UNIVERSITY OF JUBA

SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY

TEN YEARS MANAGEMENT WORKING PLAN FOR NIMULE

NATIONAL PARK

BY
PETER YAK KUOL
INDEX NO: 07- CN – 170

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF NATURAL

RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR DEGREE (HONS) IN FORESTRY

SUPERVISED BY
DR. ZUHAIR SULE

APRIL, 2023
 DECLARATION

I, Peter Yak Kuol, with Index No: 07-CN - 170, do here by declare that the information
contained in this thesis is obtained through my own endeavors unless in the case of a cited
work. As such, it is my original work that has never been produced and submitted in any
form to an institution or any other related work that entails academic qualification. The
process and procedures of obtaining this information /data was based on my independent
field of investigation. Therefore, this research is not entitled to retrieval or any copyright is
disallowed without the authorization of the researchers.

Student’s name (Researchers): Signature Date

Peter Yak Kuol ____________________ _________________

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 APPROVAL

This Research Entitled: “Ten Years Management Working Plan for Nimule National
Park/ Buffer Zone” has been submitted for examination with the approval of my supervisor.

Supervisor’s name: Signature Date

Dr. Zuhair Sule ____________________ ___________________

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 DEDICATION

I delightfully dedicate this research work to my beloved Mother and Father, Wife, Uncles,
Aunts, Brothers and Sisters, Colleagues and Friends for their continued support and
encouragement throughout the development and finalization of this research. Their patience,
wisdom and moral support, gave me the strength and energy to accomplish this academic
work on time.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, and foremost, I would like to thank Almighty God for sustaining my life
throughout the study.

I wish to express my deep and sincere gratitude to supervisor Dr. Zuhair Sule,
Dr. Augustine L. bongo, Dr. Massimo Molinga, Ruba Candica Bilal, for his entire effort,
enthusiasm in guidance, fruitful advice and kind supervision that led to a successful
accomplishment of this research work.

I would like to thank the respective lecturers and entire staff of the school of Natural
Resources and Environmental Studies, for their continued hard work, effort and support
during the study period.

My sincere and particular thanks goes to the Administration of the School of Natural
Resources and Environmental Studies, and University of Juba generally. May almighty God
bless them all.

I would like to extend deep thanks to many people who contributed in numerous ways to the
study including forestry authority in Nimule National Park.

Finally, I am also grateful to thanks my colleagues in the college and department for their
wise support, comments, advices and collaboration during the study.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration .................................................................................................................................. i

Approval ....................................................................................................................................ii

Dedication .................................................................................................................................iii

Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................... iv

List of tables............................................................................................................................... x

CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Description of Nimule National Park ................................................................................. 1

1.2. Location and Area ............................................................................................................... 1

1.3. Legal status and Management Objective ............................................................................ 2

1.4. Topography ......................................................................................................................... 3

1.5. Accessibility to the Park ..................................................................................................... 3

1.6. Rights and Privileges of the local Communities ................................................................. 3

1.7. The Areas around Nimule National Park ............................................................................ 3

1.7.1. Local Communities around Nimule National Park.......................................................... 3

1.7.2. Land Use and Economic Activities ................................................................................. 3

1.7.3. Contribution of Buffer zone to the social life .................................................................. 4

1.7.4. History of wildlife species within Nimule national park (buffer zone) ........................... 4

1.7.5. Climate ............................................................................................................................. 4

1.7.6. Soil Types ........................................................................................................................ 5

1.7.7. Vegetation ........................................................................................................................ 5

1.7.8. Fauna ................................................................................................................................ 6

1.8. Main and other tree species found in Nimule National Park .............................................. 6

1.9. Identification and description of trees and shrubs species with their respective uses seen
at NNP buffer zone .................................................................................................................... 7

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CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................... 25

2.0 THE PRESENT WORKING PLAN OF NIMULE NATIONAL PARK, BUFFER

ZONE ...................................................................................................................................... 25

2.1. Types of severity and present forest damage .................................................................... 25

2.1.1. Forest fire ....................................................................................................................... 25

2.1.2. Pests and diseases .......................................................................................................... 25

2.1.3. Wild animals’ destruction .............................................................................................. 25

2.1.4. Destruction caused by local communities ..................................................................... 25

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 27

STRUCTURE OF ADMINISTRATION OF NIMULE NATIONAL PARK (BUFFER

ZONE ...................................................................................................................................... 27

3.1. Roles and responsibilities of the warden officers. ............................................................ 27

CHAPTER FOUR.................................................................................................................. 29

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STATUS OF NIMULE NATIONAL PARK

(BUFFER ZONE)................................................................................................................... 29

4.1. General Objectives of Forest Inventory ............................................................................ 29

4.2. Types of instruments and tools used during the forest inventory process. ....................... 29

4.3. Sampling Method and Intensity ........................................................................................ 29

4.4. Types and Layout of Sampling Plots ................................................................................ 29

4.5. Methods of data collection ................................................................................................ 29

4.6. General Qualities of the Forest Trees ............................................................................... 30

4.7. The data source. ................................................................................................................ 30

4.8. Variables and Parameters.................................................................................................. 30

4.8.1. Variables measured: ....................................................................................................... 30

4.8.2. Parameters calculated: ................................................................................................... 30

4.9. Methods of Calculation and Degree of Precision ............................................................. 33

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CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 35

5.1 NEW MANAGEMENT PLAN ....................................................................................... 35

Detailed prescription of action:................................................................................................ 36

5.2 Type of Severity and Present forest damages: ................................................................... 39

5.2.9 Conflict with local communities: .................................................................................... 40

CHAPTER SIX ...................................................................................................................... 41

TECHNICAL STAFF, LABOUR AND WORKING ACTIVITIES: ............................... 41

6.1 Hierarchical Position of the Forest Administration: .......................................................... 41

6.2 Technical Staff: .................................................................................................................. 41

6.3 Permanent and seasonal labour force:................................................................................ 41

6.4 Forest Buildings: ................................................................................................................ 41

6.5 Vehicles and Transportation Facilities: ............................................................................. 41

6.6 Forest Roads and Bridges: ................................................................................................. 41

6.7 Funding and Logistic Support: .......................................................................................... 42

PART THREE........................................................................................................................ 43

CHAPTER SEVEN................................................................................................................ 43

7.1 Present Status, Summary and Conclusion: ........................................................................ 43

7.2 Main Aim and objectives of this new management plan: .................................................. 43

7.3 Needs for New Compartmentations: .................................................................................. 44

7.4 Silvicultural Systems: ........................................................................................................ 44

CHAPTER EIGHT ................................................................................................................ 45

SILVICULTURAL PLANNING .......................................................................................... 45

8.1 Seed Collection and procurement: ..................................................................................... 45

8.2 Nursery Establishment: ...................................................................................................... 45

8.3 Harvesting Method: ........................................................................................................... 45

8.4 Land Preparation: ............................................................................................................... 45

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8.5 Procedures for land preparation: ........................................................................................ 45

8.6 Planting Method:................................................................................................................ 45

8.7 Beating and Singling:......................................................................................................... 46

8.8 Type, Frequency and Intensity of Weeding: ...................................................................... 46

8.9 Brushing: ............................................................................................................................ 46

8.10 Type, Weight and Intensity of Thinning:......................................................................... 46

8.10.1 Type of Thinning: ......................................................................................................... 47

8.10.2 Weight and Intensity of Thinning: ................................................................................ 47

8.11 Loading and transporting: ................................................................................................ 47

CHAPTER NINE ................................................................................................................... 48

STAFF, LABOUR AND WORKING FACILITIES: ......................................................... 48

9.1 Technical Staff: .................................................................................................................. 48

9.2 Permanent Labour: ............................................................................................................. 48

9.3 Seasonal Labour:................................................................................................................ 49

9.4 Buildings: ........................................................................................................................... 49

9.5 Vehicles: ............................................................................................................................ 49

9.6 Roads and Bridges: ............................................................................................................ 49

9.7 Number of Equipment’s and Tools needed in Nimule National Park/ Buffer zone: ......... 49

9.8 Other Miscellaneous Plans: ............................................................................................... 50

CHAPTER TEN ..................................................................................................................... 51

10.0 MONITORING AND EVALUATION ........................................................................ 51

10.1 Protection Measures:........................................................................................................ 51

10.1.1 Fire protection: .............................................................................................................. 51

10.1.2 Protection against diseases: .......................................................................................... 51

10.1.3 Protection against insects: ............................................................................................. 52

