.26
or Refrigeration capacity = 7.26kJ/s = = 2.02tons
3.5
Refrigeration Capacity 7.26
Mass flow rate = =
Refrigeration efect 75.54
= 0.096kg / s

Problem 4
An air refrigeration system is to be designed according to the following specifications
Pressure of air at compressor inlet=101kPa
Pressure of work at compressor outlet=404kPa
Pressure loss in the inter cooler=12kPa
Pressure loss in the cold chamber=3kPa
Temperature of air at compressor inlet=7°
Temperature of air at turbine inlet=27°

Isentropic efficiency of compressor =85%

Isentropic efficiency of turbine =85%
Determine
i) C.O.P of cycle
ii) Power required to produce 1 ton of refrigeration
iii) Mass flow rate of air required for 1 ton of refrigeration

Solution : -
T1 = −7°C P1 = 101kPa
T3 = 27°C ηT = 0.85;ηC = 0.85

γ −1
P  γ
Pr ocess 1 - 2 is isentropic, HenceT '2 = T1  2 
 P1 
1.4 −1
 404  1.4
= 266  = 395.4K
 101 
 T2 − T1 395.4 − 266
ηC = orT '2 −T1 =
T '2 −T1 0.88
T '2 = 418.2k
P4 − P1 = 0.03P1 ∴ P4 = 1.03P1 = 1.03 x101 = 104kPa
P2 − P3 = 0.03P2 ∴ P3 = 0.97 P2 = 0.97 x 404 = 392kPa
γ −1
P  γ
Pr ocess 3 - 4 is isentropic, ∴T4 = T3  4 
 P3 
1.4 −1
 104  1.4
= 300  = 202.3K
 392 

T3 − T '4
ηE = ∴T '4 = T3 − ηT (T3 − T4 )
T3 − T4
T '4 = 300 − 0.85 x[300 − 205.3] = 216.53k
Re frigeration effect/kg of air = C p (T1 − T4 )
= 1.005x[266 - 216.53] = 50.47 kJ/kg
Compressor work/kg of air = C p (T '2 −T1 )
= 1.005x[418.2 - 266] = 152.96kJ/kg

Turbine work/kg of air WT = C p (T3 − T4 ')

= 1.005x[300 - 216.53] = 84.9kJ/kg
Net work Input/kg of air Wnet = WC − WT
= 152.96 − 80.9 = 72.06kJ / kg

RE 46.73
C.O.P = = = 0.73
Work 72.06

Power required per tons of refergeration

Refrigeration capacity
=
C.O.P
Refrigeration capacity = 1 ton = 3.5kJ/s
Refrigeration capacity
Mass of air =
RE
3.5
= = 0.075kg / s
50.47
Power = Wnet xmassofair / sec = 72.06 x0.075 = 5.42kW
 Pscychrometrics and Air-conditioning Systems

Problem 1
Moist air at 30°C,1.01325 bar has a relative humidity of 80%. Determine without
using the psychrometry chart
1) Partial pressures of water vapour and air
2) Specific humidity
3) Specific Volume and
4) Dew point temperature (V.T.U. July2004)

Solution : At 30°C from table pυs = 4.2461kPa

pυ
φ=
pυs
pυ = 0.8 x 4.2461 = 3.397 kPa
0.622 pυ 3.397
ω= = 0.622 x
p − pυ 101.325 − 3.397
= 0.213 kg/kg of dry air.
Corresponding to Pv =3.397 kPa from tables, we get dew point temperature = 28.9°C

Problem 2:
Atmospheric air at 101.325 kPa ha 30°C DBT and 15°C DPT. Without using the
pschrometric chart, using the property values from the table, Calculate
1. Partial pressure of air and water vapour
2. Specific humidity
3. Relative humidity
4. Vapour density and
5. Enthalpy of moist air
Solution :
p = 101.325kpa = 1.01325bar
DBT = 30°C ,
DPT = 15°C
From table
Corresponding to DBT = 30°C, we have pυs = 0.042461bar
Corresponding to DPT = 15°C, we have pυ = 0.017051bar
Partial pressure of air = p - pυ = 1.01325 − 0.017051
= 0.984274 bar
 pυ 0.622 x0.017051
Specific humidity = 0.622 =
pa 0.984274
= 0.01077kJ/kg of dry air
p 0.017051
Re lative humidity = υ = = 0.4015
pυs 0.042461
= 40.15%
Enthalphy = 1.005t db + ω (2500 + 1088t db )
= 1.005x30 + 0.010775(2500 + 1.88x30)
= 57.69kj/kg of dry air

RT
Specific volume of dry air, υa =
P
0.2872x303
= = 0.874m3 / kg
0.98425 x100
ω 0.010775
Vapour density ρ w = = = 0.12kg / m 3
υa 0.847

Problem 3:
Air at 30°C DBT and 25°C WBT is heated to 40°C. if the air is 300 m3/min, find
the amount of heat added/min and RH and WBT of air. Take air pressure to be 1 bar
Solution:
At 25°C WBT from tables pwswbt=0.03166 bar

( p − pυswbt )(tdb − twb )

∴ pυ = ( PVS ) wbt −
1547 − 1.44twb
(1 - 0.03166)(30 - 25)
= 0.03166 -
1547 − 1.44 x 25
= 0.0284 bar
p
ω1 = 0.622 υ
p − pυ
 0.0284 
= 0.622 
 1 − 0.0284 
= 0.0179kJ / kg of dry air
At 40°C DBT
PVS = 0.07375bar
During sensible heating ω and pυ remain constant
pυ = 0.0284bar
pυ 0.0284
RH = φ = =
pυs 0.07375
= 0.385 = 38.5%
H 2 = 1.005 x 40 + 0.0179(2500 + 1.88 x 40)
= 86.29kJ/kg of dry air
( p − pυ )V
Weight of 300m 3 / min ofair =
RT
2
(1 - 0.0284)x300x10
= = 335.18kg / min
0.287 x303
∴ Heat added/min = 335.18(86.29 - 76) = 3449kJ/min
From chart WBT = 27.2°C

Problem 4:
One stream of air at 5.5m3/min at 15°C and 60% RH flows into another stream of
air at 35m3/min at 25°C and 70%RH, calculate for the mixture
1) Dry bulb temperature, 2) Wet bulb temperature 3) Specific Humidity and 4)
Enthalpy
Solution:
For air at 15°C and 60%RH, V=5.5m3/min

∴ pυs = 0.017051bar
pυ
RH = φ =
pυs
∴ pυ = 0.6 x0.017051 = 0.01023bar
(p - pυ )V (1.01325 − 0.01023) x10 2 x5.5
Mass of air = =
RT 0.287 x 288
m1 = 6.672kg / min
0.622 pυ 0.622 x0.01023
ω1 = =
(p - pυ ) (1.01325 − 0.01023)
= 0.006343kg / kg of dry air
 H1 = 1.005t db + ω1 (2500 + 1.88t db )
= 1.008x18 + 0.006343(2500 + 1.88x15)
= 34.12J/kg of dry air
For air at 25°C and 70% RH, V = 35m 3 / min
Pυs = 0.03169bar
pυ
φ = RH =
pυs
pυ = 0.03169 x0.7 = 0.02218bar

H1 = 1.005t db + ω1 (2500 + 1.88t db )

= 1.008x18 + 0.006343(2500 + 1.88x15)
= 34.12J/kg of dry air
For air at 25°C and 70% RH, V = 35m 3 / min
Pυs = 0.03169bar
pυ
φ = RH =
pυs
pυ = 0.03169 x0.7 = 0.02218bar

(1.01325 - 0.02218x10 2 x35)

Mass of air =
0.287 x 298
m 2 = 40.55kg. min
0.622 x0.02218
ω2 = = 0.01392kg / kg of dry air
(1.01325 − 0.02218)
H 2 = (1.005 x 25) + 0.01392(2500 + 1.88 x 25)
H 2 = 60.59kJ / kg of dry air
Mass of dry air/Unit mass of moist air
m1 6.672
m a1 = = = 6.6299
1 + ω1 1 + 0.006343

m2 40.55
Since m a2 = = = 39.993
1 + ω2 1 + 0.01392
Then enthalpy of the mixed air,
m ( H ) + ma 2 ( H 2 )
H mix = a1 1
m1 + m2
6.6299(34.12) + 39.993(60.56)
=
6.672 + 40.55)
= 55.96 kJ/kg of dry air
Specific Humidity of the mixed air,
m (ω ) + ma 2 (ω2 )
ωmix = a1 1
m1 + m2
(6.6299x0.006343) + (39.993x0.01932)
=
6.672 + 40.55
= 0.01268kg/kg of dry air
But H mix = 1.005t db + ωmix (2500 + 1.88t db )
55.96 = 1.005 xtdb + 0.01234(2500 + 1.88t db )
t db = 24.42°C

DBT of the mixture = 24.42°C

From chart WBT = 19°C
RH = 67%

Problem 5:
An air conditioning system is designed under the following conditions
Outdoor conditions: 30°CDBT, 75% RH
Required indoor conditions: 22°CDBT,70% RH
Amount of Free air circulated 3.33 m3/s
Coil dew point temperature DPT=14°
The required condition is achieved first by cooling and dehumidification and then
by heating. Estimate

1) The capacity of the cooling coil in tons of refrigeration

2) Capacity of the heating coil in kW
3) The amount of water vapour removed in kg/hr
Solution:

