Environmental Politics
Environmental Politics
ESM 306
ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
COURSE WRITER
DR. A. M. OLAYIWOLA
Department of Geography
Obafemi Awolowo University
Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
CONTENT PAGE
Table of Content 2
Introduction 3
What you will learn in this course 3
Course aim 4
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ESM 306 ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
Course objectives 4
Working through this course 4
Course materials 4
Study units 5
Text Books and references 6
Assessment 7
Tutor-marked assignment 7
Final examination and grading 7
Summary 7
Introduction
The study of environmental politics is concerned with the environment and its attendant problems. In
recent years environmental politics has moved from a peripheral interest to a central concern within
the discipline of politics. This course aims to reinforce this trend by showing the centrality of
environmental politics to the study of environment per se. The course presents politics in a broad
sense and focuses on mainstream issues such as the policy process and new social movements as
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well as emerging areas such as cultural politics and political economy. Also, the course will analyse
contemporary political practices with regards to the environment and/or explore possible future
directions for the betterment of the environment. The course will be of interest not only to academics
and students working in the environmental field, but will also demand to be read within the broader
discipline.
This course is designed to introduce you to environmental politics and policy with special reference
to Nigeria. However, the foundation of the course rests on the diverse perspectives of radical
ecology.
The level and pace of socio-economic advancement in developing countries has important
implications for the efficacy with which legislature and institutional regimes are developed and
applied for the promotion of environmental management. In the first instance, the imperatives of
rapid social and economic development could influence the political will to initiate, implement and
enforce appropriate environmental policies and laws. Secondly, these development imperatives often
circumscribe the limits of resources available for environmental protection. Thirdly, implementing
agencies often operate under severe resource constraints and fourthly, the relatively low level of
public awareness, particularly environmental awareness does little to trigger a sense of urgency and
resolve for political and legislative action for environmental management for sustainable
development. In the absence of familiarity with environmental legislation and the environmental
impacts of human activities there is likely to be no spontaneous observance of normative demands
for efforts at environmental protection and enhancement. In the last instance, the desire to satisfy
basic social needs could very well override even basic environmental considerations.
Environmental management in many countries, especially the developing countries, is achieved not
only through environmental legislation, i.e. laws, regulations and rules which are enforceable in a
court of law, but also through administrative provisions such as administrative orders, technical
standards etc. which are applied through various administrative mechanisms. This is especially true
in relation to the implementation of international environmental conventions. Often, many years pass
before provisions are established in laws for the implementation and application of the provisions of
international agreements. It is equally true in the implementation, especially at its early stages, of
environmental policy, such as the requirement of environmental impact assessment in respect of
development projects and the procedures to be followed in respect of such assessments. From this
perspective, environmental legislation is one of the chief tools for formulating environmental policy
while also being one of the major instruments for implementing it.
By the end of the course you should be prepared for more advanced study of environmental politics
and policy, or for a public service internship with a governmental agency or environmental
movement organization. Also, it is expected that you should have polished your analytical skills,
skills in the use of evidence, and research skills.
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ESM 306 ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
Course Aim
The aim of this course is to make the learners to be more critical, active, and independent-thinking
democratic citizens capable of environmental leadership.
Course Objectives
After going through this course, you should be able to:
define and explain the concepts of politics and environment;
identify the various types of environmental resources in Nigeria;
identify and explain environmental problems in Nigeria;
discuss the various environmental management strategies adopted in Nigeria;
describe the influences of contaminated environment on human health;
describe current legislation and regulation regarding environmental issues;
explain the meaning and highlight the principles of environmental justice in relation to the
Nigerian situation; and
evaluate the environmental problems faced by the inhabitants of the Niger Delta Area of
Nigeria through oil exploration.
Course Materials
You will be provided with the following materials:
i. A course guide
ii. Study units
In addition, this course comes with a list of recommended text books which are not compulsory for
you to buy or read, but are essential to give you more insight to various topics discussed.
Study Units
This course is divided into 15 units. The following are the study units contained in this course:
Module 1 The Environment
Unit 1 Principle, Aim and Scope of Environmental Politics
Unit 2 Environmental Resources
Unit 3 Environmental Quality
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Unit 4 Environmental Policy
Module 2 Environmental Problems
Unit 1 Deforestation
Unit 2 Pollution
Unit 3 Waste Disposal System
Unit 4 Human Health
Module 3 Management and Conservation of Environmental Resources
Unit 1 Environmental Management
Unit 2 Environmental Conservation
Unit 3 Conflict and Collaboration in Natural Resource Management
Module 4 Natural Resources and Environmental Impact Assessment
Unit 1 Environmental Justice
Unit 2 Environmental Activism
Unit 3 Democratic Decentralization of Natural Resources Management
Unit 4 Environmental Impact Assessment
Module 1
In Unit 1, you will be taken through the scope of Environmental Politics as well as definitions of
certain concepts that are basic to the understanding of the course. Unit 2 deals with the
environmental resources; their types and importance. While Unit 3 is concerned with Environmental
Quality, in Unit 4, you will be taken through Environmental Policy, its origin, principles and
problems in the developing world.
Module 2
In this module you will be taken through the meaning, nature and major types of Environmental
Problems. While Unit 1 focuses on deforestation, Unit 2 centres on Human Health with particular
focus on the influence of the industrial sector, and the children health. In unit 3, you will be taken
through Environmental Justice. Unit 4 is devoted to Environmental Politics with special reference to
the Niger delta area of Nigeria.
Module 3
This module is designed to take you through the processes and problems of Environmental
Management and the relationships between man and the nature. In unit 1, you will learn about
Environmental Management. While Unit 2 is concerned with Environmental Conservation, Unit 3 is
designed to familiarise you with the Conflict and Collaboration in Natural Resource Management.
Module 4
In Unit 1 you will be taken through the general Guidelines on Environmental Justice. In Unit 2, you
will learn about Environmental Activism: strategies and the influence of climate change. Unit 3 is
devoted to Democratic Decentralization of Environmental Resources and its outcomes. In Unit 4,
you will be taken through Environmental Impact Assessment, and current status of Environmental
Laws in Developing Countries with special reference to Nigeria.
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ESM 306 ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
Amid. D. A. (1998) “In Search of Partners in a Context of Multiple Regulators: The Perspective of
an Operator in Nigeria Oil Industry”. A paper presented at the International seminar on the
Petroleum Industry and the Nigerian Environment, Abuja Sheraton Hotel & Towers .
Anderson, Brian (1996) “Environmental Issues and Management Strategies”. Keynote UNEP EIA
Training Resource Manual, Case studies from developing countries address at the
International seminar on the Petroleum Industry and the Nigerian Environment. Port Harcourt.
Ayling, R. and Kelly, K. (1997). “Dealing with conflict: natural resources and dispute resolution”.
Commonwealth Forestry Review, vol. 76(3), pp. 182–185.
Bingham, G. (1986) Resolving environmental disputes: a decade of experience. Harrisonburg,
Donnely and Sons,
Bob, E. (1995) "With Liberty and Justice for All: The Emergence and Challenge of Grassroots
Environmentalism," in Taylor, B. R. (ed.), Grassroots Resistance: The Global Emergence of Popular
Environmental Rebellion. Albany: Suny Press.
Castro, A. P. and Ettenger, K. (1996). “Indigenous knowledge and conflict management: exploring
local perspectives and mechanisms for dealing with community forest disputes”. Presented at the
Global e-Conference on Forests, Trees and People Programme of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, January - April.
Delta State Environmental Protection Agency (1997) Delta State Environmental Protection Agency
Edict No. 5.
Eberlee, J. (1999) “Alternative Approaches to Managing Conflict over Natural Resources”. IDRC Re
ports, vol. 278, pp. 1–5.
Federal Government of Nigeria (1989) National Policy on the Environment
Federal Government of Nigeria (1992) “Decree 59”, Federal Environmental Protection Agency
(FEPA ).
Federal Government of Nigeria (1992) Environmental Impact Assessment Decree 86.
Federal Government of Nigeria (1995) “Environmental Impact Assessment procedural Guidelines”,
Federal Environmental Protection Agency.
Jesse C. R. (2003). “Democratic Decentralization of Natural Resources Management”, World
Resources Institute, June
Kothari, A.; Anuradha, R. V. and Pathak, N. (1998) “Community-based conservation: issues and
prospects”. In Kothari, A.; Anuradha, R. V.; Pathak, N. and Taneja, B., (eds.), Communities and
conservation: natural resource management in South and Central Asia. New Delhi, Sage
Publications.
Merchant, C. (1992). Radical Ecology: The Search for a Liveable World. New York: Routledge,
Chapman & Hall.
Michael, E. K. (1996). Environmental Policy and Politics: Toward the Twenty-First Century New
York: Harper Collins.
Nigeria National Petroleum Company (1991) “Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the
Petroleum Industry in Nigeria”. Department of Petroleum Resources.
Peet, R. and Watts, M. (1996) Liberation ecologies: environment, development and social
movements. London, Routledge.
Raph, Mulders (1997). The State of Environmental Impact Assessment in the Developing
Countries. The Hague.
Rivers State Environmental Protection Agency (1994) River State Environmental Protection Agency
Edict No. 2.
United Nations Environment Program, (1991) Environmental law Guidelines and Principles
Environmental Impact Assessment.
Williamson, R. (1999). “The international fur ban and public policy advocacy: the significance of
Inuit cultural persistence”. Practicing Anthropology, vol. 21(1), pp. 2–8.
Assessment
There are two components of assessment for this course. They are the Tutor-Marked Assignment
(TMA) and the End of Course Examination
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Tutor-Marked Assignment
The TMA is the continuous assessment component of your course. It accounts for 30% of the total
score. The TMAs will be given to you by your facilitator and you will return it after you have done
the assignment.
We wish you success in this course and hope that you will apply the knowledge gained to effectively
manage your environment such that Nigeria may be a better place to live.
Good luck!
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ESM 306 ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
ESM 306
ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
COURSE WRITER
DR. A. M. OLAYIWOLA
Department of Geography
Obafemi Awolowo University
Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
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ESM 306 ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Module 1 The Environment 3
Unit 1 Principle, Aim and Scope of Environmental Politics 3
Unit 2 Environmental Resources 7
Unit 3 Environmental Quality 13
Unit 4 Environmental Policy 17
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The level and pace of socio-economic advancement in the world today has important implications for
the efficacy with which legislature and institutional regimes are developed and applied for the
promotion of environmental management. In the developing countries, particularly, the imperatives
of rapid social and economic development could influence the political will to initiate, implement
and enforce appropriate environmental policies and laws. These development imperatives often
circumscribe the limits of resources available for environmental protection. The implementing
agencies often operate under severe resource constraints and, the relatively low level of public
awareness, particularly environmental awareness does little to trigger a sense of urgency and resolve
for political and legislative action for environmental management for sustainable development. In the
absence of familiarity with environmental legislation and the environmental impacts of human
activities there is likely to be no spontaneous observance of normative demands for efforts at
environmental protection and enhancement. In the last instance, the desire to satisfy basic social
needs could very well override even basic environmental considerations.
From the fore-going, the main aim of this course is to develop the critico-creative thinking habit of
the learners about issues relating to the environment. This is with the view of explaining the rationale
for government involvement in environmental issues, and be able to discuss the impact of such
involvement.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, learners should be able to
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define and explain basic concepts such as the environment, natural resources, environmental
assets, biodiversity, and environmental politics; and
discuss the scope of environmental politics as an academic discipline.
3.1 DEFINITIONS OF BASIC CONCEPTS
To start with, let us familiarise ourselves with this course “Environmental Politics” by understanding
the meaning of certain concepts and terms that are contained therein.
3.1.1 ENVIRONMENT
The "environment" is everything that creates natural conditions of the existence of organisms
including man, and it is a precondition of their further development. Its components are mainly the
air, water, minerals, soil, and living organisms. These can be grouped broadly into two classes as:
abiotic and biotic components.
It is important to note that our environment is well endowed with naturally-occurring assets, from
soil and rocks to majestic landscapes and a wide variety of vegetations and animals. Rivers and
streams also play an important role in defining “our environment”. Some of these are in good
condition and are worthy of protection, whilst many have become degraded and require a helping
hand.
3.1.5 BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the variety of all life forms. It is the sum total of all species of plants and animals,
their inherent genetic makeup, and the ecosystems that support the communities of interdependent
species. Environmental Services (alternatively called Ecosystem Services) refers to the conditions
and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that make them up, sustain and
fulfil human life.
Biodiversity contributes to scenery, diversity and recreational opportunities within an area, whether
recognised or not. Thus, there are strong social ties to biodiversity at a geographical level. Some
elements of biodiversity are utilised for economic benefits, ranging from timber extraction and
sawmilling to honey production and bush tucker foods.
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enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. A condition of environmental justice
exists when environmental risks and hazards and investments and benefits are equally distributed
with a lack of discrimination, whether direct or indirect, at any jurisdictional level; and when access
to environmental investments, benefits, and natural resources are equally distributed; and when
access to information, participation in decision making, and access to justice in environment-related
matters are enjoyed by all.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Drawing on examples from both the developed and the developing countries, we have been able to
identify and examine the networks among actors and organisations that connect local mobilizations
to the larger environmental movement and political systems, the ways in which local disputes are
framed in order to connect with national and global issues, and the persistent impacts of the
peculiarities of place upon environmental campaigns.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
Biodiversity is the variety of all life forms.
Environmental Services, also referred to as ‘Ecosystem Services’, refers to the conditions and
processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that make them up, sustain and
fulfil human life.
Environmental freedom implies the rights of individual as provided by nature.
