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11
Inquiries,
Investigations &
Immersion
Quarter 4 – Module 4
Research Methodology
Inquiries, Investigations and Immersion – Grade 12
2nd Semester Quarter 3 Module 4: Presenting the Research Methodology
First Edition, 2021

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Inquiries,
Investigations and
Immersion
2nd Semester Quarter 1
Module 4: Research Methodology
Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our dear learners,
can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities, questions,
directions, exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you to
understand each lesson.

Each SLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you step-by-
step as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.

Pre-tests are provided to measure your prior knowledge on lessons in each

SLM. This will tell you if you need to proceed on completing this module or if
you need to ask your facilitator or your teacher’s assistance for better
understanding of the lesson. At the end of each module, you need to answer
the post-test to self-check your learning. Answer keys are provided for each
activity and test. We trust that you will be honest in using these.

In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher are also
provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on how
they can best help you on your home-based learning.

Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on any part
of this SLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises and
tests. And read the instructions carefully before performing each task.

If you have any questions in using this SLM or any difficulty in answering the
tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator.

Thank you.

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 Let Us Learn!

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It will help
you select suitable research design, data gathering instruments, and
sampling techniques. Also, it will guide you in creating a process of data
collection.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Describe adequately research design (either quantitative or

qualitative), data gathering instrument, sample, data collection and
analysis procedures, and preparation of data gathering instrument.

By the end of the module, the learners are expected to:

• Distinguish different research designs, data gathering

instruments, and sampling techniques;
• Construct a process of collecting data; and
• Relate the importance of different data collection procedures to
the overall research process.

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 Let Us Try!
Choose the best answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
paper.

1. The following are found in the writing of the methodology EXCEPT

a. Problem
b. Participants
c. Instruments
d. Research design and procedure

2. What data do quantitative methods primarily collect?

a. Descriptive c. Numerical
b. Visual d. Narrative

3. In a research method, which of the following means data

trustworthiness?
a. Validity c. Usability
b. Reliability d. Effectivity

4. Which describes all the steps in conducting the research study?

a. Design c. Instruments
b. Procedures d. Methods

5. Which of the following is considered in the questionnaires?

a. Careful selection of variables
b. Validation of the questionnaires
c. Well-defined criterion variables
d. Critical identification of extraneous variables

6. What is the data that has already been gathered?

a. Primary data c. Qualitative data
b. Quantitative data d. Secondary data

7. Which of the following research designs test theoretical methods in

real word situation?
a. Exploratory design
b. Mixed method design
c. Case study design
d. Cross-sectional design

Refer to the given situation below to answer items 8, 9, and 10.

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 Annie wanted to know the amount of money senior high school
students of XYZ National High School spends in a week. She randomly
surveyed 100 students in their school.

8. What is the sample?

a. All enrolled students in XYZ National High School
b. Senior high school students of XYZ National High School
c. 100 senior high school students of XYZ National High School
d. Students from three sections

9. What is the population?

a. All enrolled students in XYZ National High School
b. Senior high school students of XYZ National High School
c. 100 senior high school students of XYZ National High School
d. Students from three sections

10. What is the sampling method used?

a. Quota sampling
b. Simple random sampling
c. Stratified random sampling
d. Convenience sampling

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 Let Us Study

Research Design

A research design is a structure that is composed of strategies that will

help you answer your research questions (McCombes, 2019). The following
are some of the research designs compiled by The University of Southern
California (2021):

1. Action Research Design. A cyclical and solution-driven approach used

in improving a particular problem or situation in a community. The
study starts by exploring the issue. The information inferred from this
stage will serve as a basis for creating an intervention or solution. The
second stage involves implementing the intervention and collecting
observation. The researcher will use these data for further
understanding of the situation and modifying the intervention. This
cyclic process will continue until the researchers gain new knowledge
of the research problem.

2. Case Study Design. A method used in testing theoretical models in real-

world situations. It narrows down a broad field of research into a few
researchable examples.

