Photogrammetry 1

Dr Hussein Harahsheh
Al AL Bayt University
 Chapter 2
Photographic basics:
• Light - Electromagnetic spectrum
• The simple camera
• Focus
• Exposure
• Geometric Factors influencing Exposure
• Filters
LIGHT
Light Characteristics

Refractive index is also equal to the velocity of light c

of a given wavelength in empty space divided by its
velocity v in a substance (medium)
 Interface

Normal

Incident light
ray

Refracted
light ray
Medium1 Medium2
(n) (n’)

Refractive index is also equal to the velocity of light c of a given wavelength in

empty space divided by its velocity v in a substance (medium)
1. O (object distance: The distance between the lens and the object to be photographed
2. I (image distance): the distance between the lens and the image plane
3. f (focal length: the distance from the lens at which parallel light rays are focused to a point.

(Light rays coming from an object at an infinite distance are parallel.)

 The Simple Camera
The cameras used in the early days of photography were often no more than a
light-tight box with a pinhole at one end and the light-sensitive material to be
exposed positioned against the opposite end Figure (a). The amount of exposure
of the film was controlled by varying the time the pinhole was allowed to pass (a)
light. Often, exposure times were in hours because of the low sensitivity of the
photographic materials available and the limited light-gathering capability of the
pinhole design.

In time, the pinhole camera was replaced by the simple lens camera, shown in
Figure (b). By replacing the pinhole with a lens, it became possible to enlarge the
hole through which light rays from an object were collected to form an image,
thereby allowing more light to reach the film in a given amount of time. In
addition to the lens, an adjustable diaphragm (a diaphragm is a thin opaque
structure with an opening (aperture) at its center, and an adjustable shutter
(b)
were introduced. The diaphragm controls the diameter of the lens opening
during film exposure, and the shutter controls the duration of exposure.
The design and function of modern adjustable cameras is conceptually identical
to that of the early simple lens camera.
To obtain sharp, properly exposed photographs with such systems, they must be
focused and the proper exposure settings must be made. We describe each of
these operations separately. Comparison between (a) pinhole and (b) simple lens cameras
 Focus

• Three parameters are involved in focusing a camera:

1. The focal length, f,
2. The object distance, o,
3. The image distance, I,

• When a camera is properly focused, the relationship among the focal length, object distance, and image distance is:

• Because f is a constant for any given lens, as object distance o for a scene changes, image distance i must change. This is
done by moving the camera lens with respect to the image plane (film or electronic sensor).
• When focused on an object at a discrete distance, a camera can image over a range just beyond and in front of this distance
with acceptable focus (No significant image deterioration). This range is commonly referred to as the depth of field.
• Depth of Field can be increased by reducing aperture, as well shorter focal length leads to greater depth of field.
• In aerial photography the object distances involved are effectively infinite. Hence the 1/o term in Eq. 2.1 goes to zero and
i must equal f. Thus, most aerial cameras are manufactured with their image plane precisely located at a fixed distance f
from their lens.
Exposure
Exposure is the total amount of light allowed to fall on the film/image sensor1 at any point in the image plane of a camera, it
is determined by the irradiance at that point multiplied by the exposure time, expressed by

where
E = exposure, J mm -2
s = scene brightness, J mm -2 sec -2
d = diameter of lens opening, mm (Aperture)
t = exposure time, sec
f = lens focal length, mm

It can be seen from Eq. 2.2 that, for a given camera and scene, the exposure can be varied by
changing the camera shutter speed t and/or the diameter of the lens opening d (aperture).
Various combinations of d and t will yield equivalent exposures.
Too much light creates an over-bright image with white spots: parts of the image are Over-Exposed
Too little light creates an under-bright image with black spots: parts of the image are Under-Exposed
Apertures
Aperture, measured in f -stops, determines the size of
the opening in your lens, which controls how much
light strikes your filming during an exposure. The Low f-stop =
smaller the number, the larger the opening. High aperture =
The larger the number, the smaller the opening. Large opening =
Aperture also determines depth of field smaller the
More light =
aperture, the greater the depth of field.
Higher Exposure
Each f stop change lets in either 2 times or ½ the
amount of light, depending on whether you are
opening up or stopping down. High f-stop =
Open up means to make the opening larger (but a Low aperture =
smaller number). Stop down means selecting an
Small opening =
aperture that is smaller in size (but bigger in number)
Less light =
Lower Exposure
Shutter Speed
Shutter speeds appear as whole numbers, but
are really fractions:
• 1/60 sec., 1/125 sec., 1/250 sec., 1/500 sec.
• Therefore 1/60 is a slower shutter speed
than 1/125, etc.
• When you change 1 stop in
Shutter speed, you are letting in either 2 times
or ½ the amount of light.

- Long shutter speeds spend more time letting light in, which can help in dark
environments and create artistic blur effects with movement
 - Short shutter speeds spends less time letting light in,
which allows for quicker pictures and the ability to
‘freeze time’ in great detail

So Shutter Speed is the length of time the camera’s lens shutter is

open – in other words, how long the camera spends taking the
picture
 EXAMPLE 2.1

A camera with a 40-mm-focal-length lens is producing properly exposed images with a lens opening diameter of 5 mm and
an exposure time of 1/125 sec (condition 1). If the lens opening is increased to 10 mm and the scene brightness does not
change, what exposure time should be used to maintain proper exposure (condition 2)?

Solution
We wish to maintain the same exposure for conditions 1 and 2. Hence,

Canceling constants, we obtain

 f-stop

f-stop = f/d
Suppose we have a camera with 50 mm focal length (f)

If f-stops = f/2.8, Then d = 50 mm/f/2.8 = 17.8 mm

If f-stop is f/16, then d = 50 mm/1/16 = 3.125 mm

As the f-stop number increases, the diameter of the lens opening decreases and image exposure decreases
EXAMPLE: Aperture calculation

Assuming d1 = f, where d1 = aperture diameter.

What is the f-stop if we reduce the Aperture to half (d2)

Solution:
Aperture diameter d1

d1 d2
A: the area of the lens aperture

d2 = d1/ √2 and
f – stop = f √2/ d1 = 1 √2 = 1.4
Solution
The exposure is maintained in both cases. Hence,

This is reduced to (d1)2t1 = (d2)2 t2

Where t1 = 1/500, and t2 = 1/1000

d1 = f/f–stop1 = f/4
d2 = f/f–stop2 we need to calculate f–stop2
(d1)2 = (f/4)2 , (d2)2= (f/f-stop2)2

(f-stop2)2 = f2/(d2)2 = 16 t2/t1 = 16 x ½ = 8, f-stop2= √8 = 2.8