There are four aspects of Environmental Politics:
• examination of the evolution of environmental movements and parties;
• provision of analysis of the making and implementation of public policy in the area
of the environment at international, national and local levels;
• transfer of comment on ideas generated by the various environmental movements and
organisations, and by individual theorists; and
• covering of the international environmental issues which are of increasing salience.
The primary starting points for environmental politics should include the concern for:
• irreversible diminution of the earth’s life support systems;
• the consequences of ever-increasing throughput of material and energy as means of
satisfying publics and resolving (or avoiding) conflicts; and
• the injustices of uneven distribution of environmental benefits and harms.
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CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Environmental resources are not evenly distributed in space. The most highly developed nations
enjoy material standards inconceivable to their forebears at the turn of the century, and still well
beyond much of the rest of the world. Much of this is due, not simply to greater exploitation of the
world's resources, but to more efficient systems of exchange, leading to better allocation of
resources. This can be seen by considering how easily a country can collapse when its economic
system fails to function, despite a super-abundance of resources.
However, owning a lot of resources may not ensure prosperity, unless at the same time there is a
system of resource allocation available to make efficient use of these. Because of concerns about
long term sustainability of environmental resources, therefore it is necessary to reconsider some of
the ways in which resources are allocated.
In dealing with reproducible stocks of assets produced by humans, such as buildings, infrastructure,
plant and equipment, we know that what is destroyed or wrongly constructed can eventually be
replaced or corrected. There are four groups of characteristics shared by many environmental
resources which create particular difficulties for allocative systems when we consider questions of
sustainability. These can be summarised as follows:
♦ irreversibility
♦ uncertainty
♦ market externalities
♦ absence of property rights.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students should be able to
itemise the components of the environment;
identify and classify natural resources according to their characteristics; and
discuss the replenishing attributes of environmental resources.
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ESM 306 ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
Atmosphere
The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin
layer of gases that envelops the earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. The atmosphere retains
heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes. Table 2.1 contains the
composition of the atmosphere by volume (in descending order).
In sum,
Nitrogen and oxygen are the main components of the atmosphere by volume and these two
gases make up approximately 99% of the dry atmosphere
Oxygen is used and reused by green plant and man
Water vapour varies in concentration in the atmosphere both spatially and temporally
Carbon dioxide has increased due to human induced burning from fossil fuels, deforestation,
and other forms of land-use change
The average concentration of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide is now increasing at a rate of
0.2 to 0.3% per year
The ozone layer of the earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount of
ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface.
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Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere refers to the body of water on the earth’s surface. An ocean is a major body of
saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the earth's surface (an area
of some 361 million square kilometers) is covered by water. Hydrosphere includes both the flowing
and stagnant water bodies such as oceans, seas, lakes, creeks, lagoons, rivers and streams. An ocean
is a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller
seas. The major oceanic divisions are (in descending order of size) the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic
Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean (which is sometimes subsumed as the southern
portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans), and the Arctic Ocean (which is sometimes
considered a sea of the Atlantic). The Pacific and Atlantic may be further subdivided by the equator
into northerly and southerly portions. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays and
other names. There are also salt lakes, which are smaller bodies of landlocked saltwater that are not
interconnected with the World Ocean. Two notable examples of salt lakes are the Aral Sea and the
Great Salt Lake.
A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea or another
river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching
another body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream,
creek, brook, rivulet, and rill; there is no general rule that defines what can be called a river. Many
names for small rivers are specific to geographic location; one example is Burn in Scotland and
North-east England. A river is part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally
collected from precipitation through surface runoff, groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of
stored water in natural ice and snowpacks (i.e., from glaciers).
A lake (from Latin lacus) is a terrain feature (or physical feature), a body of liquid on the surface of a
world that is localized to the bottom of basin. Natural lakes on the earth are generally found in
mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation. Other lakes are found in
endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of the world, there are many
lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age. All lakes are temporary
over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin
containing them.
Lithosphere
The earth's crust, or continental crust, is the outermost solid land surface of the planet, is chemically
and mechanically different from underlying mantle, and has been generated largely by igneous
processes in which magma (molten rock) cooled and solidified to form solid land. Plate tectonics,
mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in
terms of energy transformations in the earth's crust.
Biosphere
Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the
biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation,
response to stimuli and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of
organisms. Properties common to terrestrial organisms (plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea and
bacteria) are that they are cellular, carbon-and-water-based with complex organization, having a
metabolism, a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. An entity with these properties is
generally considered life. However, not every definition of life considers all of these properties to be
essential. Human-made analogs of life may also be considered to be life.
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The biosphere is the part of earth's outer shell - including air, land, surface rocks and water - within
which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest
geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living
things and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks),
hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air). Currently the entire Earth contains over 75 billion tons
(150 trillion pounds) of biomass (life), which lives within various environments within the biosphere.
Part of the reason for this non-exhaustible characteristic is that use of supplies of this type of
resource by one group of people does not preclude other groups from benefiting from the same
supply of the resource. Whatever the level of human demands on them, their availability cannot be
affected by exhaustion. There is therefore no need to be concerned about regulating access to or use
of this type of resource, because in economic terms it is not scarce.
3.2.3 Sustainability
These are resources which are both renewable and also exhaustible. It is with this type of
environmental resource that we have the choice of selecting a rate of usage which will allow us to
consume supplies for an indefinite period, or a rate which will result in the disappearance of the
resource within the foreseeable future. This category of environmental resources is made available to
us as a flow from a renewable but exhaustible terrestrial environmental stock. The phrase "harvesting
the stock" is often used to illustrate that we are making use of a yield from the stock which can be
replenished. The rate at which we decide to harvest the yield of any renewable but exhaustible
environmental stock will determine whether we actually exhaust it. If we take too large a harvest,
then the stock is likely to diminish to the point that it may become non-viable and disappear for
good.
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Suppose we apply the same trial and error approach to the use of exhaustible environmental assets.
Because of the nature of such resources, we might find ourselves in serious trouble. If the decision
we take is wrong, and we incorporate a major error of judgement, we might completely wipe out our
stock of the environmental asset, with no possibility ever of replacing it. Under these circumstances,
the penalties faced by not only ourselves but future generations for making wrong judgements about
such resources seems to be much too high to leave it to trial and error. A similar problem applies in
the decisions we take about depleting non-renewable resources. If we choose too high a rate of
depletion, we may end up running out of essential supplies of non- renewable resources before we
have the opportunity of developing sustainable substitutes, and there would be little we could do
about this. The market rewards for successful judgements and penalties for wrong decisions when
applied to environmental resources seem to be rather ineffective when the decisions involve
irreversible changes in resources.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this lecture, we have seen how a classification of environmental resources according to their
allocative characteristics can help us understand why they pose difficulties for any allocative
management systems. This led us to draw two overall conclusions:
firstly, that simple reliance on market mechanisms to ensure sustainable use of environmental
resources is likely To prove unsuccessful, and to produce results which may be both
damaging an` irreversible; and
secondly, that the absence of any form of property rights or ownership is also likely to
encourage unsustainable use of environmental resources.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
the environment consists of both the biotic and the abiotic components;
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environmental resources can be sorted on the basis of the following three sets of criteria:
renewability, exhaustibility and sustainability.
some resources are both renewable and exhaustible.
some forms of environmental resources can be replenished in relatively short periods of time
through physical as well as or instead of biological processes.
the market rewards for successful judgements and penalties for wrong decisions when applied
to environmental resources seem to be rather ineffective when the decisions involve
irreversible changes in resources.
as we destroy our highly structured material resources to create economic growth, so we
increase the planet's entropy levels.
a principle is increasingly being adopted by policy makers in taking allocative decisions
which involve environmental resources that are non-renewable or exhaustible.
Anderson, J.; Gauthier, M.; Thomas, G. and Wondolleck, J. (1996) “Setting the stage. Presented at
the Global e-Conference on Addressing Natural Resource Conflict Through Community
Forestry, Jan–Apr 1996”. Forests, Trees and People Programme of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Eberlee, J. (1999) “Alternative approaches to managing conflict over natural resources”. IDRC
Reports, 278, pp. 1–5.
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CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term environment is all-encompassing. It is the entire surroundings of man, made up of both
living and non-living components. Living components include plants and animals in their various
forms, while non-living components include the air, water bodies, landscape, built up areas,
infrastructures, etc. Environmental management simply refers to man’s application of scientific,
technical and social knowledge and skills in managing all components of the environment to ensure
that the environment is not stressed beyond its productive capacity at any given time. The concept of
managing the environment such that it can continue to provide basic needs and services for the
present and future generations is referred to as sustainable environmental management.
There are lots of challenges in the task of managing the environment. Generally, people tend to look
at the environment as God-given and feel that there is no need to care for it. In the struggle for
survival and development, man creates a lot of negative impacts on the environment. These impacts
range from over-exploitation of resources, destruction of ecosystem, to air and water pollution
problems. For instance, deforestation, indiscriminate bush burning, land mass clearing for agriculture
or for urban development and mining activities can all lead to soil erosion, flooding and water
pollution. On the other hand, gaseous emission and discharge of effluents from manufacturing
industries can cause serious pollution of air and water. Severe soil erosion can impoverish rich land,
resulting in poor agricultural yield while water pollution can negatively affect fish production in our
rivers. In Lagos, for example, people talk about “odo aro” (meaning purple-coloured river). This is as
a result of liquid waste discharged from neighbouring industrial plants into the river, which change
the colour and chemical composition of the river, thereby making it inhabitable for many aquatic
organisms.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
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appreciate the need for a quality environment.
The first step towards a successful achievement is planning. Thus our discussion on environmental
quality shall begin with an overview of environmental planning.
Environmental planning seeks to improve and protect environmental quality- for both the urban
residents and rural dwellers, although the focus is usually on the urban environment- both through
controlling the generation of pollution and through segregating activities that are environmentally
incompatible (Miller and Roo, 1997). The organizational structure involved in environmental
planning is as summarized in Figure 3.1.
Effective environmental planning requires the effective interaction and overlay between three
components - hardware, software and heart-ware.
Hardware consists of the physical fabric of a city - infrastructure, buildings, railway, roads,
ports etc.
Software consists of sets of rules, and regulations, laws and legislation, ordinances, including
habits, ethics, and traditionally established codes of conduct.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a term that
encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof.
The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished by components:
Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive human
intervention, including all vegetation, animals, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere and
natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries.
Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as
air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not
originating from human activity.
The natural environment is contrasted with the built environment, which comprises the areas and
components that are strongly influenced by humans. A geographical area is regarded as a natural
environment (with an indefinite article), if the human impact on it is kept under a certain limited
level.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
effective environmental planning requires the effective interaction and overlay between three
components - hardware, software and heart-ware;
the urban centres today are beset with environmental crises due to urbanization and
unplanned development;
urban renewal is a veritable means of improving, environmental quality in Nigerian cities;
urban problems have led to the need for urban renewal in order to promote good urban image;
characteristics of a good environmental quality should include availability of housing units at
different income levels, pollution-free, and clean surroundings, which enhance good health;
it is the common understanding of natural environment that underlies the advocates for
various actions and policies in the interest of protecting what nature remains in the natural
environment, or restoring or expanding the role of nature in this environment; and
mega development projects pose special challenges and risks to the natural environment.
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CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Environmental policy is a declaration on intentions and principles related to total environmental
profile, which provides framework for activities and for determination of environmental goals and
target values. Environment protection policy is a written declaration on principles and intentions in
this sphere. It takes up a quality policy, provides framework for activities in the sphere of
environment protection. It is declared by the General Director and it is available for company’s
employees and public on the notice board of the company.
Recent research on the links between pollution regulation and environmental innovation suggests
that environmental policy may not sufficiently explain the recently observed trends in
environmentally beneficial technological innovation. It is now apparent that pollution control
innovations are determined by a complex web of additional interacting factors.
Generally speaking, environmental regulation in Africa remains relatively weak while there is
insufficient institutional capacity to deal with environmental pollution problems. Even South Africa
with relatively advanced manufacturing had not established a comprehensive programme of
industrial pollution control until the second half of the 1990s. However, Nigeria appears to be an
exception to the general African situation. In 1988, the government of Nigeria established a Federal
Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) to oversee and manage environmental regulatory
processes in Nigeria. Industrial pollution control, which had previously been carried out on a rather
ad hoc basis, thus came under the purview of FEPA. Despite this, policy approach in dealing with
industrial pollution in Nigeria has been mainly "command and control" in nature.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students should be able to
discuss the influence of environmental politics on human activities; and
explain the considerations involved in the negotiation and implementation of effective
governance strategies for the harmonization of the environment.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Environmental policy is regarded as the main driver for industrial innovations that reduce external
diseconomies of industrial production in both developed and developing countries. In Africa,
environmental policy is relatively weak and there is insufficient institutional capacity to deal with
environmental pollution problems.
While environmental policy is necessary to make firms appreciate and perhaps accept responsibility
for the external diseconomies of their production activities, the factors determining the
implementation of environmentally benign technical change largely transcend the traditional notion
of environmental policy as the stimulus for innovation in pollution control.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
Theoretical models linking environmental policy and environmentally benign technological
innovation are limited in their empirical applications.
The focus of the theoretical viewpoints is not on the kind of technical change induced by
policy, but rather the kind of policy or optimal mix of policies that could achieve a
predetermined level of environmental quality or pollution reduction.
Environmental policy is necessary to make firms appreciate and perhaps accept responsibility
for the external diseconomies of their production activities. The factors determining the
implementation of environmentally benign technical change largely transcend the traditional
notion of environmental policy as the stimulus for innovation in pollution control.
Studies on environmental regulation and industrial pollution control in developing countries
rarely focus on the impact of environmental policy on technology responses of firms.