3. Cross-Sectional Design. A research study that only measures the

differences between and among variables in people, subjects, or
phenomena, at one point in time. Groups are identified and selected
purposely instead of random allocation.

4. Descriptive Design. It helps answer the 5W questions (who, what, when,

where, and how) linked to the research problem; however, it cannot
explain the variables or conditions in a situation. Survey studies,
correlational research studies, assessment and evaluation studies, and
comparative studies are examples of descriptive design.

5. Experimental Design. Applicable when the conditions meet the basis for
a causality relationship: cause precedes effect, consistency in a causal
relationship, and high magnitude of correlation. This design specifies
the controlled and experimental groups. The researcher administers the
treatment only to the experimental group. They do this to compare the
difference between the two groups in terms of the dependent variable.
The difference is called the treatment effect. It measures the effectivity
of the treatment in the experiment.

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 6. Exploratory Design. Researchers use this design when there is little to
no prior information about an issue or research problem. The aim is to
gain a better understanding of the situation for future research.

7. Historical Design. Collecting, verifying, and synthesizing data from the

past to support or refute your hypothesis. It uses secondary sources
and some primary sources from the past, like diaries, reports, and
official records. The sources used must be authentic and valid.

8. Meta-Analysis Design. Systematically evaluates and summarizes the

results from selected existing studies based on strict criteria. The aim
is to have a general understanding of the research problem, aside from
reviewing existing knowledge.

9. Mixed-Method Design. This design combines quantitative and

qualitative data gathering techniques. The advantage of this design is
that the former can add meaning to the latter, while the latter can add
precision to the former. This design can provide more robust evidence
to support a conclusion or a set of recommendations.

There are three classifications of research design (Trochim, 2020). They

are the experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental designs.
Refer to Figure 1 to identify the research design category you will be using in
your research study.

Figure 1. Map of Research Design Classifications (Trochim, 2020).

Population, Sample, and Sampling Technique

Crucial in ensuring the accuracy and precision of an estimate leading

to a valid research finding are sample size determination and sampling
method in the study. As you recall, basic statistical terms, such as population,

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sample, and sampling, were discussed in your Statistics and Probability class.
Let us have a quick review of those terms.

In research, we generally study a population. It is an entire group of

people, organisms or things that share similar features and characteristics
under study. The students enrolled in your school, from grades 7 to 12, is a
population. To study a population, we select a sample. A sample is a
representation of the entire population carrying the same characteristics. The
Grade 12 students can be considered a sample of the total number of students
enrolled in your school. The idea of sampling is to select a portion of the larger
population and study that portion to gain information about the population.
Data are the result of sampling from a population (Illowsky & Dean, 2021).

There are two ways of sampling procedures: probability sampling and

non-probability sampling. Since you have recently studied quantitative
research, it is safe to assume that you still remember the different probability
sampling procedures. To refresh your memory, these are simple random
sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic
sampling. Now, we discuss the non-probability sampling procedures.

Non-Probability Sampling Procedures

There are cases where you cannot employ randomized selection. Do any
of the following procedures in case non-probability sampling does not
apply to your situation (Prieto et al., 2017):

• Convenience Sampling. This sampling method selects respondents

conveniently available to participate in a research study on a current
issue. An example of this is asking people in the streets to answer
questionnaires. Convenience sampling can be useful in exploratory
research design (Saunders et al., 2012).

• Snowball Sampling. Snowball sampling is a technique where the

researcher identifies a key informant to their research and then asks
that respondent to refer another person who will participate in the
study. This technique is applicable when researchers find difficulty
locating research participants to achieve the target sample size
(Dudovskiy, n.d.).

• Purposive Sampling. It is a sampling method where the researcher

selects the respondents of their study based on their judgment. TV
reporters stopping specific individuals on the street to ask their
opinions about certain political changes constitutes the most familiar
example in this sampling method (Saunders et al., 2012).