10.1.4 Domestic Animals: ....................................................................................................... 52

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10.1.5 Wildlife: ........................................................................................................................ 52

10.1.6 Man: .............................................................................................................................. 52

CHAPTER ELEVEN ............................................................................................................ 53

11.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS: ....................................................... 53

11.1 Conclusion: ...................................................................................................................... 53

11.2 Recommendations:........................................................................................................... 53

References:............................................................................................................................... 54

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Showing different formula for calculation of different parameters. .......................... 31

Table 2: Stand table for Nimule national park, buffer zone .................................................... 32

Table 3: Ten years’ forest management plan schedule of activities: ....................................... 38

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Map showing Nimule National Park Buffer zone (After Evuk, 2014) ...................... 2

Figure 2: Acacia nilotica; (a).Leaves and thorns, and (b). Bark morphology ........................... 7

Figure 3: Acacia senegal; (a).Leaves and thorns, and (b) Bark morphology ............................ 8

Figure 4: Acacia seyal (a).Leaves and flowers, (b). Bark morphology and (c).Tree form ........ 9

Figure 5: Acacia sieberana; (a). Leaves, (b).Bark morphology and (c).Tree form .................. 10

Figure 6: Balanite aegyptica; (a). Leaves and fruits, (b).Bark morphology and (c).Tree form
.................................................................................................................................................. 11

Figure 7: Combretum glutinosum; (a).Leaves and seeds, (b).Bark morphology, and (c) ....... 12

Figure 8: Combretum zeheri; (a). Leaves and (b). Bark morphology .................................... 13

Figure 9: Ficus ovata; (a). Leaves (b). Fruits and (c). Bark morphology .............................. 14

Figure 10: Gardenia lutea; (a).Leaves and flowers, (b).Fruits and (c) ..................................... 15

Figure 11: Grewia mollis; (a).Leaves, (b).Flower and (c).Bark .............................................. 16

Figure 12: Kigelia africana; (a).Fruits, (b).Bark morphology and (c).Tre ............................... 17

Figure 15: Tamarindus indica; (a).Leaves and Flowers, (b).Fruits and (c).Bark morphology 20

Figure 16: Vitex doniana; (a).Leaves, (b).Fruits and (c).Bark morphology ............................ 21

Figure 17: Ximenia americana; (a).Leaves (b).Fruits and (c).Bark morphology .................... 22

Figure 18: Ziziphus abyssinica; (a).Leaves, (b).Fruits and (c).Bark morphology ................... 23

Figure 19: Ziziphus spina-christi; (a).Leaves, (b).Fruits and (c).Bark morphology ................ 24

Figure 20: Showing the administrative structure of Nimule national Park ............................. 27

Figure 21: The graph showing total number of individual tree species surveyed at Nimule
National Park (buffer zone) ..................................................................................................... 34

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 ABSTRACT

This research investigates on ten years management working plan for Nimule National Park/
Buffer Zone in which it focused on, description of the park, legal status and management
objective, topography, rights and privileges of the local communities, Areas and local
communities around Nimule National Park, land use and economic activities. contribution of
buffer zone to the social life, the Present Working Plan of Nimule National Park, buffer zone,
structure of administration of , quantitative And Qualitative Status Of Nimule National Park
(Buffer Zone), new management plan, detailed prescription of action, technical staff, labour
and working activities, present status, summary and conclusion, main aim and objectives of
this new management plan, silvicultural planning staff, labour and working facilities,
monitoring and evaluation, conclusion and recommendations.

xii
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Description of Nimule National Park

Nimule National Park (NNP) is one of the sixth national parks in South Sudan. Nimule in
Madi language means, why do you come? It was established by the government of Sudan in
(1935) as a game reserve and upgraded into a National Park in 1954 under the British rule
and it was extended to 540km2 along the border with Uganda. The Nile River cuts along the
eastern border of the park for 48km2 and the aim was to protect or conserve locally white
Rhino (Sudan government in 1954).
The national park is surrounded by number of villages such as Rei east, Rei west, Kololo and
Anyama. The tribes living around Nimule National Park includes, Madi, Acholi, Nuba,
Dinka, Lotuko, Bari, Shiluk, Lulubo, Pari, Lango, and Kuku. However, the Madi and Dinka
are the majority in the area. Therefore, the total estimated population according to the 2008
census as said by elder (Romano Mamur Ambira), former area chief of Rei east was about
2,000 people.
The current population around Nimule National park tends to decrease due to the civil war
that erupted in 2013 followed by 2016, forcing many to fly to the neighboring countries of
Uganda, Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) for refuge.
1.2. Location and Area
Nimule National Park (NNP) is located between 30 35:3, 30 49:2N and 310 48: 3 and 320 2:2E
at the extreme south of South Sudan – Uganda border. The northern border runs along river
Kayu and the Nile, the eastern border along the river Nile while the southern border is along
the Uganda borders from the river Nile and the western border runs along the Illungwa
mountain ranges to river Kayu.
Nimule national park was established in 1935 as a game reserve and upgraded into a National
Park in 1954, (Sudan government, 1935). The exact area of NNP varies between 251 Km 2
(Abdalla, 1988), 256 Km2 (Sudan government, 1935) and 410 Km2 (Hillman, 1985).
Hillman’s larger area includes the buffer zone, an area between the river Nile and Juba
Nimule road, starting from Onyama bridge till Assua bridge, and then the Assua and Nile
confluence.

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Figure 1: Map showing Nimule National Park Buffer zone (After Evuk, 2014)

1.3. Legal status and Management Objective

The Park is considered as a government gazetted area meant for the conservation of
endangered wildlife species especially white Rhino (Ceratotherium simum) in addition to
conservation of different types of plant species. It is managed by the wildlife officials under
the ministry of wildlife conservation and tourism of the Republic of South Sudan.

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1.4. Topography
The geology of Nimule National Park is that of pre-Cambrian period, much of the topography
is the formation of the product of the geology and the climate operating throughout the
Pleistocene and into the Holocene. The area is hilly and undulating interspersed with annual
and some perennial rivers and streams. The hills are well rounded with few cliffs or scrap an
indication of weathering and denudation processes as well as resistance to greater chemical
weathering (A pilot survey of NNP new Sudan, 2000 p.3).
1.5. Accessibility to the Park
It is probably the most easily accessible of all South Sudan national parks due to proximity of
primary transport road and also the park can be reached even during the rainy season.
Through the road that passes via wildlife head office in Rei east to commando training center
up to Fulla and beyond, connects the park and thus ease the transportation.
1.6. Rights and Privileges of the local Communities
The local communities are not free to enter or access the national park to hunt or cut trees
without explaining the reason and given permission. However, the fishermen are given
licenses by the wildlife authority to carryout fishing at the Nile River. On the other hand,
people are allowed to enter the park to collect dry firewood and some eatable fruits for
example, Balanite aegyptica (lalob), Ziziphus abyssinica, Temarindus indica (ardib),
Sclerocarya birrea, African palm (dileb), Vitex doniana (kurnyuk) and Ximenia americana.
1.7. The Areas around Nimule National Park
1.7.1. Local Communities around Nimule National Park
Nimule national park is surrounded by a number of villages which include, Rei East, Rei
West, Kololo and Anyama. These villages are settled by a number of tribes for example
Madi, Dinka, Bari, Lulubo, Lotuko, Kuku, Acholi, Muru, Lango, and Shilok living peacefully
amongst them.
1.7.2. Land Use and Economic Activities
The communities living around Nimule National Park carryout fishing in the Nile river with
licenses issued by wildlife authorities, subsistence farming, illegal collection, brick laying
along the Nile river and illegal logging, livestock rearing around the park and wild fruits
collection and herbal medicine. Most of these activities are carried out illegally by the local
communities though they economically benefit the households, they are not authorized by the
wildlife laws simply because the area is considered a protection site and human disturbances
are regarded threats to ecosystem.