Many developing countries lack the appropriate institutional context for developing and
managing elaborate environmental policy instruments such as pollution taxes and tradable
emission permits.
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UNDP (2001) "Making New Technologies Work for Human Development", Human
Development Report 2001, New York: United Nations Development Programme.
UNIT 1 DEFORESTATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Forests
3.2 Importance of Forests
3.3 Causes of Deforestation
3.4 Impacts of Deforestation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Among the hazards that attend the life of every human being is a global danger arising from the
pressure that human activities are exerting on the environment. This has put the environment to be on
the edge, and may continue to be. One of such ways in which man is causing serious problem to the
environment is deforestation.
Deforestation implies the long-term or permanent loss of forest cover and its transformation into
another land use. It also refers to the long-term reduction of the tree canopy cover below a 10 percent
threshold. Over 16 million hectares of forest is destroyed each year around the globe causing one of
the largest and most rapid extinction events ever on the planet. In tropical areas of the world the
forests harbour more than 50% of terrestrial biodiversity and remove over 1.3 gigatons of carbon per
year from the atmosphere. These forests are important for the survival of man. Although, there are
large companies that are converting forests to plantations especially palm oil, yet there are oil as well
as mining companies polluting and destroying oil rich areas.
A large percentage, and perhaps the majority, of tropical deforestation are occurring because small
holder farmers are slashing and burning it in order to open it up to agriculture. The immediate cause
is that the soil lacks available nutrients, which are quickly removed when ground cover, or the forest,
is removed. The deeper cause is under-development of communities. These communities are very
poor, often have little access to health care, education or even markets to sell produce. They have
been forgotten by their governments and left to eke out a living on marginal land. The consequences
are that the world is losing enormous natural wealth that has both human utility e.g. in the form of
cures for diseases, and inherent value. To make matters worse much of this wealth is being converted
to CO2 which in turn is warming up our planet. Indeed 20% of all global CO2 emissions are due to
the burning of tropical forests.
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The solution is to help these rural communities with alternatives to slash and burn. The immediate
solution lies in sustainable agriculture where soil can be made more fertile without adding man-made
chemicals such as organic fertilizers, terracing, using trees as buffers, rotating crops and many more
systems that are not currently being utilized. The long term solution lies in the development of these
communities through access to health, education and opportunities for work.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, learners should be able to:
define and describe the various types of forests;
explain the importance of forests;
define and explain the meaning of deforestation; and
describe the consequences of deforestation.
• Primary forest: is a forest that has never been logged and has developed following natural
disturbances and under natural processes, regardless of its age.
• Secondary forests: are forests regenerating largely through natural processes after significant
human or natural disturbance, and which differ from primary forests in forest composition
and/or canopy structure.
• Disturbed forests: Any forest type that has in its interior significant areas of disturbance
including clearing, felling for wood extraction, anthropogenic fires, road construction, etc.
• Frontier forests: large, ecologically intact, and relatively undisturbed forests that support
the natural range of species and forest functions.
• Forest plantation is one established by planting or/and seeding in the process of
afforestation or reforestation. It consists of introduced species or, in some cases, indigenous
species.
Forests protect the top soil and husband important nutrients. The annual flood crest of
the Amazon River has increased over recent years without any concomitant increase in
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rainfall, presumably due to deforestation. Damaging floods are one frequent consequence of
deforestation.
Forests harbour tremendous biological diversity. Forests have the potential to provide us
with new crop varieties and medicines. However, since less than 1% of tropical plants have
been screened for possible use to medical science, ongoing deforestation results in the
permanent loss to science of other species before their value can be recognized.
Impacts of Deforestation
i. Environmental Impacts:
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Forests enhance the recharge of aquifers in some locales; however, forests are a major source
of aquifer depletion on most locales.
Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transpire
precipitation.
Deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than
subsurface flows.
Deforestation generally reduces the protection of the soil from tree litter.
Shrubs and trees have been encroaching on grassland. The trees themselves enhance the loss
of grass between tree canopies thereby rendering the bare inter-canopy areas to become
highly erodible.
Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in
place by also binding with underlying bedrock.
Tree removal on steep slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of landslides, which
can threaten people living nearby. However most deforestation only affects the trunks of
trees, allowing for the roots to stay rooted, negating the landslide.
The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment
with reduced biodiversity.
With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as taxol)
Deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.
Removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded
environment with reduced biodiversity.
Tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction.
With an underlying assumption that as the forest declines, species diversity will decline
similarly.
v. Economic Impacts
Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key
role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today,
developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for paper.
In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking.
Thus, damage to forests and other aspects of nature could halve living standards for the
world's poor and reduce global GDP by about 7% by 2050.
The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing
countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-
exploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long term
biological productivity (hence reduction in nature's services). West Africa, Madagascar,
Southeast Asia and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining
timber harvests. Illegal logging causes losses to national economies annually.
The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causing more harm to the economy and
overpower the amount of money spent by people employed in logging.
4.0 Conclusion
It is impossible to overstate the importance of humankind's clearing of the forests. The
transformation of forested lands by human actions represents one of the great forces in global
environmental change and one of the great drivers of biodiversity loss. The impact of people has
been and continues to be profound. Forests are cleared, degraded and fragmented by timber harvest,
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conversion to agriculture, road-building, human-caused fire, and in myriad other ways. The effort to
use and subdue the forest has been a constant theme in the transformation of the earth, in many
societies, in many lands, and at most times. Deforestation has important implications for life on this
planet.
5.0 Summary
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UNIT 2 POLLUTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The dynamic industrialization and rapid development of agriculture in Nigeria are being
accompanied by an increase in the quantity and varieties of pollutants released into air, water, and
soil. These pollutants are a threat to the ecosystem as a whole as well as ultimately threaten the very
survival of the people. The situation is most critical at present in the oil producing areas, particularly
in the Niger Delta of Nigeria.
Nigeria’s environmental pollution stems not only from charcoal fires, but also mining, vehicle
emissions, industrial factories, improper waste disposal system and underground coal fires.
Underground fires are also hazardous for their capacity to cause land to cave in when the coal turns
to soft ash below the surface. However, not all of Nigeria’s environmental health related problems
stem from human - generated pollution or degradation. Indeed, oil spillage is one of the major
sources of air, land and sea pollution in Nigeria, particularly in the Delta regions.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, learners should be able to
define and explain pollution; and
mention and discuss the various types of environmental pollution.
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There is nothing in the whole of nature which is more important than or deserves as much attention
as the land. Truly it is the land that makes the world a friendly environment for mankind. The land
nourishes and provides for the whole of nature. In some parts of the world, the topsoil is suffering
from dangerously low organic matter levels and could not be expected to sustain the farming systems
which have been imposed upon them.
Land pollution is the degradation of the Earth's land surface through misuse of the soil by poor
agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial waste dumping, and indiscriminate disposal of
urban wastes. It includes visible waste and litter as well as pollution of the soil itself. Like home air
pollution, land pollution is also a common problem worldwide. Land pollution is the direct result of
the activities that humans engage in. Land pollution basically is about contaminating the land surface
of the earth through dumping urban waste matter indiscriminately, dumping of industrial waste,
mineral exploitation, and misusing the soil by harmful agricultural practices. Land pollution includes
visible litter and waste along with the soil itself being polluted. The soil gets polluted by the
chemicals in pesticides and herbicides used for agricultural purposes along with waste matter being
littered in urban areas such as roads, parks, and streets.
• Increase in urbanization is one of the major causes of land pollution. Construction uses up
forestland, which leads to the exploitation and destruction of forests. Increase in demand for
water has resulted into the construction of more reservoirs thereby resulting in the loss of
land.
• The disposal of non-biodegradable wastes, including containers, bottles and cans made of
plastic, used cars and electronic goods, leads to the pollution of land.
• Agricultural wastes including the waste matters produced by crop, animal manure and
residues of the farm land are one of the major causes of land pollution. The pesticides and
fertilizers used by farmers to increase the crop yield, leaches into the nearby land areas and
pollutes them.
• Herbicides, pesticides, and insecticides are more poisonous to the land than what they are
designed to kill or deflect.
• Mining leads to the formation of piles of coal and slag. When these wastes are not disposed
through proper channel, they are accumulated and contaminate the land.
• Industrial wastes are major contributors of land pollution. Dumping of toxic materials such as
chemicals and paints makes the areas surrounding the industries, look very filthy.
• Improper treatment of sewage leads to the accumulation of solids, such as biomass sludge.
• Burning of solid fuels leads to the formation of ashes, which is yet another cause of land
pollution.
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• Untreated domestic and industrial wastes lead to land pollution.
• Garbage dumped by people makes the streets unhealthy, unfit and dirty to reside in.
• Burial is a very common methodology of surrendering the dead; digging process leads to
erosion especially within cemeteries. As bodies decompose there is a release of gases and
fluids that are harmful to the ground, causing serious pollution problems for the surrounding
land.
• Improper methods for the disposal of wastes make the places to look dirty thereby causing
series of health hazards.
• Breathing in polluted dust or particle can result in a number of health problems related to the
respiratory system.
• Improper disposal of household wastes leads to allergic reactions on the skin.
• Pregnant women living in unhealthy and dirty environment can incur breathing problems and
a number of diseases, which may affect the health of the baby as well.
• Land pollution has serious effect on wildlife. Flora, which provides food and shelter to
wildlife, are destroyed.
Water pollution is the introduction into fresh or ocean waters of chemical, physical, or biological
material that degrades the quality of the water and affects the organisms living in it. This process
ranges from simple addition of dissolved or suspended solids to discharge of the most insidious and
persistent toxic pollutants (such as pesticides, heavy metals, and non-degradable, bio-accumulative,
chemical compounds).
• Industrial affluent: Water is discharged from after having been used in production
processes. This waste water may contain acids, alkalis, salts, poisons, oils and in some cases
harmful bacteria.
• Mining: Mines, especially gold and coal mines are responsible for large quantities of acid
water.
• Oil Spillage: Leakage of oil into a body of water, like river or stream, has very unpleasant
ramifications. The surface of the water becomes coated with very thick layers of crude oil,
preventing oxygen from getting to the fish or other marine life in the water.
• Agricultural Wastes: Agricultural pesticides, fertilisers and herbicides may wash into rivers
and stagnant water bodies.
• Sewage Disposal and Domestic Wastes: Sewage as well as domestic and farm wastes are
often disposed into streams, rivers and dams thereby polluting the water bodies.
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Air pollution is the accumulation in the atmosphere of substances that, in sufficient concentrations,
endanger human health or produce other measured effects on living matter and other materials.
Among the major sources of pollution are power and heat generation, the burning of solid wastes,
industrial processes, and, especially, transportation. The major types of pollutants are carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, particulates, sulphur dioxide, and photochemical oxidants.
• Tobacco Smoke: Tobacco smoke is one of the major forms of pollution in buildings. It is not
only the smoker who is infected, but everyone who inhales the polluted air.
• Exhaust Gases of Vehicles: Pollution from exhaust gases of vehicles is responsible for the
greatest percentage of air pollution in cities.
• Combustion of Coal: The combustion of coal without special precautions can have serious
consequences. If winds do not blow away the poisonous gases, they can have fatal effects and
may lead to death.
• Acid rain: Acid rain is the term for pollution caused when sulphur and nitrogen dioxides
combine with atmospheric moisture to produce highly acidic rain, snow, hail, or fog.
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Air pollution influences human health in various ways based on such factors as season, age, gender,
and health status. However, young children and elderly people suffer more from the effects of air
pollution. Major effects of air pollution include:
• irritation to the eyes, nose and throat
• upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia
• aggravation of such medical conditions as asthma and emphysema.
• chronic respiratory diseases such as lung cancer, heart disease
• air pollution could aggravate the effects of sulphur dioxide thereby reducing visibility and
increasing corrosion owing to reduction in the amount and intensity of sunlight
• acid rain is another consequence of air pollution. When a pollutant such as sulphuric acid
combines with droplets of water in the air, the water or snow becomes acidified. The acid eats
into the stone, brick and metal articles and pollutes water sources. Coal in South Africa is rich
in sulphur and the power stations in the Mpumalanga Province could be responsible for acid
rain over other areas of our country.
4.0 Conclusion
People across the world have been facing a number of health problems caused due to the pollution of
land, water and air. The environment is now suffering from terrible pollutions of various sorts.
Disposal of urban and industrial wastes, exploitation of minerals, and improper use of environment
by inadequate agricultural practices are just few factors. Urbanization and industrialization are major
causes of environmental pollution. The Industrial Revolution set a series of events into motion which
destroyed natural habitats and polluted the environment, causing diseases in both humans and other
species of animals. Land pollution, in particular, has some of the most devastating effects on both
nature and living beings. It is characterized by the contamination of earth's surface, where humans
and other creatures live.
Without a well balanced ecosystem, more animals die from overpopulation to under population.
Aside from the moral issues associated with pollution, the survival of the ecosystem is vital to human
survival; man depends on the ecosystem to provide more than merely the air, but also to provide a
wealth and richness that we thrive upon. However, the senseless suffering of the creatures that are
killed through human actions could be the final death of a specie or the last of its kind. Thus, care is
needed to maintain the environment in good quality in order to prevent or minimize the harmful
impacts of pollution
5.0 Summary
• pollution is the degradation and contamination of the environment human activities such as
poor agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial waste dumping, and indiscriminate
disposal of urban wastes;
• pollution often disrupts the balance of nature, causing human fatalities;
• the environment is polluted in three main ways: land, water and air;
• air and land pollution are common problems worldwide ;
• land pollution is the direct result of the activities that humans engage in which results in
serious health hazards and degradation of the environmental quality.