Locate point ' a' 30°C DBT, 75%RH out door condition
Locate point ' d' 22°C DBT, 70%RH required condition
Locate point ' b' 14°C DPT, coil surface temperature
Join ab
at d, draw a horizontal line to cut the
line ab at point c.
ac → cooling and dehumidification
cd → heating
 From chart
H a = 83kJ / kg of air
H b = 40kJ / kg of air
H d = 53kJ / kg of air
H c = 48kJ / kg of air
Wa = 0.0202kg / kg of dry air
Wc = Wd = 0.0118kg / kg of dry air
Vsa = 0.88m3 / kg
V 3.33
Mass of air = = = 3.78kg / s
Va 0.88
ma (H a − H c )
Capacity of cooling coil =
3.5
3.78(83 − 48)
= = 37.84tons of refrigeration
3.5
Capacity of heating coil = m a ( H d − H c )
= 3.78(53 - 48) = 18.92kW
Amount of water vapour removed = m a (ωa − ωd )3600
= 3.78(0.0202 - 0.0118)3600
= 114.3kg/hr

Problem 6:
A summer air conditioning system for hot and humid weather (DBT=32°Cand
70% RH)
Consists in passing the atmosphere air over a cooling coil where the air is cooled
and dehumidified. The air leaving the cooling coil is saturated at the coil temperature. It
is then sensibly heated to the required comfort condition of 24°C and 50%RH by passing
it over an electric heater then delivered to the room.
Sketch the flow diagram of the arrangement and represent the process undergone
by the air on a skeleton psychometric chart and determine
1) The temperature of the cooling coil
2) The amount of moisture removed per kg of dry air in the cooling coil.
3) The heat removed per kg of dry air in the cooling coil and
4) The heat added per kg of dry air in the heating coil

From chart
H a = 86kJ / kg of air
H b = 38kJ / kg of air
H c = 48.5kJ / kg of air
ωa = 0.021kg / kg of dry air
ωb = 0.0092kg / kg of dry air
 The temperature of the cooling
coil = Tb = 13°C
Amount of moisture removed = ωa − ωb
= 0.021 - 0.0092 = 0.0108kg/kg of dry air
Heat removed = H a − H b = 86 − 38
= 48 kJ/kg of dry air
Heat added = H c − H b = 48.5 − 38
= 10.5 kJ/kg of dry air

Locate point ' a' 32°C , 70%RH out door condition

Locate point ' c' 24°C DBT, 50%RH required condition
At c draw a horizontal line to cut the saturation
line at point ' b'
Join ab
ab → cooling and dehumidification
bc → heating

Problem 7

It is required to design an air conditioning plant for an office room with the following
conditions.
Outdoor conditions: 14°CDBT, 10°CWBT
Required conditions: 20°CDBT,60% RH
Amount of air circulated 0.3m3/min/person
Starting capacity of the office= 60

The required condition is achieved first by heating and then by adiabatic humidifying.
Determine the following.
Heating capacity of the coil in kW and the surface temperature required, if the by pass
factor of the coil is 0.4
Capacity of the humidifier.

Locate point ' a' 14°C , and 10°CWBT (out door condition)
Locate point ' c' 20°C DBT, 60%RH required condition
At a draw a horizontal line
At ' c' draw a constant enthalpy line to cut the
horozontal line at point ' b'
Join ab
ab → heating
bc → adiabatic humidification
 From chart
H a = 30kJ / kg of air
H b = H c = 43kJ / kg of air
ωa = ωb = 0.006kg / kg of dry air
ωc = 0.00875 kg/kg of dry air
Specific volome Vsa = 0.8175m3 / kg
0.3x60
Volume of air supplied = V = = 0.3m3 / sec
60
V 0.3
Weight of air supplied m a = =
Va 0.8175
= 0.3669kg/sec
Capacity of the heating coil = m a ( H b − H a )
= 0.3669(43 - 30) = 4.77kW
From chart Tb = 26.5°C
Let coil surface temperature be Td

Td − Tb
By passing factor = = 0.4Td − 5.6 = Td − 26kJ
Td − Ta
Td − 26.5
0.4 =
Td − 1.4
Td = 34.8°C
Capacity of the humidifier = m a (ωc − ωb ) x3600
= 0.3669(0.00875 - 0.006)3600
= 3.63kg/hour

Problem 8

An air conditioned system is to be designed for a hall of 200 seating capacity when the
following conditions are given:
Atmospheric condition = 300C DBT and 50% RH
Indoor condition = 220C DBT and 60% RH
Volume of air required = 0.4m3/min/person
The required condition is achieved first by chemical dehumidification and after
that by sensible cooling.
Find the following .
a) DBT of the air leaving the dehumidifier.
b) The quantity of water vapour removed in the duhumidifier per hour.
c) The capacity of cooling coil in tons of refrigeration.
d) Surface temperature of the coil if the by pass factor of the coil is 0.25.
Solution:

a
ω
c
d b

220C 300C

DBT

Locate point ‘a’, 300C DBT, 50% RH, the atmospheric condition.
Locate point ‘c’, 220C DBT, 60% RH, the required indoor condition.
“Since chemical dehumidification process follows constant enthalpy line”
at a draw a line parallel to constant enthalpy line.
At ‘c’ draw a constant ω line to cut the previous line at point b.
a) DBT of air leaving the dehumidifier Tb = 40.50C
From chart
Hb = Ha = 65kJ/kg, ωa = 0.013 kg/kg of dry air
Hc = 45 kJ/kg, ωb = 0.009 kg/kg of dry air
Vsa = 0.875 m3/min
Volume of air = 200 X 0.4 = 80 m3/min
Wa = Weight of air = V/Vsa = 80/0.875 = 91.42 kg/min

b) Quantity of water vapour removed/hour = Wa(ωa-ωb)60

= 91.42(0.13-0.009)60 = 21.94 kg/hr
c) Capacity of cooling coil = Wa(Ha-Hb)/ (60 X 3.5) = 91.42(65-45)/(60 X 3.5)
= 8.7 tons

d) By pass factor = (Tc-Td)/( Tb-Td) = 0.25

Td = Temperature of cooling coil = 15.830C

Problem 9

An air conditioned system is to be designed for a cinema hall of 1000 seating capacity
when the following conditions are given:
Outdoor condition = 110C DBT and 70% RH
Required indoor condition = 200C DBT and 60% RH
Amount of air required = 0.3m3/min/person
The required condition is achieved first by heating, then by humidifuing and finaly by
heating. The condition of air coming out of the humidifier is 75% RH.
Find the following .
a) Heating capacity of the first heater in kW and condition of the air coming out of
the first heater in kW and condition of the air

Solution:

a
ω
c
d b

220C 300C

DBT

Locate point ‘a’, 300C DBT, 50% RH, the atmospheric condition.
Locate point ‘c’, 220C DBT, 60% RH, the required indoor condition.
“Since chemical dehumidification process follows constant enthalpy line”
at a draw a line parallel to constant enthalpy line.
At ‘c’ draw a constant ω line to cut the previous line at point b.
e) DBT of air leaving the dehumidifier Tb = 40.50C
From chart
Hb = Ha = 65kJ/kg, ωa = 0.013 kg/kg of dry air
Hc = 45 kJ/kg, ωb = 0.009 kg/kg of dry air
Vsa = 0.875 m3/min
Volume of air = 200 X 0.4 = 80 m3/min
Wa = Weight of air = V/Vsa = 80/0.875 = 91.42 kg/min

f) Quantity of water vapour removed/hour = Wa(ωa-ωb)60

= 91.42(0.13-0.009)60 = 21.94 kg/hr
g) Capacity of cooling coil = Wa(Ha-Hb)/ (60 X 3.5) = 91.42(65-45)/(60 X 3.5)
= 8.7 tons

h) By pass factor = (Tc-Td)/( Tb-Td) = 0.25

Td = Temperature of cooling coil = 15.830C

 Reciprocating Compressor

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Compressors are work absorbing devices which are used for increasing pressure of fluid at
the expense or work done on fluid.

The compressors used for compressing air are called air compressors. Compressors are
invariably used for all applications requiring high pressure air. Some of popular applications
of compressor are, for driving pneumatic tools and air operated equipments, spray painting,
compressed air engine, supercharging surface cleaning, refrigeration and air conditioning,
chemical industry etc. compressors are supplied with low pressure air (or any fluid) at inlet
which comes out as high pressure air (or any fluid) at outlet. Work required for increasing
pressure of air is available from the prime mover driving the compressor. Generally, electric
motor, internal combustion engine or steam engine, turbine etc. are used as prime movers.
Compressors are similar to fans and blowers but differ in terms of pressure ratios. Fan is said
to have pressure ratio up to 1.1 and blowers have pressure ratio between 1.1 to 4 while
compressors have pressure ratios more than 4.
5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

Table-5.1 Types of Compressors

Compressors can be classified in the following different ways.
(a) Based on principle of operation: Based on the principle of operation compressors
can be classified as.
(i) Positive displacement compressor.
(ii) Non-positive displacement compressors.

In positive displacement compressors the compression is realized by displacement of solid

boundary and preventing fluid by solid boundary from flowing back in the direction of
pressure gradient. Due to solid wall displacement these are capable of providing quite large
pressure ratios. Positive displacement compressors can be further classified based on the type
of mechanism used for compression. These can be
(i) Reciprocating type positive displacement compressors
(ii) Rotary type positive displacement compressors.

Reciprocating compressors generally, employ piston-cylinder arrangement where

displacement of piston in cylinder causes rise in pressure. Reciprocating compressors are
capable of giving large pressure ratios but the mass handling capacity is limited or small.
Reciprocating compressors may also be single acting compressor or double acting
compressor. Single acting compressor has one delivery stroke per revolution while in double
acting there are two delivery strokes per revolution of crank shaft. Rotary compressors
employing positive displacement have a rotary part whose boundary causes positive
displacement of fluid and thereby compression. Rotary compressors of this type are available
in the names as given below;
(i) Roots blower
(ii) Vane type compressors
Rotary compressors of above type are capable of running at higher speed and can handle
large mass flow rate than reciprocating compressors of positive displacement type.