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1.7.3. Contribution of Buffer zone to the social life
The buffer zone provides the services like keeping hope alive by distributing opportunities
for a few people to gain access to jobs, housing, health, maintain ecological integrity and to
ensure community participation in biodiversity, enhance the protection of areas under
management for their biodiversity importance, western parts and the area provides a learning
environment for the people residing around it especially to children to physically see the wild
animals in the buffer zone moving freely.
More so, the local communities living around the buffer zone get the following goods from
the area; fish are caught from the Nile River for households and commercial purposes, and
gathering of wild fruits like Balanite aegyptica, Ximenia americana, Vitex doniana,
Tamarindus indica. These goods and services provided by the buffer zone to the communities
are of social and economic benefits for the households’ sustainability.
1.7.4. History of wildlife species within Nimule national park (buffer zone)
In the past years, there were a variety of wildlife species that is to say, both plants and
animals in Nimule National Park. However, from the objective of establishment of NNP, it
was simply to conserve and protect the few species of white Rhino (Ceratotherium simum),
Lions (Panthera leo) and Leopards (Pathera pardus).
Therefore, several influences by human such as, civil wars, poaching, forest fires and
deforestation have driven away many elephants, buffalos, giraffes, leopards, lions to the
neighbouring countries like Uganda, Kenya and DRC with only few animals’ species left for
instant Elephants, Warthogs, Baboons, Did-dig, Gazelles, Monkeys, Hippos, Squirrels and
Crocodiles.
More so, many of such animals are still threaten and endangered by destruction of their
habitat. Besides the animals, on the other hand, some tree like acacia species, Combretum
glutinosum and Bilanaite aegyptica have been illegally cut down by neighbouring
communities for charcoal, firewood for sales because they are believed to be so flammable,
these activities contributed to the change in ecosystems structure.
1.7.5. Climate
The climate of Nimule national park and its surroundings is not different from that of the
southern part of the South Sudan especially those of high woodland savannah. It is essentially
of continental climate. In this zone, it has unequivocal dry season (Lebon, 1965). The rainy
season in Nimule area starts in April and ends in November. The dry season runs from
December to March. The mean annual rainfall varies from 1000- 1200 mm and the mean

4
daily temperature is 27 C0. The highest temperatures occur in March at 29 C0 while the lowest
usually occurs in July at 24 C0 (Lebon, 1965).
1.7.6. Soil Types
Soils are normally influenced by climate, the nature of parent rocks, relief, drainage and
vegetation. According to Mofit’s (1978) and Noordwijk (1984), the soils of Nimule national
park and its surrounding belong to those of ironstone plateau zone. This zone is part of
geological archaean basement complex. The complex is composed of very old sediments and
volcanic formations.
These soils are extensions of Lotosol soils found in high woodland savannah and are of
intermediate lands. The soils are characterized by red mottles and discrete modules on top of
the horizon of clay and highly weathered materials rich in iron and aluminium oxides.
The soils have lower pH values and more organic matter. They become more acidic only after
exposure and cultivation (Morison et al, 1948). Most soils occurring in Nimule National Park
and surroundings are free draining and have good crumb-structure, except where the Laterite
soils its self is exposed or near the surface.
The clay component of the soils is predominantly Kaolenite. They belong to the great class of
tropical soils that developed in hot humid climates, from which the soluble substances
derived from chemical weathering and biological activity have been bleached (Morison et al,
1948).
1.7.7. Vegetation
Nimule National Park is mainly an area of deciduous high woodland savannah characterized
by high broad leafed and more foliage trees some of, which are deciduous, others evergreen.
The grass grows to a height of 4-6 feet and most of the grass species are perennial. The most
important and dominant vegetation categories in NNP are mainly three;
a. The wooded grassland. This is made of Hyperhenia filibendula (Hochst.) Stapf,
Hyperhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf) and Combretum species mainly Combretum collinum
(collinum Fresen). This occurs mostly on the western half of the park especially the areas
next to open grassland.
b. Bushed grassland. The main feature of this type of the vegetation category, is the strong
presence of Combretum species, interspersed by Hyperhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf),
Hyperhenia filibendula (Hochst.) Stapf grass. This type occupies the areas on the highest,
well-drained ground.

5
c. The Riverine woodland. This type of vegetation category occurs along both the seasonal
and permanent rivers and streams. This type of vegetation is dominated by Acacia
sieberiana (Vachellia sieberiana), (Abdalla, 1988 and Noordwijk, 1984).
1.7.8. Fauna
Although NNP was established for the own locally extinct white rhino, Ceratotherium simum
cottoni there are other mammals of importance among which are: elephant, hippopotamus
Hippopotamus ampibius, waterbuck, Kobus defassa, Uganda kob, Kobus kob, bush buck,
Tragelaphus scriptus, common duiker, Sylvicapra grimmia, Oribi Ourebia ourebi, warthog,
Phacochoerus aethiopicus, baboon, Papio anubis,Vervet monkey Ceropithecus aethios,
hyrax Procavia capensis, common jackal Aureus sp and leopard, Panthera pardus although
sporadic visitor (Myers 1976).
Nile crocodile niloticus, python, Python sibae and monitor lizards are the main reptiles
occurring in NNP. The bird life is very rich in the area. Most bird families in Africa are
represented here includes even the Palaearctic migratory species from Europe, Asia, and
North Africa such as Ciconiidae family.

1.8. Main and other tree species found in Nimule National Park
The main tree species in Nimule National park include; Combretum glutinosum, Combretum
zeheri, Acacia seyal, Acacia senegal, Acacia nilotica, Acacia sieberiana, Ziziphus spinacristi,
Ziziphus abyssinica, Sclerrocarya berea, Grewia mollis, Kigelia africana, Ficus ovata,
Ximenia america, Polistigma reticulata, Temarindus indica, Balinite egyptica.

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1.9. Identification and description of trees and shrubs species with their respective uses
seen at NNP buffer zone
1. ACACIA NILOTICA
Scientific name: Acacia nilotica.
Local name: Sunt (Arabic) Liara (Lango
Family name: Fabaceae/ Mimosaceae
Species description:
Bark: Rough bark, large thorns, with single or paired dark-brown or black rough and fissured
thorns of 30-40mm long all straight.
Fruits: Variable pods, straight, or slightly falcate, dark brown to grey, glabrous or pubescent,
seeds10-12. Fruits in March-May.
Leaves: 7-30 pairs of leaflets, leaves 1-3cm pinnae, 2-7cm long
Flowers: White flowers, inflorescence capitates, yellow, flowers are bisexual, sessile.
Flowers in July-Sept
The uses: Good fuel wood. Roots used as medicine. Good for fence. Soil fertility.

a b

Figure 2: Acacia nilotica; (a) Leaves and thorns, and (b) Bark morphology

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2. ACACIA SENEGAL
Scientific name: Acacia senegalenisis
Local name: Gum Arabic (English) Hashab (Arabic)
Family name: Fabaceae – peas, legumes
Species description:
Bark: Greenish yellow to grey grey brown. Prickles in threes. Central one hoked
Fruits: Sub-circular lenticular 8-12 mm. visible central U shape. The fruits are straight,
hairy, flat, dehiscent papery pods, about 7 cm long x 2 cm wide. Green and pubescent
when young, they become a shiny bronze with maturity.
The leaves: Petiole 0.2-2cm long. Densely hairy. Racis 0.7 cm long with gland at the
functiveof the top 1-5 pinnae pairs
Flowers: The yellowish-white and fragrant flowers are borne on cylindrical spikes, 5-10
cm long.
The uses: For erosion control measures. Heart wood for post & poles and fuel. Wood
fibers for making net for fishing. Produce high quality edible Gum Arabic.

a b

Figure 3: Acacia senegal; (a) Leaves and thorns, and (b) Bark morphology

8
3. ACACIA SEYAL
Scientific name: Acacia seyal
Local name: (English: red acacia), (Arabic: Talh), Lango: Churati), (Acholi: Oriang) Feny
(Dinka)
Family name: Fadaceae
Species description:
Bark: Distinctive powdery white to pale green or orange red small thorns, smooth or sparsely
flanking, whitish, greenish, yellow or orange red bark.
Fruits: fruits falcae dehiscent pods constricted between the seeds, seeds wrinkled
compressed, elliptic and areoles u-shaped.
Leaves: 3-8 pairs of pinnae, 11-12 pairs of leaflets, leaves 1-12cm long.
Flowers: Yellowish on peduncle, 1-4cm long, involves on lower half. Flowers from Nov-
April.
The uses: Good fuel wood, roots used as medicine, very palatable to elephants as feeds.

a b c

Figure 4: Acacia seyal (a) Leaves and flowers, (b) Bark morphology and (c) Tree form