• Quota Sampling. Quota sampling is gathering a representative sample

from a group based on characteristics chosen by the researcher. For

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 example, you are conducting a research study in your school. You
require a representative sample of 30 students from each year level and
a total sample size of 150 respondents (for six grade levels). In addition,
you want equal numbers of males and females in each sample group.
Then, you conveniently look for 15 males and 15 females from each
group in your school (Faltado et al., 2016).

Classification of Data

As you have known from your Practical Research 1 and 2 courses, there
are two types of data – qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data is
examined through interpretation and analysis, while quantitative data is
analyzed through statistical methods (Bhandari, 2021). You collect qualitative
data if you want to explore ideas or theories. Meanwhile, quantitative data is
collected if your goal is obtaining precise and generalizable insights.

Aside from that, there are two sources of data during the conduct of
your research study. These are the primary data and secondary data. Each
type has different sources of information.

The primary data is the data collected directly from the source. These
data are in their rudimentary form. The data are not numerically processed
or have undergone normalization and statistical analysis. We refer to primary
data as first-hand information (Ullah, 2014).

A research instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze

data related to your research interests. The following instruments are used in
collecting primary data from experimental units, individuals, and households.

1. Interviews

The interviewer poses verbal questions to obtain verbal

answers from the interviewee. This is done with the assumption
that the former’s perspectives are meaningful and contribute to
the goal of the research study.

o Structured Interview. The interviewer asks structured

questions (from a questionnaire) to the interviewee while
following standard procedures.
o Unstructured or Non-directive Interview. The interviewer
asks a less formal set of questions. The interviewer does
not follow a specific format and same line of questioning.
The researcher asks additional questions that come to their
mind (“Non-directive Interview,” 2016). It includes open-
ended questions and spontaneous engagement.

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 o Focus Group Interview. The interviewer asks a group of
selected participants about their opinion or perception
about a specific topic. They utilize a prompt, which is a
question or statement that they throw out to the group. The
group will naturally discuss the subject while the
interviewer records their conversation.

It is unwise to conduct a face-to-face interview while it is not

safe to go outside and meet various people in person during the
pandemic. Thanks to technological development, we can still
have interviews via teleconferencing software (Zoom, Meet,
Skype). The downside of teleconference interviews is we cannot
observe the non-verbal cues of the research participants.

2. Observations

Observation is a data collection method where researchers

watch the behaviors, events, and physical characteristics of a
person, community, or natural setting. The researchers use this
method when they are more interested in the actions of the
participants rather than their ideas.

o Structured Observation. Conduct research at a specific

setting where researchers observe the participants in a
standardized procedure. Rather than writing a detailed
description of all behaviors noticed, researchers use codes
in observing behaviors.
o Naturalistic Observation. The researcher observes and
takes note of the spontaneous behavior of the participants
in their natural surroundings.
o Participant Observation. The researcher becomes part of
the group they are studying to gain a deeper understanding
of their lives.

3. Surveys

Survey research collects data by asking target participants to

answer questionnaires. These questionnaires usually include a
checklist and rating scales. Some survey forms include an
assessment of knowledge and test the participant's capacity to
apply this knowledge. They also have open-ended questions so
the respondent can elaborate their answer.

o Paper-Pencil Questionnaire. Researchers send printed

questionnaires to many target participants. This method is
cheaper and efficient. Also, the respondents feel

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 comfortable answering the questionnaire since their
responses are anonymous. Nonetheless, this method's
weakness is its low response rate.
o Online Surveys. The online survey is the most prevalent
research instrument in this time of community quarantine.
Like paper-pencil-questionnaire, this survey covers a large
population, except it happens online. You can create online
questionnaires using Google Forms, Microsoft Forms, and
Survey Monkey.

The secondary data source is the data that has already been gathered,
through primary sources, organized through tabulation, and undergone
statistical treatment (Ullah, 2014). They are readily available data that is in
books, journals, government websites, and newspapers. The following
websites are some of the data repositories online that you can use in your
research study.