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Hettige, H; Mainul, H; Sheoli, P and David W (1996) "Determinants of Pollution Abatement in
Developing Countries: Evidence from South and Southeast Asia", World
Development, Vol.24(12), pp. 1891–1904.
Howes, R., J. and Whelan, B. (1997) Clean and Competitive? Motivating Environmental
Performance in Industry, London, England: Earthscan Publications.
Lubeck, P. M. (1992) "Restructuring Nigeria's Urban-Industrial Sector within the West African
Region: The Interplay of Crisis, Linkages and Popular Resistance", International Journal of
Urban and Regional Research, Vol. 16(1), pp. 6–23.
Milliman, S. and Prince, R. (1989) "Firm Incentive to Promote Technological Change in Pollution
Control", Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Vol. 17, pp. 247–265.
UNIT 3 WASTES DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Classification of Wastes
3.2 Waste Disposal Methods
3.3 Effects of Poor Waste Disposal Systems
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the most critical issues in our environment today is poor sanitary conditions. This issue has
not only become a recurring issue in the media, it has also attracted scholars and researchers in their
studies. Urban decay connected with over-crowding is almost entirely a large town problem. Wastes
disposal constitutes to be nuisance and a source of embarrassment to many nations particularly
visitors to the country who assess the state of health environment from this angle. All these
problems, as manifested in urban sprawl, poor access to dwellings, bad drainage, housing congestion,
uncontrolled and increasing density of physical development among many other problems,
characterize the high-density areas of Nigerian cities.
Waste is an unwanted or undesired material or substance. It is also referred to as rubbish, trash,
garbage, or junk depending upon the type of material and the regional terminology. Waste is
regarded as unwanted material that is no longer needed and is thrown away. Thus, waste disposal is a
process of getting rid of unwanted materials. Materials such as food wastes, paper, plastic, metal
containers, leaves, glass, leather, rubber, textile, wood and bulky items e.g. boxes, refrigerators etc.
added to the growing mountain if waste are scrap of tyres. Once a substance or object has become
waste, it will remain waste unless it is fully recovered and does not poses any threat to the
environment or human health.
In sum, careless dumping of waste usually results pollution of water, outbreak of epidemics, poor
sanitary conditions of urban areas and other notable problems such as shortage of fish resources,
siltation and drying of streams, blocking roads, alleys and pavements. The Ogunpa flood disasters in
Ibadan in the early 1980s are still fresh in the memories of those who were affected in one way or the
other.
4.0 CONCLUSION
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The challenge of waste disposal system is neither a new thing nor peculiar to the developing nations
alone but rather, a global issue. For every consumption attempt, waste generation is inevitable. This
is evident in every production process, and one cannot shy away from the fact that waste is being
generated at the end of it all. Since consumption is the essence of production and human lives are
sustained by consumption of goods and services, and then waste generation becomes necessary,
however, it can be minimized if an appropriate waste management system is adopted in spite of the
increasing urban population.
Waste disposal is a consequent of the industrialisation process in both developed and developing
countries. Whereas the developed countries have put in place policy measures to contain the waste
problems, developing countries are still battling with the mountains of waste generated daily. In
many parts of the world, people are facing a serious waste disposal problem. The problem results
because too much waste is produced and there is too little acceptable space for permanent disposal.
5.0 SUMMARY
With specific examples from Nigeria, discuss the evils of any one environmental
problem.
Balogun, O. (2001): The Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria: A Geography of Its Development.
University Press Publishing House, University.
Bisong, E. F. and Ajake (2001). “Solid waste management for sustainable rural development”, in
Bisong, E. F. (ed.): Natural Resources use and conservation for sustainable Rural
Development. Lagos: BAAS International Company.
Muller & Schienberg (1997) ‘Gender and Urban Waste Management’. Paper presented at the
Gender, Technology and Development Conference, organized by Tool Consult,
Amsterdam.
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CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Environmental health comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are
determined by physical, biological, social, and psychosocial factors in the environment. It also refers
to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling, and preventing those factors in the
environment that can potentially affect adversely the health of present and future generations.
The growing negative impacts of environmental pollution, desertification, and overall ecological
damage can turn the society into unhealthy environment. There are many other factors besides
pollution that may be contributing to poor health and high mortality rates. Among these are poverty,
climate conditions, and access to health care. World Health Organisation stressed the importance of
access to health care services when assessing the overall health risks in highly polluted regions.
Moreover, there are regional variations, specifically between rural and urban areas, that play a key
role in determining the health risks due to pollution. Health risks from the environment
disproportionately affect country’s poor rural regions. The quality and availability of health care in
Nigeria’s rural areas generally lags behind urban areas.
Air pollution causes serious health problems, including lung cancer, asthma, cardiovascular disease,
and premature death. Changes in the atmospheric conditions can take the harshest toll on human
health, particularly during harmattan (in the Tropics) or winter (in the temperate lands) when coal-
burning is at its height. Burning coal releases nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and
Particulate Matter (PM) - all of which are dangerous in high doses. Sulphur dioxide not only
damages crop and other flora, but can impair breathing and aggravate existing heart disease.
Particulate matter is known to cause respiratory diseases, as the fine particles permeate deeply into
the lungs. Although mercury from burning coal is a serious problem in some areas, it has the lowest
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mercury levels in the country and therefore has not been associated with mercury-related health
problems. Indoor air pollution is also a significant problem especially in rural areas, with
disproportionate effects on women and children.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, learners should be able to
describe the influences of industrial activities on human health;
explain the risks of children in the contaminated environment;
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
At a time when many people fear for their lives, the CDC found much good news. Exposure to lead,
which is particularly harmful to the development of children, and nicotine, a tobacco residue, is
down. Moreover, exposure levels to some of the most toxic chemicals were extraordinarily low.
Even the bad news was bad mainly relative to overall successes.
The Environmental Working Group (EWG) conducted its own study and found an average of “91
industrial compounds, pollutants, and other chemicals” in the nine Volunteers studied. All told, the
EWG reported 167 different chemicals, many of which, it claimed, caused cancer, birth defects, or
other harms. The result was a significant “body burden,” as the group put it. But this is fear-
mongering at its misleading worst.
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of many foods. It appears to cause cancer in rodents fed exceptionally high doses. In fact, in this case
the doses not only well-exceeded human consumption, but they also may have exceeded medically
tolerable levels for mice, since more died from other causes than from cancer.
Moreover, extrapolating such results to humans is always problematic: genetic differences between
rodents and primates often result in different metabolic reactions to chemicals. In January 2007, the
British Journal of Cancer published a study announcing that there was no apparent link between
acrylamide in food and cancer. One British newspaper headline trumpeted: “Crisps Do Not Cause
Cancer!” Obviously, some substances do cause cancer, and evidence of carcinogenic properties
requires investigation.
Programs must have adequate data and surveillance systems in addition to epidemiology and risk
assessment. GIS is an excellent example. Practitioners must be computer literate and have current
technology. Surveillance systems are essential, but typically inadequate. Many environmental health
and protection practitioners do not demonstrate risk communication skills. This is among the reasons
environmental health and protection priorities and policies frequently differ from those
recommended by scientists. In the absence of effective risk communication, sound risk assessment is
merely an academic exercise. Many practitioners confuse public information with the art of risk
communication. Risk communication is an art requiring openness throughout planning and decision
processes. Failure to communicate risk and develop scientifically valid priorities and policies are
linked to the failure to educate and involve the public, and openly discuss the data, assumptions, and
alternatives on which risk has been assessed.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Human health is regarded as the public’s business, and will not be understood or supported in the
absence of comprehensive and continuing public information and educational activities practiced by
all practitioners, not solely by a public information officer. Citizens and political leaders must be part
of the solution and understand the importance of the environment to quality of life and economic
well-being. Effective environmental health and protection depends on building and constantly
travelling communication bridges connecting a wide variety of groups and agencies involved in the
struggle for a quality environment and enhanced public health. These include land use, energy
production, transportation, resource development, the medical community, public works, agriculture,
conservation, engineering, architecture, education, product design and development interests,
economic development, chambers of commerce, advocacy groups, trade and industry groups, the
media and elected officials. And the bridges must be institutionalized rather than being left to chance
and changing personalities. Environmental health and protection requires a community commitment.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
chemicals are one of the wonders of human creation and they have become integral part of
our lives.
exposure levels to some of the most toxic chemicals were extraordinarily low; yet today the
exposure of black children remains disproportionately high.
having an environmental chemical in ones blood or urine does not mean that the chemical
causes disease.
multiple chemical exposure can be harmful - chemicals are currently hurting one-third of the
population.
environmental health data in the developing countries are difficult to access.
environmental health and protection is a basic component of the field of public health
regardless of the titles of agencies involved.
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there is confusion with health care and the oozing of emphasis from public health to health
care. Health care is not public health and public health is not health care.
environmental health and protection requires a community commitment.
personal public health and environmental health and protection systems are travelling on
multiple tracks with inadequate systems support and coordination.
Give a reasoned assessment of the environmental issues in public health management in Nigeria.
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CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Environmental management, especially in the developing countries, is achieved not only through
environmental legislation, i.e. laws, regulations and rules which are enforceable in a court of law, but
also through administrative provisions such as administrative orders, technical standards etc. which
are applied through various administrative mechanisms. This is especially true in relation to the
implementation of international environmental conventions. Often, many years pass before
provisions are established in laws for the implementation and application of the provisions of
international agreements. It is equally true in the implementation, especially at its early stages, of
environmental policy, such as the requirement of environmental impact assessment in respect of
development projects and the procedures to be followed in respect of such assessments. From this
perspective, environmental legislation is one of the chief tools for formulating environmental policy
while also being one of the major instruments for implementing it.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Surely, human societies would choose to minimize harsh environmental selective pressures such as
famine and disease. If the form of co-evolution between natural systems and human society is to be
guided toward a benign relationship, societies need to protect aggressively those ecosystem services
that are essential to their own quality of life. Human society needs plants to capture sunlight and to
provide food, building materials, and energy. Human society needs breathable air. Human society
needs its waste products recycled. Human society needs potable water. Human society needs arable
soils. These and other ecosystems services are essential to human quality of life and are provided by
natural systems. Some ecosystem services are provided with no human intervention, while others are
provided with minimal human effort compared to any human engineered alternatives. For example,
in the United Sates the estimated cost of “supplying ecosystem services to seven people in Biosphere
2 was $9 million per person per year”. The rest of human society depends on intact natural systems
to provide these services. The ecological capital (forests, grasslands, wetlands, soils, biodiversity,
etc.) must be preserved in order to continue to generate interest in the form of ecosystem services.
Two major factors presently governing human society’s relationship with natural systems are:
a net gain of nearly 100 million people annually in the earth’s population; and
the desire of almost all of these individuals to improve the quality of life primarily by
converting habitats occupied by other species for human use and concomitantly converting
natural resources into goods and services for human society.
This means that the land area that provides ecosystem services at the highest rates is declining at the
same time that the number of humans sharing these services is increasing. The amount of ecosystem
services per capita is plummeting.
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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
environmental management is concerned with the use and conservation of natural resources,
the protection of habitats and the control of hazards;
the complexity of environmental resources management demands enlightened policy
formulation;
as we destroy our highly structured material resources to create economic growth, so we
increased the planet's entropy levels;
the nature of changes now occurring simultaneously in the earth system, their magnitudes and
rates of change are unprecedented;
the accelerating human transformation of the earth’s environment is not sustainable;
abandoned agricultural land quickly reverted to natural systems comprised predominately of
pioneering species which were ultimately replaced by other species if natural succession
processes were permitted to occur;
while previous generations could rely on natural systems to bounce back without human
intervention, current generations cannot;
human society needs breathable air, its waste products recycled, potable water, and arable
soils as well as other ecosystems services provided by natural systems for human quality of
life;
some ecosystem services are provided without human intervention; and
a net gain in population and the desire to improve life quality through conversion of habitats
occupied by other species for human use and concomitantly converting natural resources into
goods and services for human society are the two major factors presently governing human
society’s relationship with natural systems.
Identify and discuss five environmental linkages in the natural resource sector.
Ayling, R.; and Kelly, K. (1997) “Dealing with conflict: natural resources and dispute
resolution”. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 76 (3), pp. 182–185.
Homer-Dixon, T. and Blitt, J. (1998) Ecoviolence: Links among Environment, Population, and
Security. Lanham, USA: Rowman & Littlefield.
Kothari, A., Anuradha, R. V., and Pathak, N. (1998) “Community-based conservation: issues and
prospects”. In Kothari, A. Anuradha, R. V., Pathak, N., and Taneja, B. (eds.), Communities
and Conservation: Natural Resource Management in South and Central Asia. New Delhi,
India: Sage Publications.
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CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The field of environmental conservation includes the study of environmental resources decline and
its causes, and techniques to conserve rare and endangered species. Environmental conservation can
be considered a part of conservation biology, a relatively young field that emphasizes the
conservation of biodiversity and whole ecosystems, as opposed to the conservation of individual
species. Within environmental conservation can be found many subfields, these include:
Forest Conservation: Conservation studies and practices involving whole forests, as opposed
to specific species.
Wildlife Conservation: Conservation of animals and birds.
Mineral Resources Conservation: Study and conservation of mineral resources.
Invasive Species Study and Control: The study and control of species that have spread
beyond their native area. Such species pose a significant threat for the conservation of native
species.
Crop Diversity Studies: Preservation of crop species, especially those of indigenous cultures.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
Despite rapid improvements in material well-being, which are rapidly spreading across the world, the
rates of economic growth which have supported these improvements since the 2nd World War have
drawn attention to the demands we now place on our environmental resources. Questions have been
raised about the long term sustainability of this economic progress, whether there is a limit to
material improvements, and whether our current systems of exchange can recognise any limits before
we run up against the buffers. One of the first to make this point was the economist, Kenneth
Boulding, who published an article in 1966 entitled "The coming spaceship earth" (reprinted in
Markandya, 1992). Boulding argued that for the past century people had regarded environmental
resources as if they operated in an open system, which he characterised as a "cowboy" economy. In
such a view, resources were regarded as virtually limitless, with the supply increasing to meet
growing demand simply by pushing the frontier further forward.