9
4. ACACIA SIEBERANA
Scientific name: Acacia sieberana
Local name: Flat-top thorn (English) or Paper bark thorn. Kuk (Arabic) Koat (Dinka)
Family name: Fabaceae/ Mimosaceae
Species description:
Bark: Greenish or yellowish, brown, rough, some fines papery
Fruits: Green, elliptic. Sub-circular flattering 7-12*5-8 mm.
Leaves: Glabrous to density hairy. Petiole 0.2-1cm long.
Flowers: Capitate inflorescence pale-yellow. Solitary short.
The uses: Use for time and fuel. For; tool handles. Pods and posts, Edible gum, Leaves and
pods eaten by animals. Uses as medicine for fever in children, and decoction of the roots

a b c

Figure 5: Acacia sieberana; (a) Leaves, (b) Bark morphology and (c) Tree form

10
5. BALANITE AEGYPTIACA.
Scientific name: Balanites aegyptica
Local name: Desert dates, soapberry tree (English), Lalob (Arabic) Thou (Dinka)
Family name: Balanitaceae
Species description:
Bark: Dark brown to gray, fissured
Fruits: Fruits are ellipsoid up to about 4cm long, brown or pale brown when fully ripe with
brittle code and closing a brown green sticky pulp and a hard stone. There are 500-1000 dry
clean seeds per kg.
Leaves: Yellow or green up to 8cm long. Leaves are with two separate leaflets aboate,
asymmetric, 2.5-6cm long, bright green ladder
Flowers: Flowers are small, inconspicuous and pollinated by insects. Begins to flower at 5-7
years
The uses: Young and tender leaves or shoots are eaten as vegetables by most communities,
bark used to treat jaundice, fruits or fleshy pulps when ripe are eaten roots are used to treat
malaria and stomach pains. Oil obtained from the seeds is used to manufacture soaps.

a b c

Figure 6: Balanite aegyptiaca; (a) Leaves and fruits, (b) Bark morphology and (c) Tree
form

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6. COMBRETUM GLUTINOSUM
Scientific name: Combretum glutinosum
Local name: Maure, Habil (Arabic) Malalati-(Lango)
Family name: Combretaceae
Species description:
Bark: The bark is warty. The pole is rarely straight.
Fruits: Fruit ovate angular, 4-winged, 1-seeded, 2.5-3.5x2cm, truncate at base,
Leaves: Thick, sticky above and near white below leaves.
Flowers: Inflorescence axillary panicles 4-5cm long, flowers 4-merons greenish brown,
densely hairy, 1.5mm long. Flowers during the dry season after the bush fire which facilitates
leaf flushing support and flowering December-March.
The uses: Use as fodder for animals like cattle and giraffes. Barks are used as tattoos, rasins,
dyes, stains and inks. The wood is yellowish, hard, and very durable. Used for hurt posts,
tools handles and good fire wood.

a b c

Figure 7: Combretum glutinosum; (a) Leaves and seeds, (b) Bark morphology, and
(c) Tree form

12
7. COMBRETUM ZEHERI
Scientific name: Combretum zeheri
Local name: Nyalibi (Bari)
Family name: Combretaceae
Species description:
Bark: The bark is gray, rough and thick.
Fruits: Hard scaly and brown or red-brown fruits.
Leaves: Simple and alternate.
Flowers: White or yellow in some species.
The uses: Fuel wood. Building poles, Good shade, Quality timber. God forages

a b

Figure 8: Combretum zeheri; (a) Leaves and (b) Bark morphology

13
8. FICUS OVATA
Scientific name: Ficus ovate
Local name: Jumeiz (Arabic), Bule (Lango), Laac (Dinka)
Family name: Moraceae
Species description:
Bark: The bark is pale grey-brown with regularly spaced paler latitudinal stripes and small
crumb-like scales over the general surface on top of longitudinal properly scales.
Fruits: The figs are borne singly or in pairs in the leaf axils or on old wood. The mature figs
are typically ellipsoid, green with whitish spots.
Leaves: Rather large, about 22 x 12 cm (9-31 cm long), the outer basal veins not reaching the
middle of the leaf, 6-13 other veins each side, tip long pointed, the base rounded to a long
stalk 3-10cm.
The uses: Bark, fruit are used as medicine e.g. veterinary. Fruits are fodder for animals. Bark
is used as gum and resins. Latex used in hunting, fishing apparatus.

a b c

Figure 9: Ficus ovata; (a) Leaves (b) Fruits and (c) Bark morphology

14
9. GARDENIA LUTEA
Scientific name: Gardenia lutea
Local name: Abu gawi (Arabic), Otwongiti/kete lo kifire (Lango) Donug (Dinka)
Family name: Rubiaceae
Species description:
Bark: Bole is straight and short. Bark yellowish, smooth peeling off in large irregular and
rather thin plates.
Fruits: Fruits multi-seeded berries elliptic, ovoid or globose with persistent calyx at the apex.
The seeds embedded in fleshy pulp.
Leaves: Leaves are simple opposite or in whorls of threes, dark-green.
Flowers: Flowers are solitary or in small clusters, white or pale yellow, with a tabular based
corolla with 5-12 lobes (petals).
Flowering from November-March, and fruiting from December-April.
The uses: The wood is used as firewood and branches for tools handled. Use locally as
mingling sticks. Leaves and roots are used to cure stomach diseases.

a b c

Figure 9: Gardenia lutea; (a) Leaves and flowers (b) Fruits and (c) Bark morphology

15
 10. GREWIA MOLLIS
Scientific name: Grewia Mollis
Local name: Abu layuk (Arabic), Tire (Bari) Opobo (Acholi) Apiath (Dinka) Lomurlang
Family name: Tiliaceae
Species description:
Bark: Bark is Gray, smooth inside.
Fruit: Fleshy, 4-lobed, each about 5mm across. Fruits in March
Leaves: Are often asymmetrical, up to 4x2 cm tunene-obovite.
Flowers: It normally flowers in February.
The uses: Rope for thatching houses. Tools handles, Leaves are edible, Building poles.
Use as caning material.

a b c

Figure 10: Grewia mollis; (a) Leaves, (b) Flower and (c) Bark morphology

16
 11. KIGELIA AFRICANA
Scientific name: Kigelia africana
Local name: Sausage tree. Worsboom (English) Abu sudur (Arabic) Momoi (lango and
acholi) Ruaal (Dinka)
Family name: Bignoniaceae
Species description:
Bark: Gray and smooth but develop cracks with ages.
Fruits: Is sausage-like and drops often, it weighs 12kg. Fruit is many seeded.
Leaves: Leaves are elliptic in slope with length of 10cm when mature. Leaves occur in
threes and are compound with lathery and rounded at end of branches.
Flowers: Flowers are red or maroon colored with yellow veins, are bisexual, very large
pedicels up to 11-13.5cm or nearly 1m long.
The uses: Leaves, bark, stem and twigs used to treat digestive disorder. Treatment of
skin disease like Leprosy and anti-aging. Fruits have strong antibacterial activity. Fruits
used to treat ulcers, sores and syphilis. And wood is used to manufacture canoes.

a b c

Figure 11: Kigelia africana; (a) Fruits, (b) Bark morphology and (c) Tree form

17
 12. PILOSTIGMA RECTICULATUM
Scientific name: Pilostigma recticulatum
Local name: Abu khameira/karub (Arabic), Pac (Dinka), Ogali (Acholi and Lango)
Family name: Caesalpiniaceae.
Species description:
Bark: Bark dark-grey to brown, fibrous and corky, slash dark red.
Fruits: Fruits indehiscent pod, large, long, straight, undulate or twisted and hard, either
glabrous or sparsely pubescent and brown in color when ripe.
Leaves: Leaves are simple large, thick, leathery, grey-green split in half in camel-hoof
shape, apex bilobate obtuse.
Flowers: Flowers dioeciously clustered in short, hairy, axillary racemes measuring 4-
5cm, petals white with pink stripes. Flowers August-September, fruits November-
February.
The uses: Leaves are used for drinks, used to make blue dye, from pourded roots, seeds
and pods. Tea from leaves to treat colds. Bark is used against diarrhea and dysentery.
Used to cure coughs and malaria etc.

a b c

Figure 12: Pilostigma recticulatum; (a) Leaves and fruits, (b) Bark morphology and
(c) Tree form