Non-positive displacement compressors, also called as steady flow compressors use dynamic
action of solid boundary for realizing pressure rise. Here fluid is not contained in definite
volume and subsequent volume reduction does not occur as in case of positive displacement
compressors. Non-positive displacement compressor may be of ‘axial flow type’ or
‘centrifugal type’ depending upon type of flow in compressor.
(b) Based on number of stages: Compressors may also be classfied on the basis of number
of stages. Generally, the number of stages depend upon the maximum delivery pressure.
Compressors can be single stage or multistage. Normally maximum compression ratio of 5 is
realized in single stage compressors. For compression ratio more than 5 the multistage
compressors are used.

Type values of maximum delivery pressures generally available from different type of
compressor are,
(i) Single stage Compressor, for delivery pressure upto 5 bar.
(ii) Two stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 5 to 35 bar
(iii) Three stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 35 to 85 bar.
(iv) Four stage compressor, for delivery pressure more than 85 bar

(c) Based on Capacity of compressors : Compressors can also be classified depending upon
the capacity of Compressor or air delivered per unit time. Typical values of capacity for
different compressors are given as;
(i) Low capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity of 0.15 m3/s or less
(ii) Medium capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity between 0.15 to 5 m3/s.
(iii) High capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity more than 5 m3/s

(d) Based on highest pressure developed: Depending upon the maximum pressure available
from compressor they can be classified as low pressure, medium pressure, high pressure and
super high pressure compressors. Typical values of maximum pressure developed for
different compressors are as under:
(i) Low pressure compressor, having maximum pressure upto 1 bar
(ii) Medium pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 1 bar to 8 bar
(iii) High pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 8 to 10 bar
(iv) Super high pressure compressor, having maximum pressure more than 10 bar.
5.3 Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor has piston cylinder arrangement as shown Fig.5.1

Fig.5.1 Reciprocating Compressor

Reciprocating Compressor has piston, cylinder, inlet valve, exit valve, connecting rod, crank,
piston pin, crank pin and crank shaft. Inlet valve and exit valves may be of spring loaded
type which get opened and closed due to pressure differential across them. Let us consider
piston to be at top dead centre (TDC) and move towards bottom dead centre (BDC). Due to
this piston movement from TDC to BDC suction pressure is created causing opening of inlet
valve. With this opening of inlet valve and suction pressure the atmospheric air enters the
cylinder.
Air gets into cylinder during this stroke and is subsequently compressed in next stroke with
both inlet valve and exit valve closed. Both inlet valve and exit valves are of plate type and
spring loaded so as to operate automatically as and when sufficient pressure difference is
available to cause deflection in spring of valve plates to open them. After piston reaching
BDC it reverses its motion and compresses the air inducted in previous stroke. Compression
is continued till the pressure of air inside becomes sufficient to cause deflection in exit valve.
At the moment when exit valve plate gets lifted the exhaust of compressed air takes place.
This piston again reaches TDC from where downward piston movement is again
accompanied by suction. This is how reciprocating compressor. Keeps on working as flow
device. In order to counter for the heating of piston-cylinder arrangement during
compression the provision of cooling the cylinder is there in the form of cooling jackets in the
body. Reciproting compressor described above has suction, compression and discharge as
three prominent processes getting compelted in two strokes of piston or one revolution of
crank shaft.

5.4 Thermodynamic Analysis

Compression of air in compressor may be carried out following number of thermodynamic

processes such as isothermal compression, polytropic compressor or adiabatic compressor.
Fig.16.3 shows the thermodynamic cycle involved in compressor. Theoretical cycle is shown
neglecting clearance volume but in actual cycle clearance volume can not be negligible.
Clearance volume is necessary in order to prevent collision of piston with cylinder head,
accommodating valve mechanism etc., Compression process is shown by process1-2, 1-21,
1-211 and 1-2111 following isothermal, polytropic and adiabatic processes.
 Fig.5.2 P-V diagram for Reciprocating Compressor without Clearance
On P-V diagram process 4-1 shows the suction process followed by compression during 1-2
and discharge through compressor is shown by process 2-3.

Air enters compressor at pressure p1 and is compressed upto p2. Compression work
requirement can be estimated from the area below the each compression process. Area on p-
V diagram shows that work requirement shall be minimum with isothermal process 1-2”.
Work requirement is maximum with process 1-2 ie., adiabatic process. As a designer one
shall be interested in a compressor having minimum compression work requirement.
Therefore, ideally compression should occur isothermally for minimum work input. In
practice it is not possible to have isothermal compression because constancy of temperature
during compression can not be realized. Generally, compressors run at substantially high
speed while isothermal compression requires compressor to run at very slow speed so that
heat evolved during compression is dissipated out and temperature remains constant.
Actually due to high speed running of compressor the compression process may be assumed
to be near adiabatic or polytropic process following law of compression as pVn=C with of ‘n’
varying between 1.25 to 1.35 for air. Compression process following three processes is also
shown on T-s diagram in Fig.16.4. it is thus obvious that actual compression process should
be compared with isothermal compression process. A mathematical parameter called
isothermal efficiency is defined for quantifying the degree of deviation of actual compression
process from ideal compression process. Isothermal efficiency is defined by the ratio is
isothermal work and actual indicated work in reciprocating compressor.
 Isothermal work
Isothermal efficiency =
Actual indicated Work

Practically, compression process is attempted to be closed to isothermal process by air/water

cooling, spraying cold water during compression process. In case of multistage compression
process the compression in different stages is accompanied by intercooling in between the
stages. P2 V2

Mathematically, for the compression work following polytropic process, PVn=C. Assuming
negligible clearance volume the cycle work done.
Wc = Area on p-V diagram
  p V − p1V1 
Wc =  p2V2 +  2 2  − p1V1
n − 1 
1
 

 n  
=  [ p 2V2 − p1V1 ]
 n − 1  
 n  p V 
= ( p1V1 ) 2 2 − 1
 n −1  p1V1 
  n −1 
  
 n    
− 1
 n 
( p1V1 ) 
p
= 2

 −  
n 1  1
p
 
  n −1 
  
 n    p2   n  
= (mRT1 )  −1

 n −1  p1 
 
 n 
= (mR )(T2 − T1 )
 n −1

In case of compressor having isothermal compression process, n = 1, ie., p1V1 = p2V2

Wiso = p 2V2 + p1V1 ln r − p1V1
V
Wiso = p1V1 ln r , where, r = 1
V2
In case of compressor having adiabatic compression process,

 γ 
Wadiabatic =  (mR )(T2 − T1 )
 γ −1
Or

Wadiabatic = (mC p )(T2 − T1 )

Wadiabatic = (m )(h2 − h1 )
 p1V1 ln r
η iso =
 n −1

 n   
( p1V1 )  − 1
 p n
 2

 n −1
 1 
p


The isothermal efficiency of a compressor should be close to 100% which means that actual
compression should occur following a process close to isothermal process. For this the
mechanism be derived to maintain constant temperature during compression process.
Different arrangements which can be used are:
(i) Faster heat dissipation from inside of compressor to outside by use of fins over
cylinder. Fins facilitate quick heat transfer from air being compressed to
atmosphere so that temperature rise during compression can be minimized.
(ii) Water jacket may be provided around compressor cylinder so that heat can be
picked by cooling water circulating through water jacket. Cooling water
circulation around compressor regulates rise in temperature to great extent.
(iii) The water may also be injected at the end of compression process in order to cool
the air being compressed. This water injection near the end of compression
process requires special arrangement in compressor and also the air gets mixed
with water and needs to be separated out before being used. Water injection also
contaminates the lubricant film inner surface of cylinder and may initiate
corrosion etc, The water injection is not popularly used.
(iv) In case of multistage compression in different compressors operating serially, the
air leaving one compressor may be cooled upto ambient state or somewhat high
temperature before being injected into subsequent compressor. This cooling of
fluid being compressed between two consecutive compressors is called
intercooling and is frequently used in case of multistage compressors.

Considering clearance volume: With clearance volume the cycle is represented on Fig.5.3
The work done for compression of air polytropically can be given by the are a enclosed in
cycle 1-2-3-4. Clearance volume in compressors varies from 1.5% to 35% depending upon
type of compressor.
 2
3

4 1

V
Fig.5.3 P-V diagram for Reciprocating Compressor with Clearance

Wc,with CV = Area 1234

  n −1 
    n −1

      n 
    
( p1V1 )  ( p 4V4 )  − 1

n p n p n
= 2
−1 −  3

 n −1   n −1
 1   p4 
p
  
Here P1 = P4, P2 = P3
  n −1 
    n −1

 n    p2   
  n   p2  n
( p1V1 )  ( p V )   − 1

n
= −1 − 
 n −1   n − 1  1 4  p 
 1   1 
p
 

  n −1 
  
 n    
− 1 (V1 − V4 )
 n 
( p1 ) 
p
= 2

 −  
 1 
n 1 p


In the cylinder of reciprocating compressor (V1-V4) shall be the actual volume of air
delivered per cycle. Vd = V1 – V4. This (V1 – V4) is actually the volume of air in hated in the
cycle and delivered subsequently.
   n −1 
  
 n    
− 1
 n 
( p1Vd ) 
p
Wc ,withCV = 2

 −  
 1 
n 1 p


If air is considered to behave as perfect gas then pressure, temperature, volume and mass can
be inter related using perfect gas equation. The mass at state 1 may be given as m1 mass at
state 2 shall be m1, but at state 3 after delivery mass reduces to m2 and at state 4 it shall be
m2.
So, at state 1, p1V1 = m1 RT1
at state 2, p 2V2 = m1 RT2
at state 3, p3V3 = m2 RT3 or p 2V3 = m2 RT3

at state 4, p 4V4 = m2 RT4 or p1V4 = m2 RT4

Ideally there shall be no change in temperature during suction and delivery
i.e., T4 = T1 and T2 = T3 from earlier equation

  n −1 
  
 n    p2   n  
Wc ,withCV =  ( p1 )  − 1 (V1 − V4 )

 n −1  p1 
 
Temperature and pressure can be related as,
( n −1) ( n −1) ( n −1)
 p2  n T2 p  n T4  p1  n T4
  = and  4  =   =
 p1  T1  p3  T3  p2  T3

Substiuting
 n  T 
Wc ,withCV =  (m1 RT1 − m2 RT4 ) 2 − 1
 n −1  T1 
Substituting for constancy of temperature during suction and delivery.

 n  T − T 
Wc ,withCV =  (m1 RT1 − m2 RT1 ) 2 1 
 n −1  T1 
Or
 n 
Wc ,withCV =  (m1 − m2 )R(T2 − T1 )
 n −1
Thus (m1-m2) denotes the mass of air sucked or delivered. For unit mass of air delivered the
work done per kg of air can be given as,
  n 
Wc ,withCV =   R(T2 − T1 ) per kg of air
 n −1

Thus from above expressions it is obvius that the clearance volume reduces the effective
swept volume i.e., the masso f air handled but the work done per kg of air delivered remains
unaffected.