• Philippines Open Data: https://data.gov.ph/

• World Bank Open Data: https://data.worldbank.org/
• PSA OpenSTAT: https://openstat.psa.gov.ph/
• COVID-19 Data Index: https://www.covid19dataindex.org/
• GeoRepository: https://georepository.com/home.html

Besides these online repositories, researchers proficient in information

technology can also obtain data from websites through data scraping. Data
scraping is an automated technique of collecting specific data from a
particular website using a Scraper bot (Cloudflare, n.d.). Through this
method, a person or company can collect prices and reviews of any product
from Lazada or Shopee. In this situation, the data collected can be used in
conducting market or competitive research.

Guidelines in Constructing a Research Instrument

(Passmore et al., 2002) provided a procedure in developing a questionnaire.

1. Identify the research problem or issue.

2. Plan the research project. Evaluate the impact and relevance of your
research topic. Check the feasibility of the study with regards to the
resources available and the given time frame.
3. Clearly define the research objectives and specify the research
questions and hypothesis to be tested, if applicable.
4. Review related literature. Assess how other researchers address
their research problem, specifically studies which conducted survey
research.

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 5. Develop or adapt existing survey items. List all the possible
questions that will answer your research questions. If you decided
to use existing survey items from related literature, justify its use.
Besides, consulting experts in the field you are studying will ensure
the validity of your research instrument.
6. Construct the survey questionnaire. Number the questionnaire
when you don't collect the names of the respondents. This action will
help you track down the survey questionnaires you distributed.
7. Conduct pilot tests. Distribute your survey questionnaire to your
peers or conduct exploratory research to determine the language
suitability and comprehensibility of your survey items and the
respondent's ease of following directions. Ask them to write remarks
or notes on the questions that are unclear to them. Their inputs will
help you improve your research instrument.
8. Administer the survey only when you are sure that your research
instrument is reliable and valid. Make sure it contains the
information that will answer your research questions. Remember
that you will distribute this tool to a large population. Redoing the
survey will be wasteful to your time and resources.

Characteristics of Good Research Instrument

In developing a research instrument, you must obtain information most

validly and reliably. It will guarantee the accuracy and consistency of the
information collected. But how do we test the validity and reliability of the
research instrument? What are they?

According to Field (2005), a research instrument is valid if it measures

what it aims to do. We can test validity in four ways: criterion validity, face
validity, content validity, and construct validity. Meanwhile, a reliable
research instrument demonstrates consistent results over repeated
measures. Table 1 shows the comparison of validity and reliability tests as
lifted from Taherdoost (2016).

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Table 1. Comparison of Validity Components (Taherdoost, 2016).
Validity Definition Type Technique
Component Suggested
Face Validity The extent that Recommended Post hoc theory,
measurement expert
instrument items assessment of
linguistically and items; Cohen’s
analytically look like Kappa Index
what is supposed to (CKI)
be measured
Content The extent that Highly Literature
Validity measurement Recommended review; expert
instrument items are panels or judges;
relevant and CVRs; Q-sorting
representative of the
target construct
Construct The extent that Mandatory MTMM; PCA;
Discriminant measures of different CFA; PLS AVE;
Validity constructs diverge or Q-sorting
minimally correlate
with one another
Construct The extent that Mandatory MTMM; PCA;
Convergent different measures of CFA; Q-sorting
Validity the same construct
converge or strongly
correlate with one
another
Criterion The extent that a Mandatory Regression
Predictive measure predicts Analysis,
Validity another measure Discriminant
Analysis
Criterion The extent that a Mandatory Correlation
Concurrent measure Analysis
Validity simultaneously
relates to another
measure that it is
supported to relate
Criterion The extent that a Mandatory Correlation
Postdictive measure is related to Analysis
Validity the scores on another,
already published in
past
Reliability The extent to which a Mandatory Cronbach’s
Internal measurement of a alpha;
Consistency phenomenon provides correlations;
stable and consistent SEM reliability
result coefficients

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 Let Us Practice

Determine the research design most appropriate for the following research
problems. The research design that we discussed in this lesson are Action
Research, Case Study, Cross-Sectional, Descriptive, Experimental,
Exploratory, Historical, Meta-Analysis, and Mixed Method. Write your answer
on a separate sheet of paper.