18
 13. SCLEROCARYA BIRREA
Scientific name: Sclerocarya birrea
Local name: Lemon gabam; (Arabia) Otimo (Acholi), Otimoi- (Lango) Gumel (Dinka)
Family name: Anacardiaceae
Species description:
Bark: Gray, finely fissured, scaling inner bark. Pink-red or reddish tinge, flaking in
scale.
Fruits: Fleshy drupe, oval or nearly rounded, fruits in March-April.
Leaves: Compound imparipinnates, reddish when young crowded at tip of the branch,
have 3-8 pairs of left lets, smooth margin.
Flowers: Male and female flowers on the same or on different trees, pale green male
flowers in pike, flowers in January-March.
The uses: Fruits are edible, improves soil fertility, forages, good shade, wildlife habitat

a b c

Figure 13: Sclerocarya birrea; (a) Fruits, (b) Leaves and (c) Bark morphology

19
 14. TAMARINDUS INDICA.
Scientific name: Tamarindus indica.
Local name: Tamarind (English) Aradeib (Arabic), Cuei (Dinka), Cuaa (Acholi),
IKwatang (Lango)
Family name: Caesalpiniaceae / Fabaceae
Species description:
Bark: Bark is grey and rough with a checkered pattern.
Fruits: Seeds are shiny and hard. The edible pulp is date-like and reddish brown.
Leaves: The whole leaf is 6-12cm long and it is divided into 10-17 pairs of leaf-lets.
These are oblong without stalks about 15cm long. The leaf-lets are 1-2.5cm long and 4-
9mm wide. It loses its leaves in dry season, one after another.
Flowers: Flowers are pale-yellow, with brown markings.
The uses: The pulp of the fruit is edible and is also used for drinks. Seeds are also edible
when cooked. The young leave, flowers, and pods are also edible.

a
b c

Figure 14: Tamarindus indica; (a) Leaves and Flowers, (b) Fruits and (c) Bark
morphology

20
 15. VITEX DONIANA
Scientific name: Vitex doniana
Local name: Black plum (English), Kurnyuk (Arabic), Oyelu (Lango /Acholi) and
kurnyuk in Dinka
Family name: Lamiaceae
Species description:
Bark: Bark is pale brown or grey white bark that has long cracks sticky ridges.
Fruits: The fruit is smooth and oblong about 3cm long, green marked with white dots
and turn black when ripe. Fruit contain one hard conical seed.
Leaves: Has leathery and shiny leaves which are opposite and arranged like fingers on a
hand with five leaflets.
Flowers: The creamy hairy violet lobe flowers are fragrant and occur in clusters of up to
20 on a long stalk.
The uses: Dry and fresh fruits are eaten as remedy for diarrhea and it increase the level
of vitamin A and B in the body. The fruits can also be made into Jam. Traditionally it is
used to treat anemia, gonorrhea, Jaundice and Leprosy, rickets gastro intestinal
disorders. It is sole also in the market to earn income to the families.

a b c

Figure 15: Vitex doniana; (a) Leaves, (b) Fruits and (c) Bark morphology

21
 16. XIMENIA AMERICANA
Scientific name: Ximenia americana
Local name: Small blue sourplum (English), mielat (Dinka) Ilama (Lango), Olelemo
(Acholi).
Family name: Olacaceae
Species description:
Bark: Bark is brown-black. Spines, 1cm thin and straight
Fruits: Fruits are oval, shiny, light green that grows up to 30mm long, and turns yellow,
orange or red when ripe. Fruit contains one large endospermic seed within its green pulp,
containing a small embryo with a thin test.
Leaves: Leaves are simple, alternate or clustered on spur shoots with haired, blush grey-
green. Leaves are oval shaped, bright green and have a strong smell of almonds.
Flowers: Flowers are pale in color. The inflorescence is usually branched and bears
several flowers.
The uses: Roots used to treat diarrhea, abdominal pains, mental illness, fever and
bilharzia. Leaves are dried and produce powder to break fever. Attraction of birds due to
bright flowers. Feeds for various mammals like giraffe that eats leaves. Larvae of
butterflies feed on leaves. Fruits are eaten raw and seeds are crushed for extraction of the
oil eaten or used in making cosmetics and treat hair and skins.

a b c

Figure 16: Ximenia americana; (a) Leaves (b) Fruits and (c) Bark morphology

22
 17. ZIZIPHUS ABYSSINICA
Scientific name: Ziziphus abyssinica
Local name: Nabag el feel (Arabic) Puruti (Bari), Kabai (Lango), Lang akoon (Dinka).
Family name: Rhamnaceae
Species description:
Bark: Grey-black, deeply grooved, branches, with single or paired dark brown thorns of
20mm long in a pair, one is straight and the other is curved back.
Fruit: Rounded single seeded drupe, 20-30mm across, smooth, green at first, shiny red-
brown. Fruit globose, dark-red to brown seeds
Leaves: Thick and leathery, alternate, leaf base unequal, variable in length, 50-80mm.
Leaves simple ovate to broadly ovate or ovate-elliptic, petioletomentose.
Flowers: Green-yellow in small star-like heads, 10-20mm across stalk 10mm. Petals 1-
1.5cm long, ovary 2-celled. Flowers July-October, fruits in August-December
The uses: Good for fencing farms. Soil fertility. Agricultural tool handles. Wood is used
as fuel. Used also to make furniture and walking sticks.

a b c

Figure 17: Ziziphus abyssinica; (a) Leaves, (b) Fruits and (c) Bark morphology

23
 18. ZIZIPHUS SPINA-CHRISTI.
Scientific name: Ziziphus spina-christi.
Local name: Christ’s thorn (English) Siddir/nabag (Arabic), Lango (Acholi), Ilanga
(Lango) Lang (Dinka)
Family name: Rhamnaceae
Species description:
Bark: Bark is grey, fissured.
Fruits: Fruits are fleshy edible when ripe and red brown, cells and seeds 2, rarely 3
Leaves: Leaves are narrowly ovate to elliptic, apex rounded or shortly acute obtuse, base
rounded.
Flowers: Greenish yellow in sub sessile sometimes dense cymes, 10-25. Flowers up to
5cm long. Flowers August-December, fruits March-August. Greenish yellow in sub
sessile sometimes dense cymes, 10-25. Flowers up to 5cm long. Flowers August-
December, fruits March-August.
The uses: Roots are antigonorrheal, Bark antispasmodic, wood for serpent bites. Leaves
are anthelmintic, astringent, for abscess, and furuncles, Roots are antidycentric
medicines. Leaves are browsed by wild animals, wood used as tool handles, are source
of fuel. Fruits are edible.

a b c

Figure 18: Ziziphus spina-christi; (a) Leaves, (b) Fruits and (c) Bark morphology

24
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 THE PRESENT WORKING PLAN OF NIMULE NATIONAL PARK, BUFFER

ZONE
During the field trip to the Nimule national park buffer zone there was no official document
obtained from the concerned legal authority regarding the present working plan of the NNP.
However, according to observation of the area, it is assumed that the current working plan for
Nimule national Park is basically looking at conserving biodiversity, controlling poaching
and improving tourism industry as a means to conserve national resources and to generate
national revenues for the country. Therefore, more research should be conducted in the future
to obtain information on the aspect of present working plan of NNP.
2.1. Types of severity and present forest damage
2.1.1. Forest fire
Forest fire is very frequent phenomenon in NNP including the buffer zone as signs of fire
impacts were observed during the inventory survey. This fire outbreak is believed to have
been caused by honey collectors, poachers and fishermen who smoke fish along the Nile
River. These activities often take place during the dry season when forest litters and grasses
are dry hence increasing the chance for fire outbreak.
2.1.2. Pests and diseases
Pests in Nimule National Park are seen to have caused severe damages on specific tree
species that includes Combretum species, Acacia senegalensis and Ziziphus species.
However, these pests are namely, termites, grasshoppers and squirrels that feed on Balanites
aegyptica fruits. More so, diseases impact on some other trees like Combretuum species
leaves affected by leaves gall due to fungal infection and canker.
2.1.3. Wild animals’ destruction
Big animals like elephants, caused serious damages on some tree species like Acacia seyal
and Acacia nilotica by consuming many parts of their leaves, fruits, bark and twigs, uprooted
and pushed down some trees branches and stepping up on them causing serious breaking on
trees. As well as small animals like warthogs, rabbits...etc use to browse and dig out roots as
they feed and on trees.
2.1.4. Destruction caused by local communities
Communities residing around the park usually enter into the park and carryout illegal
activities like cutting down the trees for firewood and other commercial purposes, grazing of

25
domestic animals and poaching / hunting. These actions threaten the biodiversity of both
plants and animals in the park due to habitat destruction.