From the cycle work estimated as above the theoretical power required for running
compressor shall be,

For single acting compressor running with N rpm, power input required, assuming clearance
volume.
   n −1 
   
  
 2  n   
− 1 p1 (V1 − V4 ) (N )
n p
Powerrequired =     
n − 1   p1 
   

For double acting compressor, Power

   n −1 
   
 n   p 2   n   
Powerrequired =     − 1 p1 (V1 − V4 ) (2 N )
n − 1   p1  
   

Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric efficiency of compressor is the measure of the deviation

from volume handling capacity of compressor. Mathematically, the volumetric efficiency is
given by the ratio of actual volume of air sucked and swept volume of cylinder. Ideally the
volume of air sucked should be equal to the swept volume of cylinder, but it is not so in
actual case. Practically the volumetric efficiency lies between 60 to 90%.

Volumetric efficiency can be overall volumetric efficiency and absolute volumetric efficiency
as given below.

Volume of free air sucked in cylinder

Overall volumetric efficiency =
Swept volume of LP cylinder

(Volumetric efficiency)freeaircondition =
Volume of free air sucked in cylinder
(Swept volume of LP cylinder) freeaircondition
Here free air condition refers to the standard conditions. Free air condition may be taken as 1
atm or 1.01325 bar and 15oC or 288K. consideration for free air is necessary as otherwise the
different compressors can not be compared using volumetric efficiency because specific
volume or density of air varies with altitude. It may be seen that a compressor at datum level
(sea level) shall deliver large mass than the same compressor at high altitude.

This concept is used for giving the capacity of compressor in terms of ‘free air delivery’
(FAD). “Free air delivery is the volume of air delivered being reduced to free air conditions”.
In case of air the free air delivery can be obtained using perfect gas equation as,
p aVa p1 (V1 − V4 ) p 2 (V2 − V3 )
= =
Ta T1 T2

Where subscript a or pa, Va, Ta denote properties at free air conditions

p1Ta p1 (V1 − V4 )
Va = = FAD per cycle
pa T1
This volume Va gives ‘free air delivered’ per cycle by the compressor.

Absolute volumetric efficiency can be defined, using NTP conditions in place of free air
conditions.
FAD Va p T (V − V )
η vol = = = 1 a 1 4
Sweptvolume (V1 − V2 ) p aT1 (V1 − V3 )

 p T  (Vs + Vc ) − V4 
η vol =  1 a  
 p aT1  Vs 

Here Vs is the swept volume = V1 – V3

Vc is the clearance volume = V3
 p T   V   V 
η vol =  1 a 1 +  c  −  4 
 p aT1   Vs   Vs 
V V V V V 
Here 4 = 4 ⋅ c =  4 ⋅ c 
Vs Vc Vs  V3 Vs 
Vc
Let the ratio of clearance volume to swept volume be given by C. =
Vs

 p T   V 
η vol =  1 a 1 + C − C  4 
 p aT1   V3 
  p1Ta   p 2  n 
1

η vol =  1 + C − C   
 p aT1   p1  
Volumetric efficiency depends on ambient pressure and temperature, suction pressure and
temperature, ratio of clearance to swept volume, and pressure limits. Volumetric efficiency
increases with decrease in pressure ratio in compressor.

ηvol

Pressure ratio
Fig.5.4 Volumetric efficiency v/s Pressure ratio
Multistage Compression

Intercoolers

in
out

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Fig.5.5 Multistage Compressor with inter coolers

 4
3

5 2
P

1
6

V
Fig.5.6 P-V diagram for Multistage Compressor

Multistage compression refers to the compression process completed in more than one stage
i.e., a part of compression occurs in one cylinder and subsequently compressed air is sent to
subsequent cylinders for further compression. In case it is desired to increase the
compression ratio of compressor then multi-stage compression becomes inevitable. If we
look at the expression for volumetric efficiency then it shows that the volumetric efficiency
decreases with increase in pressure ratio. This aspect can also be explained using p-V
representation shown in Fig.5.6.

Therefore, the volumetric efficiency reduces with increasing pressure ratio in compressor
with single stage compression. Also for getting the same amount of free air delivery the size
of cylinder is to be increased with increasing pressure ratio. The increase in pressure ratio
also requires sturdy structure from mechanical strength point of view fro withstanding large
pressure difference.

The solution to number of difficulties discussed above lies in using the multistage
compression where compression occurs in parts in different cylinders one after the other.
Fig.16.6b, shows the multistage compression occurring in two stages. Here first stage of
compression occurs in cycle 12671 and after first stage compression partly compressed enters
second stage of compression and occurs in cycle 2345. In case of multistage compression the
compression in first stage occurs at low temperature and subsequent compression in
following stages occurs at higher temperature. The compression work requirement depends
largely upon the average temperature during compression. Higher average temperature

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during compression has larger work requirement compared to low temperature so it is always
desired to keep the low average temperature during compression.

Apart from the cooling during compression the temperature of air at inlet to compressor can
be reduced so as to reduce compression work. In multistage compression the partly
compressed air leaving first stage is cooled upto ambient air temperature in intercooler and
then sent to subsequent cylinder (stage) for compression. Thus, intercoolers when put
between the stages reduce the compression work and compression is called intercooled
compression. Intercooling is called perfect when temperature at inlet to subsequent stages of
compression is reduced to ambient temperature. Fig.16.6c, shows multi-stage (two stage)
intercooled compression. Intercooling between two stages causes temperature drop from 2 to
2’ i.e discharge from first stage (at 2) is cooled upto the ambient temperature stage (at2’)
which lies on isothermal compression process 1-2’-3”. In the absence of intercooling the
discharge from first stage shall enter at 2. Final discharge from second stage occurs at 3’ in
case of intercooled compression compared to discharge at 3 in case of non-intercooled
compression. Thus, intercooling offers reduced work requirement by the amount shown by
area 22’3’3 on p-V diagram. If the intercooling is not perfect then the inlet state to
second/subsequent stage shall not lie on the isothermal compression process line and this
stage shall lie between actual discharge state from first stage and isothermal compression
line.

Fig.16.7 shows the schematic of multi stage compressor (double stage) with inter cooler
between stage T-s representation is shown in Fig.16.8. The total work requirement for
running this shall be algebraic summation of work required for low pressure (LP) and high
pressure (HP) stages. The size of HP cylinder is smaller than LP cylinder as HP cylinder
handles high pressure air having smaller specific volume.

Mathematical analysis of multistage compressor is done with following assumptions:

(i) Compression in all the stages is done following same index of compression and
there is no pressure drop in suction and delivery pressures in each stage. Suction
and delivery pressure remains constant in the stages.
(ii) There is perfect intercooling between compression stages.
 (iii) Mass handled in different stages is same i.e, mass of air in LP and HP stages are
same.
(iv) Air behaves as perfect gas during compression.

From combined p-V diagram the compressor work requirement can be given as,

( n −1)
 
 n  
 2 n
P  
Work requirement in LP cylinder, WLP =  P1V1   − 1
 n −1  P1  
 

( n −1)
 
 n   P2  n 
Work requirement in HP cylinder, WHP =  P2V2   − 1
 n −1  P1  
 

For perfect intercooling, p1V1 = p2V2’ and

( n −1)
 
 n   P2  n 
WHP =  
 P2V2 '    − 1
 n −1  P1  
 
Therefore, total work requirement, Wc = WLP + WHP, for perfect inter cooling

 ( n −1)
   n −1

  
 2   
 2' n 
− 1 + P2V2 '   − 1
n P n P
WC =    P1V1  
 n −1  P1    P2  
    

 ( n −1)
   n −1

 n   P2    P2 '  n 
− 1 + P1V1   − 1
n
=   P1V1  
 n −1  P1    P2  
    

 n −1 n −1

 n     
 P1V1   +   − 2
 P n P n
WC =  2 2'

 − 
 1   P1 
n 1 P

Power = Wc X N - Watts

If we look at compressor work then it shows that with the initial and final pressures p1 and P2’
remaining same the intermediate pressure p2 may have value floating between p1 and P2’ and
change the work requirement Wc. Thus, the compressor work can be optimized with respect
to intermediate pressure P
2. Mathematically, it can be differentiated with respect to P2.
   n −1 n −1

dWC d  n  
 2P  n  P  n

=    
 n − 1  P1V1  P  +  P  − 2
2'

dP2 dP2
  1   2 
 

  n −1 n −1

dWC  n  d  P2  n  P2 '  n 
=   P1V1   +   − 2
dP2  n −1 dP2  P1   P2  
  

dWC  n   n − 1  1−n −1
 n −1 1− n 1− 2 n 
=  P1V   P1 n ⋅ P2 n −   ⋅ P2 ' n ⋅ P2 n 
dP2  n − 1   n   n  
Equating to zero yields
1− n −1 1− n 1− 2 n
P1 n ⋅ P2 n = ⋅P2 ' n ⋅ P2 n
−2 + 2 n 1− n n −1
P2 n = ⋅P2 ' n ⋅ P1 n

 n −1   n −1 
= (P1 ⋅ P2 ' )
2  
P2  n  n 

= (P1 ⋅ P2 ' ), P2 = P1 ⋅ P2 '