____________1. A description of how parents feel about the K to 12 program

implementations.
____________2. The relationship between a student’s math aptitude test and
grade in General Mathematics.
____________3. What are the success factors in setting up a small business?
____________4. How is the community quarantine affecting the economy of the
Philippines?
____________5. Effects of rutile on the strength of naturally aged seeds and
growth of spinach
____________6. Identifying sources of ABC Academy’s success in teaching
mathematics (in terms of students’ achievement in
mathematics and their attitude toward the subject).
____________7. What is the impact of breastfeeding on the risk of obesity of
children?
____________8. How do we reduce the risk of severe bleeding of patients with
deranged or unknown clotting profiles based on previous
studies?
____________9. Did Rizal retract?
____________10. Effectiveness of flipped classroom in senior high school
students.

Let Us Practice More

What research design would you use in any of the following research
topics? Choose and discuss at least two.

1. “Zombies, Brains, and Tweets: The Neural and Emotional Correlates

of Social Media”
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. “Voting Habits and What Missing an Election Tell Us About Them.”
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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 Let Us Remember

Fill in the blank with the correct word or phrase to complete each sentence.

1. In _____________, the researcher observes and takes note of the

spontaneous behavior of the participants in their natural
surroundings.
2. ____________ have open-ended questions so the respondent can
elaborate their answer.
3. Researchers conduct __________ with the assumption that the
research participant’s perspectives are meaningful and contribute to
the goal of the research study.
4. The _____________ is the most prevalent research instrument used in
this time of community quarantine.
5. In _____________, research is conducted at a specific setting where
researchers observe participants in a standardized procedure.
6. In _____________, a prompt is utilized, which is a question or statement
that researchers throw out to the group.
7. Researchers use _____________ when they are more interested in the
actions of the participants rather than their ideas.
8. In _____________, the interviewer asks structured questions to the
interview while following standard procedures.
9. A _____________ is a tool used in collecting, measuring, and analyzing
data related to the research study.
10. ______________ include assessment of knowledge and tests the
participant’s capacity to apply this knowledge.

Let Us Assess

Task A. Identify the sampling technique used in the given scenario. Write the
chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.

1. It occurs when every member of a population has an equal chance of

being selected for a sample.
a. Stratified random sampling
b. Area of probability sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Simple random sampling

2. Stratified random sampling is the preferred strategy when:

a. You want to include specific subgroups in the study
b. No sampling frame is available.

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 c. Only a part of the population is accessible to the researchers.
d. The population is very small.

3. You are interested in factors that predict loyalty to sports teams. Which
of the following would be an example of purposive strategy?
a. Obtain a directory of season ticket holders of a professional
sports team.
b. Ask friends for referrals of sports fanatics to your study.
c. Attend the next game of winning professional sports team.
d. Put a notice in the local newspapers announcing the study.

4. Convenient samples are frequently used in student research because

they:
a. Are more appropriate for statistical analysis
b. Take less time and money
c. Yield representative samples
d. Are preferred by instructors

5. The sampling frame is the

a. Strategy used to select study participants
b. Technique used to recruit study participants
c. Population that is accessible for study
d. Population of interest, as defined through available record

Let Us Enhance

Task A. In the given sample researches below, explore the various ways
or techniques that you could use to come up with valid and reliable data. In
other words, how will collect data concerning about the topic? Write five
questions for surveys and three questions for interviews.

1. Topic: COVID-19 Awareness of Senior High School Students

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. Topic: Attitude and Behavior of Tagumeños on Social Distancing

Protocols
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

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 Task B. Write a draft of your research methodology. Start by copying
the table on a separate paper and supply the information found on the table.
Refer to Table 2 for the rubric in evaluating your research methodology.