Under this type of paradigm, success could be measured by the ability of nations to maximise their
outputs of goods and services, with residuals being dumped out with the system. In reality, Boulding
pointed out, the earth was a closed system as far as material inputs were concerned, with only energy
flows being exchanged outside its confines. Under these circumstances we should regard our planet
much more like a spaceship, and face up to the fact that we operated within a closed system in which
we could neither create nor destroy matter. Within this new paradigm, Boulding went on to argue
that we could not ignore our residues. As we destroyed our highly structured material resources to
create economic growth, so we increased the planet's entropy levels. The appropriate measure of
success for Boulding under such circumstances was not the maximisation of material outputs. It
should instead be the extent to which we could minimise the inputs we required to sustain high living
standards.
For all these reasons, a principle is increasingly being adopted by policy makers in taking allocative
decisions which involve environmental resources that are non-renewable or exhaustible. This
principle was first adopted by German policy makers, where it is known as the “Vorsorgeprinzip”
meaning "the precautionary principle" in English. The precautionary principle is based on the idea of
the carrying capacity of ecosystems, and the need to error on the side of caution when determining
the extent to which scarce environmental resources can be used for economic development.
Ecologists have taught us that as we make greater demands on the natural environment, we reduce its
resilience by lowering its complexity and diversity. In the process, we reduce the environment's
ability to cope with the demands we place on it as we produce more material goods for our needs.
Since it is normally impossible to establish beforehand what the threshold of any ecosystem is below
which we reduce its viability and destroy it, the precautionary principle argues that we should always
err on the side of caution in allocative decisions about the environment and environmental resources.
Otherwise we can offer no guarantee that our use of such resources will be sustainable.
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Sacred Groves – This traditional method varies from region to region mainly with respect to size of
grooves, species protected, ownership pattern and local taboos. In spite of having non-similarity in
various aspects related to biodiversity conservation, the sacred groves share common problems.
However, mainly due to dwindling of local natural resources like firewood people have started
exploiting the resources from the sacred groves as well. Hence, it is needed to work on the
alternatives to stop the removal of biomass from the sacred groves. It mainly involves the
alternatives for firewood. This process needs to be halted by conducting awareness programmes
regarding the importance of vegetation of the sacred groves among the local people and mainly
among the stakeholders of the sacred groves like committee members, priests, and the owners of
sacred groves. There is a need to have a nation-wide study to understand regarding various
ownership patterns for concrete and region specific strategies for the conservation. Those owned by
the Government department can prevent the destruction of the vegetation using the forest
conservation laws.
Rare Species – Protection of rare species is a common practice for being sacred as well as a part of
local culture. There should be proper record of all available individual of rare species in all the
villages and towns with the respective State or Local Government with a copy with the concerned
Territorial Range Forest Office. Since these are trees on revenue lands mainly, they have legal
protection under the laws applicable to tree protection.
Water-Bodies – Nigeria has a large number of water-bodies: rivers, streams, dams and reservoirs.
These water-bodies come under the jurisdiction of River Basin Development Authorities. There is no
system for de-silting the reservoirs. There used to be systems locally practiced in various parts of the
country, which are no more practiced due to the reasons like unidentified stakes in the efforts of de-
silting and the further benefit sharing of the silt for the agricultural purposes and the financial support
for de-silting in case of bigger water-bodies. It is required to initiate the processes like mobilizing
local people to take care of the water-bodies in terms of maintaining them by forming Joint Water-
body Maintenance Committees similar to Joint Forest Committees. Care should be taken to make
these committees financially sustainable once they are formed by providing seed money by the
government.
Wildlife – The wildlife such as animals and birds can be protected. Usually the wildlife is hunted for
human consumption. In many areas these wildlife have become nuisance particularly where the
animals do not get the food to feed on. Hence, in the areas where the nuisance is reported from such
wandering troops of wildlife, arrangements for food could be made by the charitable organisations
and the forest department. There is also the need to control the group size of these troops as
availability of food might result in growth of population increasing the nuisance.
Annual and Ritual Hunting – This practice is common in almost all parts of the south-western
Nigeria. In cases where rare or threatened species are hunted, education and awareness campaigns
need to be conducted to educate people about the ecological importance of the species. There could
be replacement suggest for the species from domesticated animals like goat or chickens as a
symbolic hunting.
Botanical Gardens - Botanical gardens are established worldwide as plant conservation and
education centers. The site contains a wide range of articles concerning biological education. The
global strategy for plant conservation, outlining outcome-orientated targets related to plant
conservation are usually available at the botanic gardens. The agenda covers the prioritization of
garden mission, and details of conservation and education efforts. The agenda is available in six
languages (English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Latvian).
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This is well and good up to a point. Environmental preservation does have a price, and many forms
of consumption do hurt the environment. But go too far in either direction, self-contradiction results:
a pristine environment is a form of wealth! Once we get past the crisis stage, further improvement to
the environment is a luxury. An anti-luxury mentality is thus self-defeating. Many environmentalists
try to get around this paradox by magnifying environmental threats in order to stay in crisis mode.
They cry “Wolf!” As a result, many non-environmentalists discount legitimate concerns. Not good.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Conserving natural resources will require a major paradigm shift of global human society, although
much can be accomplished locally, regionally, and nationally. Some issues, such as global climate
change, must be addressed at this level, whereas other issues, such as conservation of soils and other
forms of natural capital, are quite amenable to local efforts. These changes will require a new view of
human society’s relationship with natural systems (e.g., Cairns 1994) and will foster monitoring to
ensure that previously established quality control conditions for the restoration of natural capital are
being maintained. It is abundantly clear that the conservation of natural resources dramatically
transcends the capabilities of any particular discipline, and monitoring of this process must be
multidimensional. The crucial question is whether reason guided by intelligence will cause the
paradigm shift or whether it will be caused by severe consequences resulting from human society’s
failure to make the shift in the relationship soon enough. In short, the key issue to implementing the
precautionary principle of taking action when probable consequences of not doing so are severe,
even though considerable uncertainty exists about the probability of occurrence. There is reason for
cautious optimism about what can be done, but comparable justification for pessimism about what
will be done. Basically, the paradigm shift will require a change in human society’s value system, but
the science and engineering methods and procedures should be prepared to meet this new challenge
if or when the shift occurs.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
environmental conservation is an integral part of biology which emphasizes the conservation
of biodiversity and whole ecosystems;
resources that are conservable in the environment include forest, wildlife, mineral resources
and water-bodies;
study and practice of environmental conservation include in situ, ex situ and
reintroductions/habitat restoration; and
strategies for conservation include traditional sacred groves method, rare species, water-
bodies, annual hunting and forest reserve methods.
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Cairns, J. and Bidwell, J. R. (1996) “Discontinuities in technological and natural systems caused by
exotic species”. Biodiversity Conservation, vol. 5, pp. 1085-1094.
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Why does conflict occur over the use of natural resources? How are external factors built into local
conflicts? What governing mechanisms are conducive to equitable and sustainable natural resource
management by communities? When do local strategies for conflict management need to be
complemented or replaced by external or new mechanisms? How can research help identify
opportunities for turning conflict into collaboration? Why is collaboration in natural resource
management so difficult? This unit grapples with these questions.
Case studies analyzing specific natural resource conflicts in some countries and the interventions of
people close to the conflicts are common. Some authors have presented differences in cultural
perspectives on Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM). Among these are
community-based politics, learning, and teaching. Ramírez examines the theory and practice of
stakeholder analysis and develops a series of propositions that shed light on how it can be used to
identify opportunities for turning conflict into collaboration. Bush and Opp challenged development
practitioners to answer fundamental questions regarding the causes of conflict before launching an
intervention. They argue that answers to these questions would not only inform the intervention, but
also allow parties to assess the “peace and conflict impacts” of attempts to introduce more
collaborative modes of natural resource management. Tyler examined policy disincentives and
outlines the policy changes needed to support local forms of governance over natural resources.
Implicit conflicts are those in which communities are affected by a process of environmental
degradation they do not recognize although they might be aware of the degradation, they are unable
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to associate it with the activity of specific social agents. The environmental conflict is thus made
explicit when communities establish an immediate logical connection between environmental
degradation and the activities of certain social agents.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, learners should be able to:
explain the sources of conflicts in natural resources management;
describe the mechanisms governing the conducive management of natural resources;
discuss the various strategies for conflict management; and
identify and explain opportunities for turning conflict into collaboration.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
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Second, natural resources are also embedded in a shared social space where complex and unequal
relations are established among a wide range of social actors — agro-export producers, small-scale
farmers, ethnic minorities, government agencies, etc. As in other fields with political dimensions,
those actors with the greatest access to power are also best able to control and influence natural
resource decisions in their favour. For example, absentee Jellaba landlords (merchants, government
officials, and retired generals) in northern Sudan made use of their direct connections to the State
Agricultural Bank to channel international credit for mechanized farming into their operations in the
Nuba Mountains in southern Kordofan.
Third, natural resources are subject to increasing scarcity due to rapid environmental change,
increasing demand, and their unequal distribution. Environmental change may involve land and
water degradation, overexploitation of wildlife and aquatic resources, extensive land clearing or
drainage, or climate change. Increasing demands have multiple social and economic dimensions,
including population growth, changing consumption patterns, trade liberalization, rural enterprise
development, and changes in technology and land use. Natural resource scarcity may also result from
the unequal distribution of resources among individuals and social groups or ambiguities in the
definition of rights to common property resources. The effects of environmental scarcity such as
constrained agricultural output, constrained economic production, migration, social segmentation,
and disrupted institutions can, either singly or in combination, produce or exacerbate conflict among
groups.
Intercommunity and interethnic conflict in the Nam Ngum watershed in the Lao People’s Democratic
Republic has resulted from diverse pressures causing greater natural resource scarcity. The disruption
of government institutions by reforms of the traditional economy led to redrawing of administrative
boundaries of some villages and the creation of a “no man’s land” where tenure rights are vaguely
defined. Hydropower development greatly reduced the resource base of villages affected by flooding,
leading to deforestation of areas critical to the conservation of upstream water resources.
Fourth, natural resources are used by people in ways that are defined symbolically. Land, forests, and
waterways are not just material resources people compete over, but are also part of a particular way
of life (farmer, rancher, fisher, logger), an ethnic identity, and a set of gender and age roles. These
symbolic dimensions of natural resources lend themselves to ideologic, social, and political struggles
that have enormous practical significance for the management of natural resources and the process of
conflict management. Ideologic, social, and political practices are contested in most settings, making
it difficult to bring to bear on natural resource problems the diverse knowledge and perspectives of
resource users. The viewpoint of local Chortis in Copan, Honduras, was suppressed by landowning
elites anxious to deny their indigenous heritage. Local perspectives were also initially ignored by
Chortis political representatives preoccupied with the national struggle for legitimacy.
Because of these dimensions of natural resource management, specific natural resource conflicts
usually have multiple causes — some proximate, others underlying or contributing. A pluralistic
approach that recognizes the multiple perspectives of stakeholders and the simultaneous effects of
diverse causes in natural resource conflicts is needed to understand the initial situation and identify
strategies for promoting change.
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Conflicts are only fully resolved when the underlying sources of tension between parties are
removed, a state of affairs that may be antithetical to social life. However, if conflicts cannot be
altogether eliminated through “resolution” they should be “managed” so that it does not lead to
violence but can achieve change. Conflict management can require intervention to reduce conflict if
there is too much, or intervention to promote conflict if there is too little. The field of conflict
management draws many of its principles from North American experiences with Alternative
Dispute Resolution (ADR). Techniques of ADR depend on both cultural and legal conditions, such
as a willingness to publicly acknowledge a conflict, and administrative and financial support for
negotiated solutions. They also depend on the voluntary participation of all relevant stakeholders.
It is also critical to recognize that although negotiation, mediation, and conciliation are being
promoted as “alternatives” in Western societies, they are not completely new. Any legal order,
whether based on customary or state institutions, rely, to varying extents, on the same basic
procedural modes to handle disputes avoidance, coercion, negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and
adjudication. In diverse societies, people use other “mechanisms to handle disputes at a local level,
including peer pressure, gossip, ostracism, violence, public humiliation, witchcraft, and spiritual
healing” (Castro and Ettenger, 1996).
These local mechanisms of conflict management are not always equitable and effective, especially in
conflicts involving multiple dimensions and increasing intensity. Some may hinder equitable and
sustainable development and can be legitimately challenged. Nevertheless, Western traditions of
conflict management need to be balanced with the systematic study of local practices, insights, and
resources used to manage conflict. Cultural, symbolic, and psychological factors that emerge from
this analysis can be used to strengthen the integrity of local strategies and redress inequities in local
forms of conflict management.
Multi-stakeholder analysis of problem areas and conflicts is a key step in catalyzing recognition of
the need for change. Multi-stakeholder analysis is a general analytical framework for examining the
differences in interests and power relations among stakeholders, with a view to identifying who is
affected by and who can influence current patterns of natural resource management. Problem
analysis from the points of view of all stakeholders can help separate the multiple causes of conflict
and bring a wealth of knowledge to bear on the identification and development of solutions.
Particular attention is paid to gender-based and class-based differences in problem identification and
priority setting because in many societies these differences are systematically suppressed or ignored.
