COURSE NO.

– SWCE – 503
COURSE TITILE – Soil And Water Conservation Structures

UNIT-4: Seepage through Dams, Flow Net and Determination of Uplift

Pressure in Drop Structures, Design of Energy Dissipaters.

Prepared by: Miss. Raut Prachiti Vasant (M. Tech-SWCE-2022/07)

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I. SEEPAGE THROUGH DAMS

• Seepage in Earth Dams and seepage control are important aspects of dam design and
construction.
• Seepage flow in the dam is defined as the movement of water from the upstream side
of the dam to the downstream side through embankment of below the foundation or
base.
• The seepage problem is most commonly found in earthen embankment dam
• This will directly affect the stability of embankments, sloughing of slopes due to the
rising of pore water pressure, and also causes internal erosion which may further lead
to piping.

1. Seepage Failure
Seepage always occurs in the dams. If the magnitude is within design limits, it may not
harm the stability of the dam. However, if seepage is concentrated or uncontrolled beyond
limits, it will lead to failure of the dam.
Following are some of the various types of seepage failure.
• Piping through Dam Body
• Piping through Foundation
• Sloughing of Downstream Side of Dam

1.1.Piping through Dam Body

Seepage starts through the poor soils in the body of the dam, small channels are formed
which transport dams material downstream. As more materials are transported downstream,
the channels grow bigger and bigger which could lead to wash out of dam.
 Fig. Piping through Dam Body

1.2. Piping through Foundation

When highly permeable cavities or strata of gravel or coarse sand are present in the dam
foundation, it may lead to heavy seepage. The concentrated seepage at high rate will erode
soil present in the foundation which will cause increased flow of water and soil. As a result,
the dam will settle or sink leading to failure.
1.3. Sloughing of Downstream Side of Dam
The process of failure due to sloughing starts when the downstream toe of the dam
becomes saturated and starts getting eroded, causing small slump or slide of the dam. The
small slide leaves a relative steep face, which also becomes saturated due to seepage and
also slumps again and forms more unstable surface. The process of saturation and slumping
continues, leading to failure of dam.

2. Seepage control in dam

2.1.Rock toe
In this arrangement stone size which varying from 15 cm to 20 cm is arranged in the
downstream toe end of the dam. It is arranged graded in layers which consist of fine sand,
coarse sand, and gravel as shown in the fig below. The height of the rock toe usually kept
between 15 to 30% of the reservoir height.

2.2. Horizontal Filter

Horizontal filter extends from downstream side of the dam to inside at a distance of
25% to 100% from toe to center line of the dam. In common case height equal to three
times the height of the dam is sufficient.
 2.3.Chimney Drain
The horizontal drainage is better in bringing down the phreatic line down and
also causes stratification in a horizontal direction. When large-scale stratification occurs
horizontal filters are efficient. To solve this issue a vertical filter is placed along with
the horizontal filter, which carries out the seeping water effectively as shown in the
figure. This arrangement is termed as chimney drain.

II. FLOW NET

• A Flow net is a graphical representation of flow of water through a soil mass.
• It is a curvilinear net formed by the combination of flow lines and equipotential lines.
• Flow lines represent the path of flow along which the water will seep through the soil.
• Equipotential lines are formed by connecting the points of equal total head.

Fig. Flow Net

 1. Properties of Flow Net

• The angle of intersection between each flow line and an equipotential line must be 90o
which means they should be orthogonal to each other.
• Two flow lines or two equipotential lines can never cross each other.
• quantity of seepage occurs in each flow channel. A flow channel is a space between
two flow lines.
• Head loss is the same between two adjacent potential lines.
• Flow nets are drawn based on the boundary conditions only. They are independent of
the permeability of and the head causing flow.
• The space formed between two flow lines and two equipotential lines is called a flow
field. It should be in a square form.
• Either flow lines or equipotential lines are smoothly drawn curves.

2. Applications of Flow Net

Flow net is useful to determine the following parameters in seepage analysis of soil :

a. Rate of Seepage loss

b. Seepage Pressure
c. Uplift Pressure
d. Exit Gradient

2.1 Rate of Seepage Loss

Using flow net, the rate of seepage loss or seepage quantity can be determined using
the below expression:

𝑁𝑓 △𝐵
Q = k.H. 𝑁𝑑 . △𝐿

Where,
k = coefficient of permeability
H = Head causing flow
Nf = Number of flow lines
Nd = Number of Equipotential lines
△B = width of the flow field
△L= Length of the flow field

2.2 Seepage Pressure

Seepage pressure at any point is determined by using the below mentioned formula :

Ps = γw.h
where,
γw = Unit weight of water
h = Hydraulic potential after “n” potential drops = n.△H
𝐻
△H = 𝑁𝑑 = Potential drop
Nd = Number of Equipotential lines
 2.3 Uplift Pressure

The uplift pressure at any point within the soil mass can be found using the
undermentioned formula. It is also called as hydrostatic pressure.