2
P2
Pressure ratio in Ist stage = Pressure ratio in IInd stage
Thus, it is established that the compressor work requirement shall be minimum when the
pressure ratio in each stage is equal.
In case of multiple stages, say i number of stages, for the delivery and suction pressures of
Pi +1 and P1 the optimum stage pressure ratio shall be,
1
P  i
Optimum stage pressure ratio =  i +1  for pressure at stages being P1, P2, P3,……Pi-1, Pi,
 P1 
Pi+1
Minimum work required in two stage compressor can be given by

( n −1)
 
 n   P2  n 
WC ,min =  P1V1 ⋅ 2  − 1
 n −1  P1  
 

For i number of stages, minimum work,

( n −1)
 
 n   Pi +1  n⋅i 
WC ,min = i ⋅  P1V1   − 1
 n −1  Pi  
 
It also shows that for optimum pressure ratio the work required in different stages remains
same for the assumptions made for present analysis. Due to pressure ration being equal in all
stages the temperature ratios and maximum temperature in each stage remains same for
perfect intercooling.

Cylinder dimensions: In case of multistage compressor the dimension of cylinders can be

estimated basing upon the fact that the mass flow rate of air across the stages remains same.
For perfect intercooling the temperature of air at suction of each stage shall be same.

If the actual volume sucked during suction stroke is V1, V2, V3. . . . for different stages they
by perfect gas law, P1 V1 = RT1, P2 V2 = RT2, Pc, V3 = RT3
For perfect intercooling

P1 V1 = RT1, p2 V2 = RT1, p3, V3 = RT1

P1 V1 = P2 V2 = RT2, P3, V3 = . . . . .

If the volumetric efficiency of respective stages in ηV1 ,ηV2 ,ηV3 ,....

V1
Then theoretical volume of cylinder1, V1,th = ;V1 = ηV1 ⋅ V1,th
ηV 1

V1
Cylinder 2, V2,th = ;V2 = ηV2 ⋅ V2,th
ηV 1

V3
Cylinder 3, V3,th = ;V3 = ηV 3 ⋅ V3,th
ηV 3

Substituting,
P1 ⋅ηV1 ⋅ V1,th = P2 ⋅ηV2 ⋅ V2,th = P3 ⋅ηV3 ⋅ V3,th = ...
Theoretical volumes of cylinder can be given using geometrical dimensions of cylinder as
diameters D1, D2, D3 . . . and stroke lengths L1, L2, L3 . . . .
π
V1,th = ⋅ D1 ⋅ L1
2
Or
4
π
V2,th = ⋅ D2 ⋅ L2
2

4
π
V3,th = ⋅ D3 ⋅ L3
2

4
π π
P1 ⋅ηVi ⋅ ⋅ D1 ⋅ L1 = P2 ⋅ηV 2 ⋅ ⋅ D2 ⋅ L2
2 2
Or
4 4
 π
= P3 ⋅ηV 3 ⋅ ⋅ D3 ⋅ L3 = ...
2

4
π π
P1 ⋅ηV 1 ⋅ ⋅ D1 ⋅ L1 = P2 ⋅ηV 2 ⋅ ⋅ D2 ⋅ L2
2 2

4 4
= P3 ⋅ηV 3 ⋅ D3 ⋅ L3 = ...
2

If the volumetric efficiency is same for all cylinders, i.e ηV 1 = ηV 2 = ηV 3 = ... and stroke for
all cylinder is same i.e. L1 = L2 = L3 = ...

D1 P1 = D2 P2 = D3 P3 = ...
2 2 2
Then,

These generic relations may be used for getting the ratio of diameters of cylinders of
multistage compression.

Energy balance: Energy balance may be applied on the different components constituting
multistage compression.

For LP stage the steady flow energy equation can be written as below:
m ⋅ h1 + WLP = m ⋅ h2 + QLP

QLP = WLP − m(h2 − h1 )

QLP = WLP − m ⋅ C p (T2 − T1 )

For intercooling (Fig. 5.5) between LP and HP stage steady flow energy equation shall be;
m ⋅ h2 = m ⋅ h2 ' + QInt
QInt = m(h2 − h2 ' )
QInt = m ⋅ C p (T2 − T2 ' )
For HP stage (Fig.5.5) the steady flow energy equation yields.
m ⋅ h2 ' + WHP = m ⋅ h3' + QHP
QHP = WHP + m(h2 ' − h3' )
QHP = WHP + m ⋅ C p (T2 ' − T3' ) = WHP − m ⋅ C p (T3' − T2 ' )
In case of perfect intercooling and optimum pressure ratio, T2 ' = T1 and T2 = T3'
Hence for these conditions,
QLP = WLP − m ⋅ C p (T2 − T1 )
QInt = m ⋅ C p (T2 − T1 )
QHP = WHP − m ⋅ C p (T2 − T1 )
Total heat rejected during compression shall be the sum of heat rejected during compression
and heat extracted in intercooler for perfect intercooling.

γ −n
Heat rejected during compression for polytropic process =   × Work
 γ −1 
 UNIT-5
Air Compressors

Review of equations
Work done in a single stage compressor

 P  n 
n −1

n n
= P1V1  2  − 1 = mR(T2 − T1 )
n −1  P1   n −1
 
Work done in a two stage compressor for perfect inter cooling

 P  2 n 
n −1

2n
= P1V1  3  − 1
n −1  P1  
 
Work done in a two stage compressor

PT   P n 
1

ηυ = 1 a 1 + c − c 2  
PaT1   P1  


Volumetric Efficiency
 P  n   P  n 
n −1 n −1

n n
= P1V1  2  − 1 + P2V2  2  − 1
n −1  P1   n −1  P2  
   

Problem 1
A single stage acting air compressor 30 cm bore and 40 cm stroke is running at a speed of
100 RPM. It takes in air at 1 bar and 20ºC and drive it when the compresses it to a
pressure of 5 bar. Find the power required to drive it when compression is (i) isothermal
(ii) PV1.2 = C and (iii) adiabatic. Also find the isothermal efficiencies for the cases (ii)
and (iii) Neglect clearance.
N1 = 100 RPM , d = 30cm
L = 40cm P1 = 1 bar
T1 = 20°C P = 5 bar
2
Π Π
Vs = d 2 L = 0.32 χ 0.4
4 4
= 0.028 m / cycle
3

100
V1 = Vs = 0.028 χ= 0.047 m 3 / s
60
2
PV 1x10 x0.047
m= 1 1 = = 0.055 kg/s
RT1 0.287 x 293
(i ) Isothermal PV = C
P2 P
Power = P1V1 Ln = mRT1 Ln 2
P1 P1
5
= 0.055 x0.287 x 293Ln = 7.56kW
1
(i ) PV1.2 = C
n −1 1.2−1
 P2  n
T2 = T1   = 293  = 383.14 K
5 1.2
 P1  1

n n
Power = ( P2V2 − P1V1 ) = x mR(T2 − T1 )
n −1 n −1
1.2
= x 0.055 x 0.287(383.14 − 293) = 8.53 kW
1.2 − 1

Isothermal Power
Isothermaleffiency =
Actualpower
7.56
= = 0.8854
8.53
η Isothermal = 88.54 %
(iii ) Adiabatic PV1.4 = C
γ −1 1.4−1
P  γ
T2 = T1  2  = 293  = 464 K
5 1.4
 P1  1
 Isothermal Power
Isothermaleffiency =
Actualpower
7.56
= = 0.8854
8.53
η Isothermal = 88.54 %
(iii ) Adiabatic PV1.4 = C
γ −1 1.4−1
P  γ
T2 = T1  2  = 293  = 464 K
5 1.4
 P1  1

γ
Power = x mR(T2 − T1 )
γ −1
1.4
= x 0.055 x 0.287(464 − 293) = 9.45 kW
1.4 − 1
7.56
η Isothermal = = 0.80
9.45
= 80 %

Problem 2
A single acting stage acting air compressor with clearance running at 360 rpm has a bore
of 10 cm. The compression and expansion are polytrophic with n = 1.25 for each. The
clearance volume is 80cm3 . If the suction and delivery pressures are 98.1 kPa and
706.32 kPa absolute, find the free air at 101 kPa and 15ºCdelivered per minute. What is
the work done per cycle? The temperature at the beginning of compression may be taken
as 30ºC.Find also the power required to drive the compressor.

Ta = 15°C , d = 10cm
L = 8.5cm P1 = 98.1kPa
T1 = 30°C P = 706.32kPa
2
P = 101kPa
a
Π 2 Π
Vs = d L = 0.12 χ 0.85
4 4
= 6.675 x 10-4 m 3
Vc = 80cm = 0.8 x 10-4 m 3
 Vc 0.8 x 10-4
Clearance ratio C = = = 0.12
Vs 6.675 x 10-4
Volumetric efficiency

PT   P n 
1

ηυ = 1 a 1 + c − c 2  
PaT1   P1  

98.1 x 288  706.32 1.25 
1


= 1 + 0.12 − 0.12   = 0.496
101 x 303   98.1  
 
PaTa 101 x 0.1193
m= =
RTa 0.287 x 288
= 0.1457 kg/min
Va
ηυ =
Vs
∴ Volume of free air Va = 0.496 x 6.675 x 10-4
= 0.0003314 m 3 / cycle
= 0.0003314 x 360 = 0.1193 m 3 / min

0.1457
m= = 0.00242kg / sec
60
n −1 1.25−1
P  n 706.32  1.25
T2 = T1  2  = 303  = 449.67 K
 P1   98.1 
n 
Power =   x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n − 1
1.25 
=   x 0.00242 x 0.287(449.67 − 303)
 1.25 − 1 
= 0.5 kJ/s or kW

0.5
Workdone / cycle = = 0.0084kJ / cycle
360 60
 Problem 3
A single stage double acting air compressor is required to deal with 17 m3/min of air
measured at 1 bar and 15°C. the pressure and temperature at the end of suction is 0.98 bar
and 30°C. The delivery pressure is 6.3bar. The rpm of the compressor is 500.assuming a
clearance volume of 5% of the stroke volume, laws of the compression and expansion as
PV1.32 =C, calculate the necessary stroke of volume, temperature of the air delivered and
power of the compressor.