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Contrary to the confrontational scenario, local alliances with advocacy groups, international bodies,
and academics offer some scope for dealing with power imbalances more imaginatively and more
productively. Widespread screening of two films on threats to an environmentally sensitive wetland
in Uruguay posed by the practices of commercial rice growers was critical in swaying public
opinion. The momentum created by this campaign was then used by research nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs) and local governments to change patterns of public and private investment in
development and conservation.
The opinions of academics can also influence key stakeholders, such as legislators and senior
government officials, when based on solid experience, detailed information, and lucid analysis
(Williamson, 1999). In the Nusa Tenggara of eastern Indonesia, an informal network of individuals
from NGOs, research institutions, government agencies, and local communities is facilitating an
ongoing regional process of community consultation, research, mediation, and negotiation that
engages multiple stakeholders in the management of conflicts over forest resources. Through this
process, the unintended impacts of national policies at the community level were brought to the
attention of senior government officials, opening the way to government recognition of the need for
flexible policies and the value of bringing previously excluded groups into the decision-making
process. Research played a catalytic role by helping to make implicit conflicts explicit and by
providing credible and detailed information needed to understand the dimensions and various levels
of the conflicts and opportunities for change.
Alliances with broader social movements that articulate demands for democratization and
environmental accountability can also enhance the voices of the marginal in ways that engage people
in dialogue and generate popular discussion. Coalition-building between local groups and
progressive social movements is critical to redefining the terms of debate over access to and use of
natural resources and to creating or enhancing spaces and mechanisms for negotiating the diverse
interests that separate farmers from ranchers, loggers from indigenous peoples, men from women,
local officials from national policymakers, and primary producers from financiers. To sustain and
inform popular discussion, more research attention needs to be paid to how external factors
(structural adjustment, trade agreements, domestic policies, etc.) are built into local conflicts.
Drawing out the historical and structural relationships between communities and the broader
processes affecting society opens up the possibility of identifying fundamental problems and
formulating alternative social discourse.
Constructing an environment in which conflicts over natural resources can be dealt with productively
will also require new structures and processes for governing natural resources management
decisions. Given the multiple dimensions of natural resource management, negotiating for change
can be wasted effort if policy, administrative, and financial factors at higher levels block or
contradict the decisions made locally. Changes to national policies and legal frameworks are needed
to accommodate the development of relations between formal and informal institutions at various
levels.
Experiences from Indonesia, India, the Philippines, and Costa Rica suggest that governing structures
and processes that bring previously excluded groups into decision-making offer new opportunities
for improving natural resource management decisions and finding better ways to avoid, resolve, or
manage conflict. The experiences in these countries suggest that although consensus is not always
possible, governance that is more inclusive, transparent, and efficient can help groups in conflict
accommodate some differences, find some common ground, and improve key decisions affecting
their livelihoods.
Although the development of transparent and participatory structures for governing natural resources
is an essential step, several other challenges arise. New and multiple roles for local and external
stakeholders will need to be negotiated and implemented. As the familiar workings of existing
institutional arrangements are replaced and the status of stakeholders is transformed, the
development of social relations of trust will become even more critical. Local governments and
organizations will need to develop new communication and training systems to enhance community
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capacity to generate information and knowledge relevant to stakeholders. Government officials will
need to act as facilitators and implementers of decisions emerging from local systems of governance
rather than as decision-makers per se.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The cross-fertilization of case experience with conceptual insight creates a unique dialogue on
lessons learned and strategic gaps in our understanding of the conditions that need to be met to move
from conflict to collaboration. It shows that conflict management is a critical but constructive way of
looking at natural resource problems, involving two basic steps: conflict analysis and planned
multiparty intervention. Conflict analysis involves the study, conducted by those directly involved
and those seeking to assist in this endeavour, of the various dimensions, levels, and consequences of
conflict, with a view to understanding the causes. Multiparty interventions, when based on study of
the conflict, involve the use of a variety of techniques, such as mediation and negotiation, leading to
changes in the management of natural resources. It is hoped that the critical assessment of conflict
management experience presented in this unit will inform the practice of all of us concerned with
communities’ equitable and sustainable natural resource management.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
• conflicts have many negative impacts but it can also be used as catalysts for positive social
change;
• the use of natural resources is susceptible to conflict;
• conflict over natural resources is ubiquitous and has class dimensions;
• differences in gender, age, and ethnicity may inform cultural and social dimensions of
conflict over the use of natural resources; and
• conflicts over natural resources can take place at a variety of levels, from within the
household to local, regional, societal, and global scales. management decisions
Ayling, R.; and Kelly, K. (1997) “Dealing with conflict: natural resources and dispute
resolution”. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 76 (3), pp. 182–185.
Bingham, G. (1986) Resolving environmental disputes: a decade of experience. Harrisonburg,
USA: Donnely and Sons.
Brown, L. D. (1983) Managing Conflict at Organizational Interfaces. U. S. A.: Addison- Wesley.
Castro, A. P. and Ettenger, K. (1996) “Indigenous knowledge and conflict management: exploring
local perspectives and mechanisms for dealing with community forest disputes”.
Presented at the Global e-Conference on Addressing Natural Resource Conflict Through
Community Forestry, Jan–Apr 1996. Forests, Trees and People Programme of the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Shaftoe, D., ed. (1993) “Responding to changing times: environmental mediation in Canada”.
Interaction for Conflict Resolution, Waterloo, Canada.
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4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term environmental justice was created by people concerned that everyone within the society
deserves equal protection under each individual country’s laws. The central government is
responsible to make environmental justice part of its mission by identifying and addressing the
effects of all programs, policies, and activities on minority populations and low-income populations.
However, the central government should work with their state and local partners to make sure that
the principles of environmental justice are integrated into every aspect of their mission.
Environmental justice is more than a set of legal and regulatory obligations. Effective environmental
decision making requires understanding and addressing the unique needs of many different socio-
economic groups. Early, inclusive, and meaningful public involvement in environmental decision
making is a proven means for making the environment a better place to live and work. The
involvement of people potentially affected by environmental projects offers many benefits and does
not threaten the accomplishment of other societal priorities, such as safety and mobility. The goals of
the Environmental Protection Agencies for all communities and persons across their respective
nations can only be achieved when everyone enjoys the same degree of protection from
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environmental and health hazards and equal access to the decision-making process to have a healthy
environment in which to live, learn, and work.
If properly implemented, environmental justice principles can improve all levels of decision making
- from the first thought about a plan through project development, to operations and maintenance.
The pursuit of environmental justice is not a simple task. It may sometimes test the practitioner as
well as stretch the imagination of the environmental agency. Many “success stories” did not start
successfully. They began to take shape only after taking a closer look at community needs, different
perspectives, and the reasoning behind opposition. Achieving environmental justice as part of the
agency’s mission may demand humility, reflection, and flexibility in the face of criticism. The
practitioner may be called upon to explore new methods and new partnerships. Eliminating
discrimination, and the appearance of discrimination, often requires probing analysis of
environmental issues, broad-based community outreach, and a particular sensitivity to the needs of
local populations including the needs of people who have not traditionally been participants in
decision-making processes.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Environmental justice implies environmental burdens borne by groups such as racial minorities,
women, residents of economically disadvantaged areas, or residents of developing nations.
Environmental justice proponents generally view the environment as encompassing "where we live,
work, and play" (sometimes "pray" and "learn" are also included) and seek to redress inequitable
distributions of environmental burdens (pollution, industrial facilities, crime, etc.) and equitably
distribute access to environmental goods such as nutritious food, clean air & water, parks, recreation,
health care, education, transportation, safe jobs, etc. Self-determination and participation in decision-
making are key components of environmental justice. According to a compilation of thoughts by
several notable Environmental Justice organizations, root causes of environmental injustices include
"institutionalized racism; the commoditisation of land, water, energy and air; unresponsive,
unaccountable government policies and regulation; and lack of resources and power in affected
communities".
An environmental injustice exists when members of disadvantaged, ethnic, minority or other groups
suffer disproportionately at the local, regional (sub-national), or national levels from environmental
risks or hazards, and/or suffer disproportionately from violations of fundamental human rights as a
result of environmental factors, and/or denied access to environmental investments, benefits, and/or
natural resources, and/or are denied access to information; and/or participation in decision making;
and/or access to justice in environment-related matters.
In the early 1980s, environmental justice emerged as a concept in the United States, fuelled by a
mounting disdain within Black, Hispanic and indigenous communities that were subject to hazardous
and polluting industries located predominantly in their neighbourhoods. This prompted the launch of
the Environmental justice movement which adopted a civil rights and social justice approach to
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environmental justice and grew organically from dozens, even hundreds, of local struggles, events
and a variety of other social movements.
Many activists cite the organized protests and marches held by 16,000 North Carolinians who were
outraged over a polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) disposal site in Warren County. Shocco Township is
75 percent African American, and has the third lowest per capita income in the state. With the
permission of the US EPA, the state built the dump which placed the waste only seven feet above the
water table, instead of the fifty feet usually required for PCB’s. In spite of the protests, the dump site
was allowed to open.
Historically, minorities have been absent from the rank and file membership of mainstream
environmental associations. At the same time, these organizations have not taken on environmental
justice issues. In the 1990’s, mainstream environmental organizations such as the Sierra Club, the
Audubon Society, Friends of the Earth, and Greenpeace all began to recruit minorities both among
their rank and file membership and to serve in staff and decision making positions. A few, including
the Sierra Club and Greenpeace have participated in the environmental justice struggle by filing
briefs or providing informational and organizational resources.
Environmental justice aims at fighting the destruction of the natural world; promoting economic
alternatives which would contribute to the development of environmentally safe livelihoods; and,
securing political, economic and cultural liberation. To ensure environmental justice, the following
principles have been stated:
♦ Environmental justice affirms the sacredness of Mother Earth, ecological unity and the
interdependence of all species, and the right to be free from ecological destruction;
♦ Environmental justice demands that public policy be based on mutual respect and justice for
all peoples, free from any form of discrimination or bias;
♦ Environmental justice mandates the right to ethical, balanced and responsible uses of land
and renewable resources in the interest of a sustainable planet for all living things;
♦ Environmental justice calls for universal protection from nuclear testing and the extraction,
production and disposal of toxic hazardous wastes and poisons that threaten the fundamental
right to clean air, land, water, and food;
♦ Environmental justice affirms the fundamental right to political, economic, cultural, and
environmental self-determination of all peoples;
♦ Environmental justice demands the cessation of the production of all toxins, hazardous
wastes, and radioactive materials and that all past and current producers be held strictly
accountable to the people for detoxification and the containment at the point of production;
♦ Environmental justice demands the right to participate as equal partners at every level of
decision-making including needs assessment, planning, implementation, enforcement and
evaluation;
♦ Environmental justice affirms the right of all workers to a safe and health work environment,
without being forced to choose between and unsafe livelihood and unemployment. It also
affirms the right of those who work at home to be free from environmental hazards;
♦ Environmental justice protects the right of victims of environmental injustice to receive full
compensation and reparations for damages as well as quality health care;
♦ Environmental justice considers governmental acts of environmental injustice a violation of
international law, the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, and the United Nations
Convention on Genocide;
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♦ Environmental justice must recognize a special legal and natural relationship of Native
Peoples to the U.S. government through treaties, agreements, contracts, and covenants
affirming sovereignty and self-determination;
♦ Environmental justice affirms the need for urban and rural ecological policies to clean up and
rebuild our cities and rural areas in balance with nature, honouring the cultural integrity of all
of our communities, and providing fair access for all to the full range of resources;
♦ Environmental justice calls for the strict enforcement of principles of informed consent, and a
halt to the testing of experimental reproductive and medical procedures and vaccinations on
people of colour;
♦ Environmental justice opposes the destructive operation of multi-national corporations;
♦ Environmental justice opposes military occupation, repression and exploitation of lands,
peoples and cultures, and other life forms;
♦ Environmental justice calls for the education of present and future generations which
emphasizes social and environmental issues, based on our experience and appreciation of our
diverse cultural perspectives;
♦ Environmental justice requires that we, as individuals, make personal and consumer choices
to consume as little of Mother Earth’s resources and to produce as little waste as possible, and
make the conscious decision to challenge and reprioritize our lifestyles to insure the health of
the natural world for present and future generations.
Indigenous groups are often the victims of environmental injustices. Native Americans have suffered
abuses related to uranium mining in the American West. Not only did the miners significantly
deplete the limited water supply, but they also contaminated what was left of the Navajo water
supply with uranium. Kerr-McGee and United Nuclear Corporation, the two largest mining
companies, argued that the Federal Water Pollution Control Act did not apply to them, and
maintained that Native American land is not subject to environmental protections. The courts did not
force them to comply with US clean water regulations until 1980. Even, in Nigeria, until recently the
minority groups in the oil rich Niger delta area of the country are but mere ‘tenants’ on their own
land.
African Americans are affected by a variety of environmental justice issues. One notorious example
is the “Cancer Alley” region of Louisiana. This 85 mile stretch of the Mississippi River between
Baton Rouge and New Orleans is home to 125 companies that produce one quarter of the
petrochemical products manufactured in the United States. The US Civil Rights Commission has
concluded that the African American community has been disproportionately affected by Cancer
Alley as a result of Lousisana’s current state and local permit system for hazardous facilities, as well
as their low socioeconomic status and limited political influence.
The most common example of environmental injustice among Latinos is the exposure to pesticides
faced by farm-workers. A large portion of farm-workers in the US operates illegally, and as a result
of their political disadvantage, they are not able to protest against regular exposure to pesticides.
Exposure to chemical pesticides in the cotton industry also affects farmers in India and Uzbekistan.
Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU), an environmental justice affecting coastal
communities in West Africa, destroys marine ecosystems, upon which millions of people depend,
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and threats food security and livelihoods. Developing countries lack the resources to properly police
their territorial waters. War-torn or post-conflict nations such as Sierra Leone, Angola, Liberia and
Somalia are specifically targeted by IUU operations.
In recent years environmental justice campaigns have also emerged in other parts of the world, such
as India, South Africa, Israel, Nigeria, Mexico, Hungary, Uganda and the United Kingdom. In
Europe for example, there is evidence to suggest that the Roma and other minority groups of non-
European decent are suffering from environmental inequality and discrimination. Whilst the
predominant agenda of the environmental justice movement in the United States has been tackling
issues of race, inequality and the environment, environmental justice campaigns around the world
have developed and shifted in focus. For example, the environmental justice movement in the United
Kingdom is quite different; it focuses on issues of poverty and the environment but also tackles
issues of health inequalities and social exclusion.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Environmental Justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of
race, colour, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and
enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. EPA has this goal for all communities
and persons across this Nation. It will be achieved when everyone enjoys the same degree of
protection from environmental and health hazards and equal access to the decision-making process to
have a healthy environment in which to live, learn, and work. Environmental justice is the social
movement that emerged in response to the problem identification of environmental racism. Thus, it is
connected, but slightly different from anti-toxics activism. In the next ten years or more, we believe
that in our pursuit of development equity should be stressed.
4.1 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
♦ environmental justice refers to inequitable environmental burdens borne by groups such as
racial minorities, women, residents of economically disadvantaged areas, or residents of
developing nations;
♦ self-determination and participation in decision-making are key components of environmental
justice;
♦ root causes of environmental injustices include institutionalized racism; the commoditisation
of land, water, energy and air; unresponsive, unaccountable government policies and
regulation; and lack of resources and power in affected communities;
♦ Environmental Justice Movement was launched in the attempt to adopt civil rights and social
justice approach to environmental justice, local struggles, events and a variety of other social
movements; and
♦ whilst the predominant agenda of the environmental justice movement in the developed
countries has been tackling issues of race, inequality and the environment; and environmental
justice campaigns around the world have developed and shifted in focus.
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Environmental activism is the combined political force of people who take action to protect the
environment. Environmental activists work to bring their vision of a better world into reality, even if
their actions sometimes involve personal risks and bring no material rewards. Environmental
activists are holding their breath to discover whether the global financial meltdown will provide an
excuse for governments and businesses to tear up their environmental promises. Skilful exploitation
of the crisis could however invert the tipping point into a fresh start for stewardship of our planet.
Such optimism presumes that public concern about global warming will prove irreversible and that
the potential of social networking and phone technologies to release a new dimension of grassroots
activism will be fulfilled.
The institutional profile of environmental activism embraces actors ranging from small grassroots
and community organizations to large international pressure groups. Some of these focus on specific
issues while others such as Friends of the Earth (FoE) target the full range of environmental
problems. Environmental NGOs obtain funding from different sources. For example, Greenpeace,
FoE and many grassroots organizations rely mainly on individual donations; other NGOs accept
corporate, government or aid agency funding.
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Spurred by environmental problems linked to nuclear technologies, pesticide pollution, and
overexploitation of natural resources, environmental activism first emerged as a widespread
movement in the 1960s. The achievement of the movement in raising global awareness over the last
few decades has enabled most notably the rescue of the ozone layer and reduction of acid rain, whilst
introducing the language of sustainable development into mainstream politics. Environmentalists
now aspire to be a leading force in shaping international agreements.
It is largely accepted that these advances have not translated into high standards in policy making,
nor to any fundamental change in individual consumer lifestyles in wealthy countries. Although one
of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is labelled "Ensure Environmental Sustainability",
the official MDG progress indicators offer little substance for environmental campaigners –
symbolising how the vision of sustainable development has been devalued by casual usage. Activists
crave a more potent rallying cry, a desire reflected in FoE’s core strategic aim “to develop a credible
alternative sustainable economic model…. to the prevailing corporate globalisation”.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
trace the emergence of environmental activism;
explain the institutional profile of environmental activism;
describe the activities of the environmental activists;
analyse the strategies adopted by environmental activists in their actions;
discuss the major problems confronting the environmental activists in achieving their goals of
maintaining quality environments; and
explain the influence of climate change on the performance of the environmental activists.
3.1.1 CYBER-ACTIVISM
Overcoming political, geographical, censorship and communication barriers, new media technologies
have already achieved substantial victories for the environmental movement. The success of the
campaign to save the Great Bear Rainforest in Canada was attributed by Greenpeace to cyber-
activism. Now familiar online applications such as blogs, videos, and podcasts bring an immediacy
of the work of campaign groups to their supporters and greatly gear up the potential of traditional
campaigns such as petitions. More recent tools which combine maps and data into "mash-ups” also
lend themselves to environmental issues, for example by locating active regional groups or real risks
such as air pollution.
Organisations which depend on youthful activist memberships have not been slow to explore the
potential of popular social networking websites to communicate their work. The most popular
Facebook “Cause” is Stop Global Warming with over 2 million members. Obtaining mobile phone
numbers has become as vital to campaign groups as email addresses. Greenpeace Argentina reports
that group text messages encouraging 350,000 supporters to contact their representative successfully
influenced a vote in parliament. Consumer text messages from point of sale to a central database are
a great way of establishing the environmental credentials of a product.
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3.1.2 RADICAL ACTIVISM
These fresh opportunities for smart activism may render obsolete the tradition of radical direct
actions which have so often raised public environmental awareness. Nevertheless, the days of hard-
hitting disruptive protests by groups such as Earth First! which despise “overpaid corporate
environmentalists” are far from over. A 2008 landmark verdict by a jury in the UK acquitted
Greenpeace activists of criminal damage to the Kingsnorth coal-fired power station on grounds that
their actions were justified by preventing harm to other property around the world caused by climate
change. Often, such actions remain the only effective means of resisting oppressive governments or
corrupt corporations, particularly in developing countries. For example, in India the founder of the
Save Narmada Movement, Medha Patkar, was able to exploit global media coverage of her hunger
strikes, allied to the cause of poor people threatened with displacement by the Narmada dam.
In the last four decades, environmental activism has emerged and strengthened in developing
countries. However, many of these NGOs are financially dependent on governments and multilateral
organizations, inevitably restraining their influence over agendas. They also experience more acutely
the conflicts of interests that always exist between environmental ideals and the expedient needs of
extreme poverty. Pressure to withdraw opposition to genetically modified crops in face of the food
crisis is a current example.
3.1.3 ECO-JUSTICE
Social justice issues come to the fore in local campaigning. Over recent years local communities
have become increasingly active in finding their own solutions to their immediate environmental and
social problems. Typically lacking financial muscle and awareness of their rights, local activists as in
the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria often face prosecution by corrupt governments and businesses. The
fight for the environment, especially at grassroots level, is inseparable from the fight for the human
rights.
The eco-justice movement links the goal of environmental protection to the goals of poverty
reduction, social justice, peace, and the recognition of the rights of all marginalised and
underprivileged people. Environmental action has to be driven by a strong understanding of what is
just and fair, and be delivered through democratic institutions, such as representative grassroots
organizations which have an immediate stake in the local environment. There are too many examples
of solutions which merely drive the problem away from rich to poor communities.
Failures of eco-justice are also to be found at international level, in the abuse of the developing world
by rich countries. From toxic waste dumped on the beaches of Somalia, a country with no
government, to the attempted decommissioning of an asbestos-ridden French warship in an Indian
dockyard, developing countries find themselves treated as second class environmental citizens.
Most environmental indicators in China and India are moving dramatically in the wrong direction, on
a scale which threatens to destabilise progress achieved elsewhere. Yet the lives of hundreds of
millions of poor people remain desperately in need of the benefits of industrialisation. In India,
Greenpeace has targeted the new middle class with the message that the rural poverty will be made
worse by the impact of climate change. High profile campaigns seek to ban incandescent light-bulbs,
encourage purchase of greener electronic goods, and to raise awareness in coastal cities of the threat
of rising sea levels.
In countries with repressive governments such as China and Nigeria, where the concept of civil
society is relatively embryonic and where freedom of information is at a premium, the prospects for
environmental voices appear dismal. However, against these odds, there are promising signs of
tolerance of environmental activists, far more so than human rights or social campaigners. There are
believed to be over 2,000 environmental NGOs capable of mounting protest and legal challenge,
with a track record of some success in prompting environmental regulations, even within the
prevailing limits of political criticism. There is speculation that the Chinese government welcomes a
degree of local activism to compensate for its own failure to overcome municipal authority collusion
with polluting industries.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Campaigners have learned that negative messages about the fate of the planet can be counter-
productive, concentrating instead on potential solutions, whether dealing with businesses and
governments, inter-governmental organizations, financial institutions, investors or consumers.
Lobbying and engaging in alliances with these new stakeholders is often seen as the most promising
of the reformist strategies. The use of market mechanisms such as ethical investment could promote
sustainable consumption and production. Whether in the supermarket or stock market, the threat of a
consumer boycott is feared by the corporate sector and as such is a motivation for working with
campaign groups.
5.0 SUMMARY
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the institutional profile of environmental activism embraces actors ranging from small
grassroots and community organizations to large international pressure groups;
spurred by environmental problems linked to nuclear technologies, pesticide pollution, and
overexploitation of natural resources, environmental activism first emerged as a widespread
movement in the 1960s;
a wide range of traditional strategies and tools remains at the disposal of environmental
activists in the search for democratic change;
climate change, the footprint of the rich on the poor, is the ultimate expression of
environmental injustice;
in the last four decades, environmental activism has emerged and strengthened in
developing countries; and
opponents of such close involvement with the private sector feel that it fundamentally
undermines the traditional role of environmental activists as watchdogs and guardians of
environmental justice.
Discuss the activities and major problems confronting the environmental activists in in the
developing countries.
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CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Virtually all developing countries are undertaking some type of reform to decentralize public
decision-making. Under decentralization reforms, power is transferred from central government to
institutions and actors at lower levels of political and/or administrative authority. The rationale
behind decentralization is that these reforms foster increased efficiency and equity in development
activities. By virtue of their proximity to the people they serve, democratic local institutions are
likely to have access to better information about local conditions and better understanding of local
needs and aspirations, and to be more easily held accountable by local populations.
For many reasons, natural resources management is particularly well suited to decentralization and
local democratic control. Unlike sectors such as health and education, natural resources are a direct
source of wealth as well as a target for investment. Thus, natural resources can help finance both
development and local governance. However and because most rural people in developing countries
rely on natural resources for their livelihoods, democratic local governance requires popular input in
decisions about natural resources management and use. But then effective management of diverse
natural resources with multiple uses requires specific local knowledge. Controlling access to natural
resources often generates overlapping claims and conflicts that must be settled locally.
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At least 60 developing countries are decentralizing some aspects of natural resources management
(Agrawal, 2002). However, most current “decentralization” reforms are characterized by insufficient
transfer of powers to local institutions, under tight central-government oversight. Often, these local
institutions do not represent and are not accountable to local communities. Nonetheless, the limited
decentralization experiments that have taken place in various locations provide some important
lessons.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Decentralization requires both power transfers and equitable representation. To identify appropriate
and sufficient powers to transfer, principles of power distribution, called environmental subsidiary
principles, would be of great use. Such principles could be developed to guide the division of
decision-making, rule-making, implementation, enforcement, and dispute-resolution powers among
levels of government and among institutions at each level. Security of power transfers also matters.
Local representatives remain accountable and subject to central authorities when their powers can be
given and taken at the whim of central agents.
Security, powers and equitable representation go together, yet most decentralization reforms only
establish one or the other. A partial explanation is that many central government agents fear, and
therefore block, decentralization. To date, the potential benefits of decentralization remain unrealized
because governments have not enacted the necessary laws, or where decentralization laws do exist,
they have not been implemented.
The potential of decentralization to be efficient and equitable depends on the creation of democratic
local institutions with significant discretionary powers. But there are few cases where democratic
institutions are being chosen and given discretionary powers. Ironically, a backlash is already
forming against decentralizing powers over natural resources management. Environmental agencies
in Uganda, Ghana, Indonesia, Nicaragua, and elsewhere have argued that too much decentralization
has caused damage or overexploitation. These calls to re-centralize control over natural resources are
premature.
Before decentralizations can be judged, time is needed for them to be legislated, implemented, and
takes effect. First, locally accountable representation with discretionary power must be established.
Then, accompanying measures must be identified to assure environmental protection, justice, and
freedom from conflict. To encourage the decentralization experiment and test the conditions under
which it yields the benefits that theorists and advocates promise, decentralization must fully be
tested, monitored, and evaluated.
Nevertheless, even partial decentralizations have borne some positive social and environmental
outcomes. These include environmental standards, policies to improve equity, civic education,
dispute resolution, and legal protections for activist organizations.
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3.2 OUTCOMES OF DECENTRALIZATION
To explore the issues surrounding natural resource management decentralization and its social and
environmental impacts, the World Resources Institute (WRI) conducted field studies in five African
countries in 2000 and 2001. These countries are Cameroon, Mali, South Africa, Uganda, and
Zimbabwe. Additional case material from such countries as Bolivia, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia,
Mexico, Mongolia, Nicaragua, and Thailand, was supplied by other researchers participating in a
WRI-organized conference on decentralization and the environment held in Bellagio, Italy, in
February 2002. Most of these studies focus on forestry, while a few explore wildlife and water
management.
One key lesson from these decentralization experiences is that despite stated government
commitments to decentralization, central governments and environmental ministries resist
transferring appropriate and sufficient powers to local authorities. Political leaders and civil servants
resist meaningful decentralization for a variety of reasons, including fear of losing economic benefits
from the control they presently exercise over natural resources.