Pu = γw.h w
Where,
γw = Unit weight of water
h w= Piezometric head or pressure head = h ± 𝑧
h = Total Head
z = Elevation Head

2.4 Exit Gradient

The exit gradient is the hydraulic gradient at the downstream end of flow line where
seepage water from the soil mass joins with free water at the downstream. Exit gradient
can be expressed as :
△𝐻
iexit = △𝐿
Where,
𝐻
△H = 𝑁𝑑 = Potential drop or Drop in head between two adjacent
equipotential lines.
△L= Length of the flow field.

III. DESIGN OF ENERGY DISSIPATOR

The energy dissipator design procedure, illustrated in Figure 1.1, shows the
recommended design steps. The designer should apply the following design procedure
to one drainage channel/culvert and its associated structure at a time.
Step 1:
Identify and Collect Design Data. Energy dissipators should be considered part of a
larger design system that includes a culvert or a chute, channel protection requirements
(both upstream and downstream), and may include a debris control structure. Much of
the input data will be available to the energy dissipator design phase from previous
design efforts.

Fig. Design procedure for energy dissipators

a. Culvert Data:
The culvert design should provide:
• Type (RCB, RCP, CMP, etc);
• Height, D;
• Width, B;
• Length, L;
• Roughness, n;
• Slope, So;
• Design discharge, Q;
• Tailwater, TW;
• Type of control (inlet or outlet);
• Outlet depth, yo;
• Outlet velocity, Vo;
• Outlet Froude number, Fro.
• Culvert outlet velocity, Vo.
b. Transition Data:
Flow transitions. For most culvert designs, the designer will have to determine
the flow depth, y, and velocity, V, at the exit of standard wingwall/apron
combinations.
c. Channel Data:
The following channel data is used to determine the TW for the culvert design:
• Design discharge, Q;
• Slope, So;
• Cross section geometry;
• Bank and bed roughness, n;
• Normal depth, yn = TW;
• Normal velocity, Vn.
• If the cross section is a trapezoid, it is defined by the bottom width, B,
and side slope, Z.
• The size and amount of bedload should be estimated.
d. Allowable Scour Estimate:
In the field, the designer should determine if the bed material at the planned exit
of the culvert is erodible. If it is, the potential extent of scour should be
estimated: depth, hs; width, Ws; and length, Ls. These estimates should be based
on the physical limits to scour at the site.

e. Stability Assessment:
The channel, culvert, and related structures should be evaluated for stability
considering potential erosion, as well as buoyancy, shear, and other forces on
the structure.
If the channel, culvert, and related structures are assessed as unstable, the depth
of degradation or height of aggradation that will occur over the design life of
the structure should be estimated.
Step 2:
Evaluate Velocities Compute culvert or chute exit velocity (Vo) and compare with
downstream channel velocity (Vn). If the exit velocity and flow depth approximate the
natural flow condition in the downstream channel, the culvert design is acceptable. If
the velocity is moderately higher, the designer can evaluate reducing velocity within
the barrel or chute or reducing the velocity with a scour hole (Step 3).
Another option is to modify the culvert or chute (channel) design such that the outlet
conditions are mitigated. If the velocity is substantially higher and/or the scour hole
from Step 3 is unacceptable, the designer should evaluate the use of energy dissipators
(Step 4). The definition of the terms “approximately equal,” “moderately higher,” and
“substantially higher” is relative to site-specific concerns such as sensitivity of the site
and the consequences of failure.
However, as rough guidelines, which should be re-evaluated on a site-specific basis,
the ranges of less than 10%, between 10% and 30%, and greater than 30% may be used.

Step 3:
Evaluate Outlet Scour Hole Compute the outlet scour hole dimensions. If the size of
the scour hole is acceptable, the designer should document the size of the expected
scour hole for maintenance and note the monitoring requirements. If the size of the
scour hole is excessive, the designer should evaluate energy dissipators (Step 4).
Step 4:
Design Alternative Energy Dissipators Compare the design data identified in Step 1 to
the attributes of the various energy dissipators. Design one or more of the energy
dissipators that substantially satisfies the design criteria. The dissipators fall into two
general groups based on Fr:
• Fr ≤ 3: Most designs are in this group. SDDOT preferred practice is to use a
riprap/gabion apron or riprap basin.
• Fr > 3: These include tumbling flow, USBR Type III stilling basin, USBR Type
IV stilling basin, SAF stilling basin and USBR Type VI impact basin. SDDOT
preferred practice is to use the SAF stilling basin.
Debris, tailwater channel conditions, site conditions and cost must also be considered
in selecting alternative designs.
Step 5:
Select Energy Dissipator Compare the design alternatives and select the dissipator that
has the best combination of cost and velocity reduction. Each situation is unique, and
engineering judgment will always be necessary. The designer should document the
alternatives considered.

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