Ta = 15°C , Va = 17 m3 / min
P = 1bar P1 = .98bar
a
T1 = 30°C P = 6.3bar
2
N = 500rpm

5
C= = 0.05
100
P1Ta   P2  n 
1

ηυ = 1 + C − C   
PaT1   P1  


98.1 x 288   6.3 1.32  = 0.8452

1

ηυ = 1 + 0.05 − 0.05  
1 x 303   0.98  
 
V
ηυ = a
Vs
17
Vs = StrokeVolume = = 20.11 m3 / min
0.8452
20.11
Vs = = 0.0402m3 / min
500
n −1 1.32−1
P  n 6.3  1.32
T2 = T1  2  = 303 
 P1   0.98 
Temperature of air delivered = 475.71 K
PaTa 1 x 100 x 17
m= = = 20.56kg/min
RTa 0.287 x 288
20.56
= = 0.3427 kg/sec
60
 Power = 
n 
 x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n − 1
1.32 
=   x 0.3427 x 0.287(495.71 − 303)
 1.32 − 1 
= 70 kJ/s or kW
Problem 4
A single stage double acting air compressor delivers 15 m3 of air per min of air measured
at 1.013 bar and 27°C. delivers at 7bar.The condition at the end of the suction stroke are
pressure 0.98 bar and temperature 4°C. The a clearance volume is 4% of the swept
volume, and stroke to bore ration is 1.3:1 and compressor runs at 300rpm. calculate the
Volumetric efficiency of the compressor. Assume the index of compression and
expansion to be 1.3.

Ta = 27°C , Va = 15m3 / min

P = 1.013bar P1 = .98bar
a
T1 = 40°C P = 7bar
2
N = 300rpm, Clearanceratio = 0.04
L / d = 1.3
PT   P n 
1

ηυ = 1 a 1 + C − C  2  
PaT1   P1  


98.1 x 300   7 1.3  = 0.796

1

ηυ = 1 + 0.04 − 0.04  
1.013 x 313   0.98  
 
= 79.6%
V
ηυ = a
Vs
15
Vs = Swept Volume = = 18.84 m3 / min
0.796
But for double acting compressor
∏ 2
Vs = d x L 2NL = 1.3d
4
∏
18.84 = d 2 x 1.3d x 2 x 300
4
18.8 x 44
d=3 = 0.313m = 31.3cm
∏ x 1.3 x 2 x 300
L = 1.3 x31.3 = 40.72cm
 PaTa 1.013 x 100 x 15
m= = = 17.6kg/min
RTa 0.287 x 300
17.6
= = 0.294 kg/s
60
n −1 1.3−1
P  n 7  1.3
T2 = T1  2  = 313  = 492.7 K
 P1   0.98 

Power = 
n 
 x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n − 1
1.3 
Power =   x 0.294 x 0.287(492.71 − 313)
 1.3 − 1 
= 65.7 kJ/s or kW
P2 P
Isothermal Power = P1V1 Ln = mRT1 Ln 2
P1 P1
7
= 0.294 x0.287 x313Ln = 51.92kW
0.98
51.92
Isothermal efficiency = x100 = 79%
65.7

Problem 5
A two-stage compressor compresses 1kg/min of air from 1bar to 42.18 bar. Initial
temperature is 15ºC. At the intermediate pressure the intercooling is perfect. The
compression takes place according to PV1.35 =C. Neglecting the effect of clearance,
determine the minimum power required to run the compressor. Also find the mass of
cooling water required in the intercooler , if the temperature rise of water is limited to
5°C.

1
M = 1kg / min = = 0.0166kg / s
60
P1 = 1bar T1 = 15°C P3 = 42.18bar
For perfect intercooling
P2 = P1P3 = 1x42.18 = 6.48bar
n −1 1.35−1
 P2  n 6.49  1.35
T2 = T1   = 288  = 467.7 K
 P1   1 
  n 
Maximum Power =   x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n −1 
 2x1.35 
=  x 0.0166 x 0.287(467.7 − 288)
 1.35 − 1 
= 6.6 kJ/s or kW
Heat rejected in the intercooler Q = mCp (T2 − T1 )
= 0.0166 x1.005(467.7 − 288)
= 2.99kJ/Sec
But Q is also = mω xC pω x temperature rise
299 = mω x 4.187 x 5
mω = 0.1432kg / sec

Problem 6
A two stage reciprocating compressor delivers 150 m3/hr of free air measured at 1.03 bar
and15ºC. The final pressure 18bar. The pressure and temperature of the air in LP cylinder
before compression is 1 bar and 30°C. the diameter of the LP cylinder is twice that of HP
cylinder and air enters the HP cylinder at 40ºC. If compression follows the law
PV1.22=C, determine
(i) Intermediate pressure and power required if the intercooler is imperfect.
(ii) Ration of cylinder diameter and minimum power required for perfect intercooling.

Ta = 15°C , Va = 150m3 / min

Pa = 1.03bar P1 = 1bar
T1 = 30°C P3 = 18bar
T2 = 40°C
Neglet the effect of clearance

(i ) Imperfect intercooling
d LP = 2d HP
P1V11.22 = P2V21.22
1.22 1.22
P2  V1   Π / 4 xd LP
2
xL 
=  =  
P1  V2   Π / 4 xd 2
HP xL 

2 x1.22
P2  d LP 
= 
P1  d HP 
P2 = 1x(2) 2.44
Intercooling pressure P2 = 5.426bar
 P1V1 PaVa
=
T1 Ta
PaVaT1 1.03x10 2 x0.02916 x303
V1 = =
Ta P1 1x10 2 x 288
= 0.045m 3 / sec
 n −1 
 P2  n
P1V1   − 1

n
WLP =
n −1
 1 
P

 1.22 −1 
  
− 1
1.22 5 . 426 1.22
WLP = 1x10 x0.045 
2

1.22 − 1  1  
 
= 8.89 kW
Air enters HP cylinder at T2 = 40°C
P2V2 P1V1
=
T2 T1
P1V1T2 1x10 2 x0.045 x313
V2 = =
T1P2 5.426 x10 2 x303
= 0.008567m 3 / sec

 n −1 
 P3  n
P2V2   − 1

n
WHP =
n −1
 2 
P

 1.22 −1 
  
− 1
1.22 18 1.22
WHP = 5.426 x10 x0.008567 
2

1.22 − 1  5.426  
 
= 6.12 kW
Total Power = 8.89 + 6.12
= 15.01 kW

Problem 7
A multi stage compressor compressing air is to be designed to elevate the pressure from
1 bar to 120bar such that the stage pressure ratio should not exceed 4. Determine
(i) The number of stages
(ii) Exact stage pressure ratio
(iii) Intermediate pressure

Solution:
 P1 = 1bar PN +1 = 120bar

P2 P2 P3 P4 PN +1
Stage pressure ratio = = = = = =4
P1 P1 P2 P3 PN
Assuming the intercooling to be perfect we have
1
PN +1  PN +1  N
= 
PN  P1 
1
 120  N
4= 
 1 

Ln120
N= = 3.453
Ln 4
∴ Number of stages = 4
1
= (120 )4 = 3.31
PN +1
Exact stage pressure ratio =
PN
P5 120
= 3.31, P4 = = 36.25 bar
P4 3.310
P4 36.25
= 3.31, P3 = = 10.95 bar
P3 3.31
P3 10.95
= 3.31, P2 = = 3.308 bar
P2 3.31
∴ Intermediat pressure are 36.25 bar, 10.95 bar
and 3.308 bar

Problem 8
A two-stage compressor delivers air at pressure of 19 bar. The free air conditions are
1.03 bar and 25ºC. The pressure of the air before compression is 0.98bar. The
intermediate pressure is 4.5bar. The temperature of the air entering each cylinder is 35°C.
The law of compression and expansion being PV1.25 =C. The clearance volume is 5% of
the swept volume. Determine the volumetric efficiency and the work done per kg of air.