26
 CHAPTER THREE

STRUCTURE OF ADMINISTRATION OF NIMULE NATIONAL PARK (BUFFER

ZONE

Chief Warden

Warden for Warden for Warden for

Warden for Warden for
Adminisrtation Community Anti Poaching
Research and
Tourism
and finanace Conservation Monitoring

Figure 19: Showing the administrative structure of Nimule national Park

3.1. Roles and responsibilities of the warden officers.

 Chief Warden;
Chief Warden is responsible for the management and direction of emergency procedures in
their building or work area. This includes; development of the evacuation plans, coordinating
building evacuations and checking the availability of emergency equipment specific to the
area.
 Warden for administration and finance;
Prepares and monitors annual budget, advices management of budget status, monitors
staffing rosters, overtime, and coordinate with the chief warden to assist in achieving monthly
budget throughout the year.
 Warden for community conservation;
Performs law enforcement duties and educate the public. Participate in the monitoring and
tracking the implementation of protected areas management plans against set objectives,
schedules and budgets
 Warden for anti-poaching;
Is responsible for defending the illegal wildlife trade, patrol protected areas, monitors
wildlife, prevent poaching and engage local communities in conservation, help communities
resolve human wildlife conflicts and assists with tourism.

27
 Warden for research and monitoring;
Participate in identifying and reviewing threats to the conservation area management
priorities collaborate with research and training institutions to foster wildlife research and
monitoring and assist in the development and implementation of the research agenda.
 Warden for tourism;
Prepare tourists or visitors information, producing promotional material and displays, liaising
with local businesses, media and market research.

28
 CHAPTER FOUR

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STATUS OF NIMULE NATIONAL PARK

(BUFFER ZONE)

4.1. General Objectives of Forest Inventory

The general objective of the forest inventory is to collect quantitative and qualitative data
about the forest at Nimule National Park (Buffer zone) in regards to tree height, diameter at
breast height (DBH), tree species distribution and site quality. These data determine the
performance of the stand and can help in drawing up the management plan.
4.2. Types of instruments and tools used during the forest inventory process.
 Sunntos clinometers: used for height shooting at a distance approximately 20m.
 GPS: used to trace transect lines and the compass direction of movement including
coordinates taking (i.e. Northing and Easting) in degrees and ground elevation in meters.
Also measure length between one plot and another.
 Caliper: for measuring the tree diameter > 5cm at DBH.
 Meter tape/ tape measure: for measuring distance from one sample plot to another and
to establish radius of the sample plot from its center and to measure a distance between
one transect line and another including edge effect determination.
 Compass: for determining direction and projections of the transect lines i.e. bearing in
degrees.
 Machetes/Pangas: for clearing up obstacles that might block the rangers from ranging.
 Chalks: for marking trees within the sample plot that have reached the acceptable sizes
(diameters and heights).
4.3. Sampling Method and Intensity
The sampling method is a systematic method where a transect line is followed and number of
plots were established. The sampling intensity used was 10%.
4.4. Types and Layout of Sampling Plots
The type sampling plot for Nimule National Park Forest (Buffer zone) was circular with
radius of 17.84 m and the distance between two sampling plots was 100 m and between two
transects lines was taken to be 100 m with edge effect of 50m.
4.5. Methods of data collection
During the process of acquiring the data, transects lines were done in a systematic method,
after the edge effects were taken as 50 meters before the first plot measured. The GPS was

29
used to measure the accurate elevations and altitudes of the location of each plot and the
compass was as well used to locate most accurate direction for the transect line to follow. The
distant from one plot to the next was taken as 100 meters apart and on the other hand, the
plots were taken in a circular form and with a radius of 17.84m and all the trees measured
with the diameter from 5cm found inside the plots were all measured using the caliper or tape
measure for bigger trunks.
More so, the Sunnto clinometer was used in measuring the trees with height from 4m above
and below this were considered shrubs and a distance between the person holding the Sunnto
and the tree under measurement was considered as 20m for accuracy and avoiding bias and
through same procedures, we were able to cover about 150 plots during the inventory.
4.6. General Qualities of the Forest Trees
There is variation in the general quality of trees in this national park (buffer zone). The
pattern of this variation differs from one plot to another. Some of the plots experienced
certain damages from biotic and abiotic agents such as human, forest fire, pests, diseases and
wild animals. Therefore, the quality of such forest was determined through physical
observation and measurements of the parameters and variables of the forest resource for
instant, majority vegetation (trees & shrubs). This was rated as high quality, medium quality
and low quality of the resource available.
4.7. The data source.
The data used for writing this management plan was collected by the fifth year students in the
school of natural resources and environmental studies, department of forestry, University of
Juba
4.8. Variables and Parameters
4.8.1. Variables measured:
 Diameter at Breast Height (DBH); is the standard for measurement trees. It refers to
the tree diameter at 4.5 feet above the ground.
 Height; Tree height is the vertical distance between the base of the tree and the tip of
the highest branch of the tree.
4.8.2. Parameters calculated:
 Average DBH (cm); this is the total number of DBH divided by the number of trees
measured.
 Basal area/ha (m2); is the cross sectional area of trees at breast height.
 Volume /ha (m3); the total number of standing trees per hectare.

30
  Density /ha; is the mass per unit volume. The tree density gives foresters an idea of
how closely the trees are growing in a given area. This value is always express as trees
per hectare.

S/NO. VARIABLES FORMULA

1. Basal area/Tree (BA) 𝜋𝑑2 /4 or 𝜋/4 *𝑑 2
2. Basal area/Plot ∑(𝐵𝐴/𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑒)

3. Average basal area/Plot ∑(𝜋𝑑 2 /4) ÷ 𝑁. Where N is the number of plots in

the block.
4. Average basal area/Hectare Av. BA/plot ÷ Plot Area*10000. Where plot Area
(A)= r2
Average Height per plot(H-) ∑(𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡) ÷ 𝑁.
Where N is the number of trees in a sample plot.
5. Total height per whole Block ∑(𝐴𝑣. 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡) ÷ 𝑁.
Where N is the number of the sample plots in the
block.
6. Volume/Tree BA/Tree*F.F*H-/plot. Where F.F is the form factor
of the Natural forest which is (1.3-1.6).
𝑛
7. Volume/Plot
∑ 𝑉𝑜𝑙/𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡.
𝑖=1

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘

8. Average No. of trees/Whole ∑(𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡) ÷ 𝑁.
block 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
9. Average No. of trees/HA Av. No. of Trees/plot ÷ r2

10. Density Number of trees/plot ÷ Area of sample plot.

11. Standard Deviation (SD) √(∑(𝑥2) − ∑(𝑥)2)/N-1.

Where N is the number of plots/block.
12. Standard Error(Se) √SD
. where n is the No. of sample plot/Block
n
13. Coefficient of variation SD/X- *100. Where x- is the mean of the volume
(C.V)%
Table 1: Showing different formula for calculation of different parameters.

31
One Area No. of Mean Mean Density Basal Area (BA/ HA) Volume per HA
Block (m2) trees DBH Height (Vol/HA)-(m3)
(plots) per (m) (m)
Block
Mean SD SE C.V% Mean SD SE C.V%

150 99935. 2065 9.8698 5.39899 13.76666 3030.905 734.3708 0.180661 24.22941 2850.944 12475.33 0.744620 437.58615
398 30508 2736 667 933 787 855 836% 176 686 317 01%

Table 2: Stand table for Nimule national park, buffer zone

32
4.9. Methods of Calculation and Degree of Precision
All the calculations were done using Microsoft office (2010) Excel programmes. The degree
of precision taken was three (3) decimal points.
 Dominant tree species:
The most dominant species were found to be Combretum glutinosum with a total of about
(900) followed by unknown species ranging between (650 -700) as shown in figure 3 below.
This might be because these species are palatable to many wild animal species.
The presence of Alluvial and silt soils found at the low land of the buffer zone favoured the
growth and abundance of these species.
These tree species were found to be resistant to fire effects and most pests’ infestation like
termites, which contributed to their abundance.
 Less dominant tree species:
Tree species such as; acacia species, Spina species, Balanite aegyptica,and Kigelia africana
these species were believed to be so palatable to many animal species such as Elephants and
squirrels which might have contributed to their relative scarcity in the buffer zone.
Rocky soil type in most parts of the buffer zone was found to be a major factor inhibiting the
penetration of roots leading to death of the seedlings hence hindering natural regeneration.
These tree species were found to be less than (50) in total due to poor distribution and
abundance.