Although measuring the effects of decentralization is difficult, it is clear that some decentralization
experiments have produced positive outcomes. In India, decentralized democratic authorities have
sustainably managed forests for over 70 years (Agrawal, 2002). In Nicaragua and Bolivia,
decentralized forest management has resulted in some local councils—where local councils were
more open to popular influence—protecting forests against outside commercial interests.
Some decentralization reforms have been associated with environmental problems. In cases from
Cameroon, Indonesia, and Uganda, transferring exploitation rights to local bodies has reportedly
resulted in overexploitation of timber, primarily because of the need for income for local
governments and local people. Some social problems have also been associated with
decentralization. In some districts in Brazil, Bolivia, Cameroon, India, Indonesia, Mali, Nicaragua,
Mexico, Senegal, Uganda, and Zimbabwe, elite groups have captured the benefits of decentralization
efforts for their own use.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Natural resources management is particularly well suited to decentralization and local democratic
control. However, there are conflicting outcomes due to the fact that reforms are often characterized
by the insufficient transfer of powers to local institutions, under tight central-government oversight.
Often, these local institutions fail to represent or be held accountable to local communities. Still, the
limited decentralization experiments that have taken place in various locations provide some
important lessons.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
Decentralization requires power transfers, equitable representation and security of power
transfers.
Many central government agents fear, and therefore block, decentralization.
Efficiency and equitable potential of decentralization depends on the creation of democratic
local institutions.
Despite government commitments to decentralization, central governments and
environmental ministries resist transferring appropriate and sufficient powers to local
authorities.
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Although measuring the effects of decentralization is difficult, it is clear that some
decentralization experiments have produced positive outcomes.
Some decentralization reforms have been associated with environmental problems. Some
social problems have also been associated with decentralization.
In the developing countries, elite groups have captured the benefits of decentralization efforts
for their own use.
Using Nigeria as a case study, describe the processes and outcomes of the decentralization of natural
resources management.
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CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/ Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The objective of the EIA is to ensure that environmental aspects are addressed and potential
problems are foreseen at the appropriate stage of project design. EIA should be envisaged as an
integral part of the planning process and initiated at the project level from the start. In effect, for
most projects, particularly those involving large public investments in areas such as infrastructure, it
is required that an EIA be carried out and linked to the cost-benefit analysis.
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However, an examination of the various statutes and the framework for the EIA process in particular,
and the entire environmental regulatory process in general, reveals that many of the statutes are very
much at variance with intentions, especially as they affect the execution of functions. There is
duplication of functions and overlapping responsibilities in the processes and procedures guiding the
execution of the various impact assessment tasks. Consequently, serious bottlenecks and bureaucratic
confusion are created in the process. The result is a waste of resources, financially and materially.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
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recommendations for immediate action. The working document should contain a list of
project alternatives with comments on the environmental and economic impacts of each.
Decision-making begins when the working document reaches the decision maker, who will
either accept one of the project alternatives, request further study or reject the proposed action
altogether.
Post audits are made to determine how close to reality the Environmental Impact Assessment
predictions were.
Since 1990 the pace of legislative activity on environmental issues has quickened and the number of
countries with EIA legislation has increased significantly. Recent framework of environmental laws
tends to address EIA in more detail (Albania, Belize, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde,
Chile, Colombia, Comoros, Egypt, Gabon, Honduras, Jamaica, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia,
Mauritius, Peru, Seychelles, Slovenia, Tajkstan, Thailand, the Gambia, Ukraine, Vietnam, Zambia)
and more countries have issued EIA laws, decrees and regulations (Czech Republic, Hungary,
Mongolia, Nigeria, Paraguay, Russian Federation, Slovak Republic, Tunisia, Uruguay). One country
(Zimbabwe) recently has chosen to issue an EIA policy rather than to enact binding legislation.
According to information collected by UNEP, EIA provisions now exist in the framework of
environmental legislation of 55 developing countries. In addition, at least 22 developing countries
currently have specific laws, decrees or regulations which contain criteria or procedures applicable to
EIA. Other decrees and administrative instruments provided sectoral EIA guideline related to
mining, energy, transport, etc.
There are, however, some challenges to the performance of Environmental Impact Assessment
Agencies in the developing countries. The major challenges and responses are in the following areas:
Approach - shifting focus from projects proponent to people affected - both beneficially and
adversely.
Adequacy and clarity of EIA scheme.
Reliability of information/data.
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Adequacy of methods for assessing impacts and placing appropriate weight on negative
environmental impacts in relation to developmental factors.
Resource capabilities.
Nigeria, without any doubt, is Africa’s most populous nation, independent since 1960 and occupies
an area of 923,768 km2 with varied climates and seasons. According to the 2006 national census, the
population of the country is over 140 million. Prior to oil, agriculture (before 1970) was the
economic mainstay. Presently, the principal financial resource available is from oil but, regrettably,
without any development policy, unguided urbanization and industrialization is taking place.
Uncontrolled population growth, desertification, and deforestation have resulted to degradation and
devastation of the Nigerian environment.
As desirable and necessary as development is, it became an albatross not of itself but because of the
lack of appropriate policies to guide it. There were several sectoral regulations aimed at controlling
environmental degradation which were unsuccessful due to the absence of effective sanctions.
Economic considerations and fundamental lack of knowledge of interdependent linkages among
development processes and environmental factors, as well as human and natural resources, resulted
in an unmitigated assault on the environment. The need for an Environmental Protection Policy in
Nigeria was initiated by the illegal dumping of toxic wastes in Koko, in the former Bendel State, in
1987. This prompted the Nigerian Government to promulgate the Harmful Wastes Decree which
provides the legal framework for the effective control of the disposal of toxic and hazardous waste
into any environment within the confines of Nigeria. This was immediately followed by the creation
of a regulatory body, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) in 1988.
FEPA is charged with the overall responsibility of protecting and developing the Nigerian
environment. To put this into action a National Policy on the Environment was developed. This is the
main working document for the preservation and protection of the Nigerian environment. States and
Local Government Councils were also encouraged to establish their own environmental regulatory
bodies for the purpose of maintaining good environmental quality as it applies to their particular
terrain. The Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), an arm of the Ministry of Petroleum
Resources, recognizing the national importance of the oil and gas industry sector to the continued
growth of the Nigerian economy and realizing that the continued exploitation, exploration and
production of the oil resources has serious environmental impacts, also decided to set out
comprehensive standards and guidelines to direct the execution of projects with proper consideration
for the environment.
The need for environmental preservation (in spite of all efforts by United Nations Environment
Program [UNEP] and International Conventions which Nigeria ratified), took centre stage after the
momentous and singular event of the secret dumping of toxic waste in Koko Port, Bendel State (now
in Delta State) in May 1988 by foreign parties. This was followed by the promulgation of the
Harmful Wastes (Special Criminal Provisions Act, 1990). In its wake, international seminars and
workshops were held in Abuja and Lagos and the consensus was for appropriate environmental
legislation to discourage short-term plans and ‘fire brigade’ approaches to environmental issues. An
institutional framework was set up to deal with the problems of our environment. The Federal
Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), established by Act 58 of 1988 of the same name and
amended by Act 59 of 1992, was given responsibility for control over our environment and for the
development of processes and policies to achieve this. Apart from publishing the National Policy on
the Environment (NPE) in 1989, with the policy goal of achieving sustainable development, it
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published other sectoral regulations including the National Environmental Protection (Pollution
Abatement in Industries and Facilities Generating Wastes) Regulation 1991 wherein EIA was made
obligatory only when so demanded by FEPA and compliance was within 90 days of such demand.
However in the oil industry the principal legislation is the Petroleum Act 1969 and all derivative
regulations charged Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) among others with pollution
abatement.
Separate EIA legislation, the EIA Act 86 of 1992, was promulgated establishing FEPA as the apex
regulator, making EIA mandatory for all developmental purposes (although with some exceptions).
Under it FEPA has published various sectoral EIA procedures together with EIA procedural
guidelines in 1995. At the lower levels, States and Local Government Areas (LGAs) which comprise
the second and third tiers of government were encouraged under Act 59 of 1992 to set up their own
environmental protection agencies. However, prior to the establishment of the FEPA, there were
sectoral environmental regulations with various significant responsibilities relating to environmental
protection and improvement. Also in existence were commissions with advisory capacity in
environmental matters and environmental Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs).
The oil industry, because of its various activities and the complex combination of its interdependent
operations, adversely affects the environment more than any other sector. In the oil industry DPR
adopted remedial, though inadequate, enforcement tools which included compliance monitoring and
the issuing of permits/licences. Studies indicated the extent of devastation the oil industry has caused
to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and cultural and historical resources. This, coupled with the
community’s dissatisfaction and agitation, especially in the Ogoni and Ijaw homelands, reinforced
the need for the sector to plan, protect and enhance prudently the environmental resources for a better
environment.
The need to control new installations or projects with capacity to degrade the environment was also
identified. This compelled DPR to issue updated Environmental Guidelines and Standards (EGAS) in
1991 providing for the first time, together with pollution abatement technology, guidelines and
standards and monitoring procedures and a mandatory EIA report as enforcement tool. There are
other regulatory bodies within the sector.
FEPA, charged with the protection and development of the environment, prepared a comprehensive
national policy, including procedures for environmental impact assessment for, amongst others, all
development projects. Enforcement powers were also prescribed. In the National Policy on the
Environment (NPE), FEPA adopted a strategy that guarantees an integrated holistic and systemic
view of environmental issues that leads to prior environmental assessment of proposed activities. The
other regulators including State EPAs (unnecessarily charged with similar and identical
responsibilities to those of FEPA) rather than cooperating with FEPA undermine its efforts as they
demand a role in the state of the environment within their areas. This occurs particularly where
FEPA involves them only at the review stage in the EIA process. This creates a lot of confusion and
bureaucratic delays in implementing the EIA process leading to enormous cost and unnecessary
waste of time.
The principal legislation is Act 86 of 1992 which made EIA mandatory for both public and private
sectors for all development projects. It has three goals and thirteen principles for how these are to be
achieved. The goals are to:
The minimum requirement of an EIA report includes not only the description of the activity,
potential affected environment, practical alternative, and assessment of likely or potential
environmental impacts, but also identification and description of the mitigation measures, indication
of gaps in knowledge, notification of trans-state adverse environmental effects (if any) and a brief
non-technical summary of all the above information. Impartial and written FEPA decisions
indicating mitigation measures based on a detailed examination of environmental effects identified in
the environmental impact assessment (after an opportunity within an appropriate period had been
given to the stakeholders and the public for their comments) is made available to interested person(s)
or group(s). It provides, where necessary, that potentially affected States or Local Government Areas
are notified.
The EIA process is the various stages a project undergoes from proposal to approval for
implementation, resulting in the issuing of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and certificate.
The term encompasses several stages, viz:
determining if FEPA environmental laws/regulations have been effected;
screening of projects for potential environmental effects;
scoping to determine the spatial and temporary dimension of environmental effects;
carrying out detailed base-line studies to determine the environmental conditions prior to
project implementation;
preparing a detailed assessment report;
carrying out a panel review of the EIA report if this is necessary; and
obtaining authorization/approval, where appropriate.
The proponent initiates the process in writing to the responsible officer. A notification form is duly
completed with all relevant information on the proposal. Using the criteria of:
magnitude – probable severity of each potential impact;
prevalence/extent and scope – extent to which the impact may eventually extend;
duration and frequency – is activity short term, long term or intermittent;
risks – probability of serious environmental effects; and
significance/importance – value attached to a specified area.
However, the Agency undertakes some certain internal screenings to determine the project’s category
under the mandatory study activities list. Where no adverse environmental effects exist, the EIA is
issued and the project commences with appropriate monitoring measures. The steps involved in this
exercise are:
In-house review.
Panel review (sitting may be public).
Public review – an elaborate display of the report for 21 working days with appropriate
display venues chosen by FEPA for the convenience of the public stakeholders and
communities. Through newspaper advertisement FEPA invites interested groups /persons to
participate.
Mediation.
Within the period of the review process, review comments are furnished to the proponent. In this
review stage, the public participates only when FEPA’s chosen method of review guarantees its
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participation. The final EIA report, addressing and proffering answers to review comments, is
submitted within six months to the responsible officer.
The progress of the project is monitored to ensure compliance with all conditions and mitigation
measures. Environmental audit, assessing both positive and negative impacts of the project, is carried
out periodically. In its exercise of discretionary powers, FEPA refers any project likely to cause
significant environmental effects that may not be mitigated (or where public concern about the
project warrants it) to the FEPA council for mediation or panel review.
The EIA study team usually is a multi-disciplinary panel of experts and the report is prepared using a
systematic, interdisciplinary approach incorporating all relevant analytical disciplines to provide
meaningful and factual data, information and analyses. The presentation of data should be clear and
concise, yet include all facts necessary to permit independent evaluation and appraisal of both the
beneficial and adverse environmental effects of alternative actions. The detail provided should be
commensurate with the extent and expected impact of the action and the amount of information
required at the particular level of decision-making.
FEPA certifies consultants and reviewers. Only research institutions and limited liability companies
of proven competence are so certified. Sadly in the oil sector, there is confusion as a result of
multiple regulators. The Department of Petroleum Resources and the State Environmental Protection
Agencies have enabling instruments which permit them to conduct EIA without limitation. DPR’s
instrument is its regulation, EGAS (1991), which empowered it to conduct EIA, but there is no
legislation so empowering it directly. The States instruments are subject to Federal enactment and
other than inordinate show of relevance they are to merely monitor the process for, and on behalf of,
FEPA.
4.0 SUMMARY
Assess the performance of Environmental Impact Assessment Agencies in the developing countries.
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6.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS
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