Ta = 25°C , P2 = 4.5bar
Pa = 1bar P1 = 0.98bar
T1 = 35°C P3 = 19bar
Clearance ratio C = 0.05
  1
P1Ta   P2  n 
ηυ = 1 + C − C   
PaT1   P1  
 

 1 
98.1 x 298   4 . 5  25 
1 .
ηυ = 1 + 0.05 − 0.05  = 0.835
1 x 308   0.98  
 
= 83.5%

Even through the temperature of air entering

each cylinder is same, work is not saem in
both cylinder since P2 ≠ P1P3
n −1 1.25−1
P  n  4.5  1.25
T2 = T1  2  = 308  = 416.1K
 P1   0.98 

R(T2 − T1 ) = x0.287(416.1 − 308)

n 1.25
WLP =
n −1 1.25 − 1
= 155.12 kJ/kg
Temperature of air entering HP cylinder T5 = 35°C

n −1 1.25−1
P  n  19  1.25
T6 = T5  6  = 308  = 410.82 K
 P5   4.5 

R(T6 − T5 ) = 0.287(410.82 − 308)

n 1.25
WHP =
n −1 1.25 − 1
= 147.55kJ/kg
Total work = 155.12 + 147.55
= 302.75kJ/kg of air

Problem 9
A two-stage double acting air compressor takes in air at 1 bar and 25°C. It runs at 200
rpm. The diameter of LP cylinder is 35cm. The stroke of both LP and HP cylinders are
40cm. The clearance volume of both the cylinders is 4%. The index of compression is
1.3. The LP cylinder discharges air at a pressure of 4 bar. The air passes through the
intercooler so that it enters the HP cylinder at 27°C and 3.6 bar, finally it is discharged
from the compressor at 14.4 bar.
 Calculate

(i) Diameter of HP cylinder

(ii) The heat rejected in the intercooler
(iii) The power required to drive the HP cylinder

Volumatric effiency referred to the suction condition 1

1
 P n
ηυ = 1 + C − C  2 
 P1 

Volume of air referred to condition 1

V1 = 0.9238 x0.2822 = 0.26071m3 / S
P1V1 1x10 2 x0.26071
Mass of air m = =
RT1 0.287 x 298
= 0.30483 kg/s

n −1 1.3−1
P  n 4 1.3
T2 = T1  2  = 298  = 410.34 K
 P1  1

Heat rejected in the intercooler

= mC p (T2 − T1 ) = 0.30483 x1.005(410.34 − 298)
= 34.14kJ/s
Volume of air draw to HP cylinder
mRT5 0.30483x0.287x298
V5 = = 2
= 0.0724m3 / s
P5 3.6x10

Pressure ratio in LP cylinder = 4

Pressure ratio in HP cylinder =14.4/3.6=4
Since the pressure ratio and clearance percentage in both HP and LP cylinders are the
same, the volumetric efficiency of the cylinders referred to the condition at the start of
compression is same.

V5 0.0724
∴Swept volume of HP cylinder = =
ηυ 0.9238
= 0.07837 m 3 / s

Π 2 2 x 200
D HP xLHP x = 0.7837
4 60
Π 2 2 x 200
D HP x0.4 x = 0.1934m
4 60
= 19.34 cm
Since pressure ratio is same T6 = T2

Power required for HP cylinder

 n 
=  x mR (T6 − T5 )
 n −1 
 n 
=  x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n −1 
 1.3 
=  x 0.30483x0.287(410.34 − 298)
 1.3 − 1 
= 42.58 kW

Problem 10
A two stage air compressor compresses air from 170C and 1 bar to 63 bar. The air is
cooled in the intercooler to 300C and intermediate pressure is steady at 7.7 bar. The
low pressure cylinder is 10 cm diameter and the stroke for both cylinders is 11.25 cm.
Assuming a compression law of PV1.35 = constant, and that the volume of air at
atmospheric conditions drawn in per stroke is equal to the low pressure cylinder
 swept volume, find the power of the compressor while running at 250 rpm. Find also
the diameter of HP cylinder.

Solution:
dLP = 10cm L = 11.25cm
P1 = 1 bar P2 = 7.7 bar T1 = 170C
P3= 63 bar
Volume of LP cylinder
V1 = π/4 X 0.12 X 0.1125 = 0.00088 m3

m = P1V1/R T1 = (1 X 100 X 0.00088)/(0.287 X 290) = 0.00106 kg

T2 = 300C
Volume of air entering the HP cylinder

V2 = mR T2/ P2 = (0.00106 X 0.283 X 303)/ (7.7 X 102) = 0.0001198 m3

V2 = π/4 X d22 X L
0.0001198 = π/4 X d22 X 0.1125
d2 = diameter of HP cylinder
= 0.0368 m
Diameter of HP cylinder = 3.68 cm

Work required/cycle = (n/n-1)[ P1V1{( P2 / P1)n-1/n – 1}+ P2V2( P3 / P2)n-1/n – 1 ]

W = (1.35/1.35-1) [ 1 X 102 X 0.00088 {(7.7/1)1.35-1/1.35 - 1} + 7.7 X 102 X 0.0001198

{(63/7.7)1.35-1/1.35 - 1}]

= 0.49456 kJ/cycle

Power = 0.49456 X Number of cycles/sec

= 0.49456 X 250/60
Power = 2.06 kW

Problem 11

A three stage air compressor draws 8 m3/min of air at 1 bar and 180C and delivers the
same at 55 bar and 200C. The index of compression is 1.32. The air while passing
through the intercoolers and aftercoolers suffers a pressure loss of 4% and is cooled to the
intial temperature. Determine the shaft power required to drive the compressor if
mechanical efficiency is 85%.

Solution:
V1 = 8 m3/min = 8/60 = 0.133 m3/sec
P1 = 1 bar T1 = 180C P4 = 55 bar
The pressure drop of 4% in the intercooler is accounted for by the factor C = 0.96

For 3 stage compressor,

Power = 3(n/n-1) X P1V1 [{P4/C3P1}n-1/3n - 1]

= 3 (1.32/1.32-1) X 1 X 102 X 0.133 [{55/0.963 X 1}1.32-1/1.32 - 1]

= 283.kW

Actual shaft power required = Power/ηmech = 283.32/0.85 = 333.32kW

 STEAM NOZZLES
8.1 Introduction
In the impulse steam turbine, the overall transformation of heat into mechanical work
is accomplished in two distinct steps. The available energy of steam is first changed into
kinetic energy, and this kinetic energy is then transformed into mechanical work. The first
of these steps, viz., the transformation of available energy into kinetic energy is dealt
with in this chapter.
A nozzle is a passage of varying cross-sectional area in which the potential energy
of the steam is converted into kinetic energy. The increase of velocity of the steam jet
at the exit of the nozzle is obtained due to decrease in enthalpy (total heat content) of
the steam. The nozzle is so shaped that it will perform this conversion of energy with
minimum loss.
8.2 General Forms of Nozzle Passages
A nozzle is an element whose primary function is to convert enthalpy (total heat)
energy into kinetic energy. When the steam flows through a suitably shaped nozzle from
zone of high pressure to one at low pressure, its velocity and specific volume both will
increase.
The equation of the continuity of mass may be written thus :
...(8.1)

where m m mass flow in kg/sec.,

V = velocity of steam in m/sec.,
A = area of cross-section in m , and
v = specific volume of steam in m3/kg.

In order to allow the expansion to take place properly, the area at any section of
the nozzle must be such that it will accomodate the steam whatever volume and velocity
may prevail at that point.

As the mass flow (m) is same at all sections of the nozzle, area of cross-section
(A) varies as —. The manner in which both V and v vary depends upon the properties
of the substance flowing. Hence, the contour of the passage of nozzle depends upon
the nature of the substance flowing.
For example, consider a liquid- a substance whose specific volume v remains almost
constant with change of pressure. The value of will go on increasing with change of
pressure. Thus, from eqn. (8.1), the area of cross-section should decrease with the
decrease of pressure. Fig. 8-1 (a) illustrates the proper contour of longitudinal section of
 of Heat Engines Vol. II
a nozzle suitable for liquid. This also can represent convergent nozzle for a fluid whose
peculiarity is that while both velocity and specific volume increase, the rate of specific
volume increase is less than that of the velocity, thus resulting in increasing value of

v'

Fig. 8-1. General forms of Nozzles.

Fig. 8-1 (b) represents the correct contour for some hypothetical substance for which
both velocity and specific volume increase at the same rate, so that their ratio — is a
v
constant at all points. The area of cross-section should therefore, be constant at all points, •
and the nozzle becomes a plain tube.

Fig. 8-1 (c) represents a divergent nozzle for a fluid whose peculiarity is that —
decreases with the drop of pressure, i.e., specific volume increases at a faster rate than
velocity with the drop of pressure. The area of cross-section should increase as the
pressure decreases.
Table 8-1
Properties of steam at various pressures when expanding dry saturated steam from
14 bar to 0.15 bar through a nozzle, assuming frictionless adiabatic flow.
Pressure Dryness Enthalpy Velocity Specific Discharge Area Diameter
P fraction drop V Volume per unit A D
bar X Hi - HZ m/sec. v» area m2 metre
kJ m3/kg kg/m2

14 1-000 - - - - - -

12 0-988 38-6 278 0-1633 1,723 0-00058 00272

10 0.974 84-1 410 0-1944 2,165 0-00046 0-0242

7 0-950 164-7 574 0-2729 •2,214 0-00045 xO-0239

3-5 0-908 309 786 0-5243 1,651 0-00061 00279

1-5 0-872 441-2 939 1-1593 929 0 0011 0-0374

070 0-840 555-6 1,054 2-365 531 0-00188 0-049

0-15 0-790 736-7 1,214 10-022 153 00065 0091

* Maximum discharge per unit area x Smallest diameter

Fig. 8-1 (d) shows the general shape of convergent-divergent nozzle suitable for gases
and vapours. It can be shown that in practice, while velocity and specific volume both
increase from the start, velocity first increases faster than the specific volume, but after
 Steam Nozzles 201
a certain critical point, specific volume increases more rapidly than velocity. Hence the
V •
yalue of — first increases to maximum and then decreases, necessitating a nozzle of
convergent-divergent form. The above statement may be verified by referring to table 8-1,
which shows the properties of steam at various pressures when expanding dry saturated
steam from 14 bar to 0-15 bar through a nozzle, assuming frictionless adiabatic flow.
8.3 Steam Nozzles
The mass flow per second for wet steam, at a given pressure during expansion is
given by
AV AV . . ...(8.2)
m = — = — kg/sec. ' 7
v xvs
where A = Area of cross-section in m2,
V = Velocity of steam in m/sec,
vs = Specific volume of dry saturated steam, m3/kg,
x = Dryness fraction of steam, and
v = x v$ = Specific volume of wet steam, m3/kg.
Asthe mass of steam per second (m) passing through any section of the nozzle
must be constant, the area of cross-section (A) of nozzle will varyaccording to the
V V V
variation of — i.e., product of A and — is constant. If the factor — increases with
xvs xvs xvs
the drop in pressure, the cross-sectional area should decrease and hence a convergent
shaped nozzle. The decrease of the factor — with pressure drop will require increasing
cross-sectional area to maintain mass flow constant and hence the divergent shaped
nozzle.