33
 900
850
800
750
700
650
600
Species number

550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Tree species name

Figure 20: The graph showing total number of individual tree species surveyed at Nimule National Park (buffer zone)

34
 PART II

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 NEW MANAGEMENT PLAN

Introduction
Planning is an active process requiring careful thought about what could or should happen in the future and involves the coordination of all
relevant activities for the purpose of achieving specified goals and objectives. New management Plan is an integral component of forest
management; it will determine and express the goals and objectives which government, rural communities or companies have, and for deciding
the targets and steps that should be taken in order to achieve those objectives.
New management plan will demonstrate clear objectives which can be achieved in Nimule National park which aims at enabling efficient
imagination and a willingness to consider all points of view having relevance to a given situation, it will lead to the formation of a balanced
outlook from which proposals for effective management can be written. An element of flexibility is desirable and necessary, however, in order to
cope with unforeseen events which could affect the achievement of the objectives. it will enable a range of benefits and drawbacks of alternative
courses of action and information’s to be evaluated, in which preferred options to be determined, coordinated with other activities, and expressed
in writing. the activities of the plan can be acquiring better quality information.
The new management plan will take a period of 10 years, from 2023 – 2032; this period represents medium-term stability that will guide
consistent implementation of sustainable forest management activities.

35
 DETAILED PRESCRIPTION OF ACTION:

SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIES:

Ten years working plan Activities from (2023-2032).

Years 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032
of
plan
Comp LP(SY,IN Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si 1st T. Pr+si Pr+si Pr+si 2nd T. Pr+s
-1 V W. W.
Cr-A,NO- Br. Br.
BO), S-C.

comp- Pl+si LP(SY,INV Pl+si Pl+si Pr+si 1st T. Pr+si Pr+si Pr+si 2nd T.
2 , W. W.
Cr-A,NO- Br. Br.
BO), S-C.

Comp Pl+si Pl+si LP(SY,IN Pl+si Pr+si Pr+si 1st T. Pr+si Pr+si Pr+si
-3 V W.
Cr-A,NO- Br.
BO), S-C.

36
Comp Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si LP(SY,IN Pl+si Pr+si Pr+si 1st T. Pr+si Pr+si
-4 V W.
Cr-A,NO- Br.
BO), S-C.

Comp Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si LP(SY,IN Pr+si Pr+si Pr+si 1st T. Pr+si
-5 V W.
Cr-A,NO- Br.
BO), S-C.

Comp Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si LP(SY,IN Pr+si Pr+si Pr+si 1st T.
-6 V W.
Cr-A, NO- Br.
BO), S-C.

Comp Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si LP(SY,IN Pr+si Pr+si Pr+si
-7 V
Cr-A, NO-
BO), S-C.

37
Comp Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si LP(SY,IN Pr+si Pr+si
-8 V
Cr-A, NO-
BO), S-C.

Comp Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si LP(SY,IN Pr+si
-9 V
Cr-A,NO-
BO), S-C
Comp Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si Pl+si LP(SY,IN
-10 V
Cr-A,NO-
BO), S-C

Table 3: Ten years’ forest management plan schedule of activities:

38
Comp: Compartment. Sv: Silvicultural systems. Inv: inventory.

LP: land preparation. Pl: planting. Be: beating up. Br: brashing. Si: singling. Pr: pruning.

NB:

The schedule of activities will be applied to the whole forest; because the forest is a natural
forest and the planting of new stands will take place in compartments/ blocks that show clear
intervention (cutting of trees) by man or damages by wildlife species or devastation by
diseases and insects pests.

5.2 Type of Severity and Present forest damages:

5.2.1 Forest Fires:

Nimule National Park/ buffer zone forest showed few damages by wild fires and man-made
fires for charcoal making and land clearance for cultivation.

5.2.2 Types of Diseases:

Nimule National Park/ Buffer zone shows a number of diseases that appears clearly on some
trees such as Xanthomonas axonopodis p.v. on Khaya senegalensis, Vauterin, Hoste, Kersters
And Dieback on Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kumm. Armillaria melle (Vahl) P. Kumm.

5.2.3 Types of Insect:

Nimule National Park/ Buffer zone shows several Insects that impact forest productivity and
sustainability of the forest include Locust, grass hoper, bees. Anacridum melanorhodon
(Walker, 1870), Hosts: Acacia senegal; Balanite aegyptica. Sphenoptera chalcichroa arenosa
Obenberger, 1924, Hosts: Acacia nilotica; Betula allegheniensis. Sphenoptera fulgens Gory,
1842, Host type: broadleaf. Caryedon serratus (Olivier, 1790), Hosts: Acacia spp.; Cassia
spp.; Tamarindus spp.; Bauhinia spp.

5.2.4 Weeds and Climbers:

Are present in each sample plot, in most cases covering large parts of the trees in the forest.

39
5.2.5 Domestic Animals:
Animals that are present within peoples around the forest in which peoples benefit from their
production like milks and selling their meets to the local markets for daily human
consumption include; Goats, sheep’s and cows.

5.2.6 Wildlife:
Wildlife species that are currently present in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone; Monkeys,
Squirrels, Snakes, Birds, Rates and mouse. Lions, Elephants, Gazelles, Ostrich, buffalo and
there were many other species was occupying the forest but now most of them they have
migrated or get dead.

5.2.7 Illicit felling:

Illicit filling is severely present in widely areas in the forest, in which wood cutters and
charcoal makers they used to cut large quantities of trees without taking permission from
forestry authorities in order to get benefits from selling and using the wood products in house
building, fencing, fire wood and charcoal for cooking.

5.2.8 Other damages by man:

Damages that caused by man to Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone include; forest fires for
the purpose of charcoal making and clearance of land for cultivation(agriculture), and illicit
felling.

5.2.9 Conflict with local communities:

There is no conflict between and within local communities in and around the forest. In which
to chiefs of the villages around the forest they play very great role in holding and organizing
the daily human’s activities in forest.

40
 CHAPTER SIX

TECHNICAL STAFF, LABOUR AND WORKING ACTIVITIES:

6.1 Hierarchical Position of the Forest Administration:

Forest administration in Nimule National Park/ buffer zone forest includes; Forest inspector,
nursery manager, and ten forest guards.

6.2 Technical Staff:

Nimule National Park/ Buffer zone possess very few technical staff operating under the
supervision of forest inspector. In which they manage and protect the forests and natural
resources, regulate enforcement, and work on fire suppression. maintain forestlands and their
natural resources for environmental, economic, and recreational purposes.

6.3 Permanent and seasonal labour force:

Permanent workers force includes two forest guards, nursery manager and other three persons
work in the nursery. Seasonal labor force is not present because forest is no longer managed
properly to be effectively utilized.

6.4 Forest Buildings:

There are few forest buildings available for the forestry authority in Nimule National Park/
Buffer Zone. The office used by the forestry authority to resume their work of managing
Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone.

6.5 Vehicles and Transportation Facilities:

There are few vehicles and transportation facilities are available for the forest authority in
Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone.

6.6 Forest Roads and Bridges:

Forest is access by local internal roads and bridges, in which these roads and bridges are
made by local peoples around the forest for transporting forest products (boles, charcoal, and
honey bees).

41
6.7 Funding and Logistic Support:

Forest authority in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone suffer a lot from funding and logistic
support in which they are not given adequate finance for developing and raising the nursery
that they had and logistic support in terms of well training, workshops and management plans
by the central and provincial government (GOOS/ CES GO).

42
 PART THREE

CHAPTER SEVEN

7.1 Present Status, Summary and Conclusion:

Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone provides a wide range of benefits at local and state levels.
Logs and charcoal production is usually the main objective and revenue earned for local
peoples in which the harvesting of wood is the major driving force in tropical forest. Revenue
earned from log harvesting will usually be the main funding source for long-term sustainable
tropical forest management. many communities depend heavily upon non-wood forest
products for subsistence and as a basis for local trade, for example, bamboos, medicinal and
food plants, gums, resins and wildlife. Tropical forests are an essential source of energy for
many communities, directly through burning of wood for cooking and heating and indirectly
to protect watersheds as source of water for hydroelectricity generation. They have an
important role in protecting physical and biological environments at local and provincial
levels. Tropical forests are dwelling places for many millions of people and are increasingly
of value for recreation and tourism, notably "eco-tourism". They are important shelters for
wildlife and are the habitats of many endangered species of plants and animals. It is essential
in tropical forest management planning to achieve a balance between the long-term between
wood production, social and environmental management objectives.

7.2 Main Aim and objectives of this new management plan:

7.2.1 Main objectives:

1. To maintain the sustainability of Nimule National Park forest.
2. To achieve overtime a balance of the forest.
3. To protect the endangered tree species from being depleted by man and
environmental hazards.