Elements Research Topic

Research Design
Population
Sampling Method
Data Collection Procedure

Table 2. Rubrics in Evaluating Research Methodology (Faltado, 2016)

Criterion for 1 2 3 4
Methodology
Research The research The research The research The purpose,
Design design is design is design has questions,
inappropriate confusing or been identified and design are
or has been incomplete described in mutually
identified and given the sufficiently supportive
or described research detailed and coherent.
using questions and terms. Some Attention has
standard sampling limitations been given to
terminology. strategy. and eliminating
Limitations Important assumptions alternative
and limitations have been explanations
assumptions and identified. and
are omitted. assumptions controlling
have not been extraneous
identified. variables.
Appropriate
and important
limitations
and
assumptions
have been
clearly stated.
The Context, The context, The The context, The
Population, population, or description of population, description of
and sample was the context, and sampling the context
Sampling not identified population, or strategy was and
or described. sampling adequately population
The sampling strategy was identified and was
strategy was confusing, described. The meaningful,

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 inappropriate lacked size of the including both
for the relevance to population, quantitative
research the purpose, sample, and and
questions. was comparison qualitative
incomplete, or groups was description.
failed to identified. The sampling
identify process was
specific reasonable to
quantitative or recruit a
qualitative representative
details. sample of the
population.
Attention was
given to
controlling for
extraneous
factors and
sampling
error.
Research Instruments Description of Instruments Descriptions
Instruments and the and of instruments
observation instruments observation and
protocols for (purpose, protocols were observation
gathering data form, and identified by protocols
were not elements) or name and included
identified by observation described. purpose
name or protocols were statements,
described in a confusing, type and
meaningful incomplete, or number or
way. Validity lacked items, and
and reliability relevance to type of scores.
information the research Evidence of
was omitted. questions and the reliability
variables. was
presented.

Let Us Reflect

In your own words, write your understanding of the concepts

discussed in this lesson and their overall importance in the research process.
Write your reflection on a separate sheet of paper.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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 5
Let Us Try Let Us Practice
1. A 6. D 1. Descriptive 6. Mixed Method
2. C 7. C 2. Descriptive 7. Cross-Sectional
3. B 8. C 3. Exploratory 8. Meta-Analysis
4. D 9. B 4. Case Study 9. Historical
5. B 10. B 5. Experimental 10. Action Research
Let Us Remember
1. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
2. SURVEYS
3. INTERVIEWS
4. ONLINE SURVEY
5. STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
6. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
7. OBSERVATION
8. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
9. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
10. SURVEYS
Answer key to Activities
 References

Adelaida B. Almeida, Amelita A. Gaerlan, and Norita E. Manly, Research

Fundamentals, Quezon City: Adriana Publishing Co., Inc., 2016, 79-
102

Cindy Passmore, Alison E. Dobbie, Michael Parchman, and James Tysinger,

“Guidelines for constructing a survey,” Fam Med. 34(4) 2002: 281-286,
accessed February 24, 2021,
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12017142/

Hamed Taherdoost, “Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument;

How to Test the Validation of a Questionnaire/Survey in a Research,”
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10.2139/ssrn.3205040

John Dudovskiy, “Covenience Sampling,” research-methodolody, n.d.,

https://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-
collection/convenience-sampling/

“Nondirective Interview,” MBA Skool Team, last updated April 12, 2016,
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hr-terms/15709-nondirective-interview.html

Martyn Shuttleworth, “Case Study Research Design,”, April 1, 2008,

https://explorable.com/case-study-research-design

Muhammad Imdad Ullah, “Primary and Secondary Data in Statistics,” Basic

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statistics

Nelia G. Prieto, Victoria C. Naval, and Teresita G. Carey, Practical Research

2, Quezon City: LORIMAR Publishing, Inc., 2017, 108-118

Pritha Bhandari, “A step-by-step guide to data collection,” Scribbr, last

updated February 15, 2020,
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/data-collection/

Ruben E. Faltado III et al, Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research for

SHS), Quezon City: LORIMAR Publishing, Inc., 2016, 60-92
Shona McCombes, “How to Create a Research Design,” Scribbr, June 13,
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