Sonic
Subsonic I
H region h — Supersonic region

I.Entrance 2 . Throat 3. E xit 1. Entrance

2 Exit

X Q ) Converging-diverging nozzie (b) Converging nozzle

Fig. 8-2. Longitudinal sectional view of steam nozzles.

In practice at first the nozzie cross-section tapers to a smaller section in order to

202 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

allow for increasing value of — ; after this smallest diameter is reached, it will diverge

to a larger cross-section. The smallest section of the nozzle is known as the throat.
A nozzle which first converges to throat and then diverges, as in fig. 8-2(a), is termed
/p?\
as converging-diverging nozzle. It is used for higher pressure ratio — .
l pV
Some form of nozzles finish at the throat and no diverging portion is fitted; this type
shown in fig. 8-2(b), is known as converging nozzle. In this the greatest area is at the
entrance and minimum area is at the exit which is also the throat of the nozzle. This
Pz
nozzle is used when the pressure ratio, — is less than 0.58 (critical).
Pi
8.4 Flow Through Steam Nozzles
From the point of view of thermodynamics, the steam flow through nozzles may be
spoken as adiabatic expansion. During the flow of steam through the nozzle, heat is
neither supplied nor rejected. Moreover, as the steam expands from high pressure to low
pressure, the heat energy is converted into kinetic energy, i.e., work is done in expanding
to increase the kinetic energy. Thus the expansion of steam through a nozzle is an
adiabatic, and the flow of steam through nozzle is regarded as an adiabatic flow.
It should be noted that the expansion of steam through a nozzle is not a free
expansion, and the steam is not throttled, because it has a large velocity at the end of
the expansion. Work is done by the expanding steam in producing this kinetic energy.
In practice, some kinetic energy is lost in overcoming the friction between the steam
and the side of the nozzle and also internal friction, which will tend to regenerate heat.
The heat thus formed tends to dry the steam. About 10% to 15% of the enthalpy drop
from inlet to exit is lost in friction. The effect of this friction, in resisting the flow and in
drying the steam, must be taken into account in the design of steam nozzles, as it makes
an appreciable difference in the results.
Another complication in the design of steam through a nozzle is due to a phenomenon
known as supersaturation; this is due to a time lagin the condensation of the steam
during the expansion. The expansion takes place very rapidly and if the steam is initially
dry or superheated, it should become wet as the pressure falls, because the expansion
is adiabatic. During expansion the steam does not have time to condense, but remains
in an unnatural dry or superheated state, then at a certain instant, it suddenly condenses
to its natural state. See illustrative problem no. 14.
Thus, the flow of steam through a nozzle may be regarded as either an ideal adiabatic
(isentropic) flow, or adiabatic flow modified by friction and supersaturation.
I.f friction is negligible, three steps are essential in the process of expansion from
pressure P; to p2 :
(i) Driving of steam upto the nozzle inlet from the boiler. The ‘flow-work’doneonthe
steam is p 1vl and results in similar volume of steam being forced through the exit to
make room for fresh charge (steam).
(ii) Expansion of steam through the nozzle while pressure changes from p, to p?, the
work done being' ^ y (p\ v^ - pzv2)
where n is the index of the isentropic expansion,
v-i = vulumeoccupied _by 1 kg of steam at entrance to nozzle, and
v2 = volume occupied by 1 kg of steam as it leaves the nozzle.
 Steam Nozzles 203
Alternatively, this work done is equal to the change of internal energy, m - \l 2 as
during isentropic expansion work is done at the cost of internal energy.
(iii) Displacement of the steam from the low pressure zone by an equal volume
diseharged from the nozzle. This work amounts to P2 V2 which is equal to the final flow
work spent in forcing the steam out to make room for fresh charge (steam).
Thus, the new work done in increasing kinetic energy of the steam,
1
W ■ p iv i + (P1V1 - PZV2) - P2.V2.
n - 1

W - - J - (Pi VI - Pzvz) - (8.3)

This is same as the work done during Rankine cycle.

Alternatively, W = p\v\ + (m - n2) - pzvz
= (p iv i + m ) - 0*2 + P2VS) * H\ Hz. ...(8.4)
where, H i and H2 are the values of initial and final enthalpies allowing for the states
of superheatingor wetness as the case may be. This isexactly equivalent to the enthalpy
drop equivalent to the work done during the Rankine cycle. The value ofH i - H2 may
be found very rapidly from the Mollier chart (H - 4> chart) or more slowly but with greater
accuracy from the steam tables.
In the design of steam nozzles the calculations to be made are :
(i) the actual velocity attained by the steam at the exit,
(ii) the minimum cross-sectional area (throat area) required for a given mass flow per
second,
(iii) the exit area, if the nozzle is converging-diverging, and
(iv) the general shape of the nozzle - axial length.
8.4.1 Velocity of steam leaving nozzle : The gain of kinetic energy is equal to the
enthalpy drop of the steam. The initial velocity of the steam entering the nozzle (or
velocity of approach) may be neglected as being relatively very small compared with exit
velocity.
For isentropic (frictionless adiabatic ) flow and considering one kilogram of steam

2 x 1,000 = ^ = H

where H is enthalpy drop in kJ/kg and V = velocity of steam leaving the nozzle in
m/sec.
V = V2 X 1.000H = 44-72 VH m /sec. ... (8.5)
Let the available enthalpy drop after deducting frictional loss be kH,
i.e. | | — k ) H fe the friction loss,
Then, V ~ 44-72 VJ<H m/sec. ...(8.6)
If the frictional loss in the nozzle is 15 per cent of the enthalpy drop, then k - 0.85.
8.4.2 Mass of steam discharged : The mass flow of steam in kg per second through
a cross-sectional area A and at a pressure p2 can be written as
AV2
m = —— where v2 = specific volume of steam at pressure p2.
204 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

But vs = vi ( Q - Y = v\ ( P f \ ' n
,P2 Pi ...(8.7)
where, vi = specific volume of steam at pressure p i.
Using the value of velocity V from eqns. (8.3.) and (8.5),

n A_ n P2.V2.
m 2,000 (p iv i - pzvz) V 2,000 pi vi 1 -
vz n - 1 vz n - 1 p^v^
Putting the value of V2 from eqn. (8.7), we get,

A n - 1'
m r V 2 , « » 7r f T p , 1 .(« '
P z \- -
V1 — p>
n
Pi
2 n + 1
m ooo— x vi n - \E£ ... (8. 8)
n - 1 Pi p i,

8.4.3 Critical pressure ratio : Using eqn. (8.8), the rate of mass flow per unit area
is given by
n + 1 2
m f£g n -
A
-V I
000—n S
- -1r * ~vi
The mass flow per unit area has the maximum value at the throat which has minimum
area, the value of pressure ratio fP2\ at the throat can be evaluated from the above
,Pi
m
expression corresponding to the maximum value of - j.

All the items of this equation are constant with the exception of the ratio
/? + r
— is maximum when [ ( £ ) ; - (£] n is the maximum.
A
AH
(P2S
Differentiating the above expression with respect to and equating to zero for a
\* /
maximum discharge per unit area
n + 1
P 2 \- (& = 0
n -
Pl Pi,
a i m
Pi
2 P2 2 . 1 n + 1 P2
n
n Pi n Pi
2 - n 2- n
P2 n + 1 n + 1 fart
"once, or
Pi n Pi Pi
n
n + 1 p2 n - 1
P2. or —- =
’.'cm 'which • (8 9 )
Pi Pi
 Steam Nozzles 205

^ is known as critical pressure ratio and depends upon the value of index n.

The following approximate values of index n and corresponding values of critical

Dressure ratios may be noted :
Value of index n for Nozzle critical pressure ratio

Initial condition of steam isentropic expansion n

P2 f 2 n- 1
Pi ( n + 1

Superheated or supersaturated 1-300 0-546

Dry saturated 1-135 0-578

Wet 1-113 0-582 -

Dr. Zeuner has suggested a well known equation for value of n in the adiabatic
expansion of steam viz. n = 1-035 + 0-1x i, where xi is the initial dryness fraction of
steam.
The eqn. (8.9) gives the ratio between the throat pressure [p2) and the inlet pressure
(pr) for a maximum discharge per unit area through the nozzle. The mass flow being
constant for all sections of nozzle, maximum discharge per unit area occurs at the section

(a) (b)
Fig. 8-3.
having minimum area, i.e., at the throat. The area of thtoat of all steam nozzle should
be designed on this ratio. This pressure ratio at the throat is known as critical pressure
ratio. The pressure at which the area is minimum and discharge per unit area is maximum
is termed as the critical pressure.
The implication of the existence of a critical pressure in nozzle flow may be expressed
in another way. Suppose we have two vessels A and B. A containing steam at a high
and steady pressure pu Suppose that the pressure in B may be varied at will. A and
B are connected by a diaphragm containing a convergent nozzle, as shown in fig. 8-3(a).
Assume at first that p2 is equal to pu then there is no flow of str-am through the
nozzle. Now let p2 be gradually reduced. The discharge m through the nozzle will increase
as shown by the curve of fig. 8-3(b). As the pressure p2 approaches the critical value,
the discharge rate gradually approaches its maximum value, and when p2 is reduced
below the critical value, the discharge rate does not increase but remains at the same
value as that at the critical pressure. The extraordinary result that p2 can be reduced