7.2.2 Other Objectives:

1. To protect the wildlife species that live inside the forest.

43
7.3 Needs for New Compartmentations:
Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone needs new compartments will enable efficient planning,
prescription, implementation, monitoring and recording of forest operations by facilitating the
process of proper management and applying silvicultural systems to conserve and protect the
forest from devastation of diseases, insects and environmental hazards. It enables effective
protection and control of forest from wild and man-made fire, new compartmentation helps in
defining the boundaries of a forest management unit. New compartmentation will ensure
uniform forest types and be physically recognisable on the ground.

7.4 Silvicultural Systems:

Based on the new management plan, Silvicultural system that must use for Nimule National
Park/ Buffer Zone is Selection systems in which Selection systems are appropriate where
uneven stand structure is desired, particularly where the need to retain continuous cover
forest for aesthetic or environmental reasons outweighs other management considerations.
Selection logging has been suggested as being of greater utility than shelter wood systems in
regenerating old-growth. In most areas, selection logging favors regeneration of indigenous
trees more than the native tree species.

1. Single tree selection:

The single-tree selection method is an uneven-aged regeneration method most. The single
tree selection will have done to remove diseased and older trees that which might affect or
cause damage to other trees, or might have been died, thinning will take place to allow for the
healthy smaller trees to grow. It is very difficult to conduct thinning on a very dense stand in
which damages for the neighboring trees may occur.

44
 CHAPTER EIGHT

SILVICULTURAL PLANNING

8.1 Seed Collection and procurement:

Seed must be collected from healthy matured trees, and must be ripened and dry.

8.2 Nursery Establishment:

Nursery must be established in dry fertile soil, in which water source must be near to the site
where nursery locates to supply the nursery with adequate water.

8.3 Harvesting Method:

Harvesting method can be done by selecting the mature trees, the oldest or largest trees either
as single scattered individuals or in small groups.

8.4 Land Preparation:

Nursery soil should be fertile and well drained. To ensure this, collect soil preferably from
some identified part of the farm/ forest, especially under some trees or along the fence.

8.5 Procedures for land preparation:

 Identify soil collection spot preferably among the above stated places.
 Clear the surface to remove off all plants and litter before digging topsoil for nursery.
 Dig the soil using a hoe then sieve to remove undesirable materials e.g. stones and
sticks.
 The sieved soil is then mixed with sand and manure in the ratio of 2:1:1 depending on
the soil aggregate.

8.6 Planting Method:

Re plantations can be made with the spacing between trees varying from 3 by 3 to 10 by 10
feet (0.9 m by 0.9 m to 3.0 m by 3.0 m) its recommended that no fewer than 600 established
trees per acre (1483/ha) be present during the early life of a plantation. To insure this, at least
800 trees per acre (1077/ha) should be planted where 80% survival may be expected, and at

45
least 1200/ac (2970/ha) if only half of them can be expected to live This translates into
recommended spacing’s of 5 by 5 to 8 by 8 feet (1.5 m by 1.5 m to 2.4 m by 2.4 m) for
plantings of Combretum, Acacia seyal, including Khaya senegalysis and grandfoliola.

8.7 Beating and Singling:

A. Beating up can be done in two ways:

1- Beat up surveys:
Beat up surveys assess the survival rate and overall health of a young forest in
Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone. It well determines what course of maintenance is
required to ensure the quality of the trees in the forest in accordance with the forest.

2- Beat up planting:
Following on from a beat up surveys any dead or damaged trees identified can be
replaced with healthy ones. This process typically takes place in the autumn months.

B. Singling:
Singling or cleaning is the task of removing multiple steams and/ or leaders on
conifers with hand and/ or mechanized tools.

8.8 Type, Frequency and Intensity of Weeding:

Two types of Weeds were monitored in Nimule National Park includes; Leucaena
leucocephala, and Pueraria phaseoloides. Pueraria phaseoloides species recorded high
intensity compared to other types of weeds.

8.9 Brushing:

Brushing must be done by removing the lower dead branches, up to about two meters, of
trees in a stand.

8.10 Type, Weight and Intensity of Thinning:

Thinning is the selective removal of trees, primarily undertaken to improve the growth rate or
health of the remaining trees.
Thinning must be done to achieve ecological goals such as increasing biodiversity or
accelerating the development of desired structural attributes such as large diameter trees with
long tree crowns.

46
8.10.1 Type of Thinning:

1- A pre commercial thinning.

2- Ecological thinning.
3- Chemical thinning.
4- Variable density thinning.
5- Crown thinning, crown raising or crown reduction.

8.10.2 Weight and Intensity of Thinning:

Three types of thinning can be applied in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone, which
includes (control, moderate and heavy thinning).

 Low/ Control thinning intensity in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone must be
applied to areas that which show less density of stand.
 Moderate thinning intensity in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone must be applied
to areas that show reasonable high density of stand.
 Heavy thinning intensity in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone must be applied to
areas that which show heavy density of stand.

8.11 Loading and transporting:

Loading off boles and charcoals that are extracted from the selective cutting of trees to get
some revenue and earns from selling these products, can be done by using manual loading
laborers or winches and tractors to load and transport wood products from the forest to the
receiving areas.

47
 CHAPTER NINE

STAFF, LABOUR AND WORKING FACILITIES:

9.1 Technical Staff:

Local authorities of Nimule National Park/ buffer zone should have at least a number of one
hundred technical staff working as technicians for formulating, implementing and managing
the forest.

9.2 Permanent Labour:

Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone should have at least a number of 70 permanent laborers
dividing into four departments; in which department of nursery should have 20 laborers, and
department of fire protection should have 20 laborers and department of forest health
protection should also have 10 laborers and department of forest guards should also have a
number of 10 laborers.

9.2.1 Nursery and greenhouse workers

Nursery and greenhouse workers perform some or all of the following duties: Prepare soil;
plant bulbs, seeds and cuttings; graft and bud plants; and transplant seedlings and rooted
cuttings.

9.2.2 Forest Health Protection

Provides forest health-related services to protect the forests from insects, disease, and
invasive species; develop, promote, and implement integrated pest management; and, monitor
the status, changes, and trends in indicators of forest health.

9.2.3 Forest Guard

Forest Guard is responsible for the custody of all Government stores, tools, and timber
deposited in his charge, and also for the protection of the forests, wildlife and property like
plantations, roads, buildings and wells etc.

48
9.3 Seasonal Labour:
A number of 10 seasonal laborers should be present in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone
working in collaboration with technical staff, permanent and seasonal laborers performing the
same task of four different departments.

9.4 Buildings:
Forests authorities in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone should have a very big building
comprising of all forests departments of administration, supervision, afforestation,
deforestation, nursery, fire protection, health protection and forest guards’ departments.

9.5 Vehicles:
Forests authorities in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone should have a number of sufficient
vehicles e.g. 5 vehicles; Distributed equally on the different departments, in which each
department should have specified vehicles designed specially to perform the specified task of
the department.

9.6 Roads and Bridges:

Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone suffers a lot from the lack of roads and bridges. Because
Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone forest is never being managed properly by the forests
authorities and it needs a number of 2 roads to facilitate the process of forest management
and transportation of forest crew, products and vehicles.

9.7 Number of Equipment’s and Tools needed in Nimule National Park/ Buffer zone:

Equipment’s and tools that are will be used in implementing the new management plan
include:

1- GPS device:
A number of 5 GPS Devices Mode (Garmin 89); are required for measuring distances
between sample plots, taking elevation and mapping.

2- Caliper:
A number of 10 calipers, a graduated metal tool, are required to measure the diameter of the
tree at breast height?

49
3- Diameter tape (measuring tape):
A number of 5 diameter tape are required to measure the distances between sample plots and
taking the radius of the sample plot.

4- Compass:
Is an instrument containing a magnetized pointer that shows the direction of magnetic north
and bearing from it. A number of 3 compass are required to perform the work under ten
years’ management working plan.

5- Sunto clinometer pm5/360pc:

A number of 3 suntoclinometer is required, it’s an instrument that used to measure the height
of the trees, towers, buildings, etc. to measure slopes for grading or preliminary surveying.

6- pangs:

A number of 10 pangs is required, it’s a metal tool like knife but large in size, used to cut and
remove the branches, leaves and tall grasses the block the sight and movement of the team
crew during inventory work.

7- Ranging road:

A number of 5 ranging road is required, is a metal graduated tool used to direct rangers and
field team crew to the right and straight direction? But in our case we used local wooden
ranging roads.

9.8 Other Miscellaneous Plans:

1. Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone authorities needs more support and encouragement by
the national and central government of South Sudan in collaboration with the ministry of
forestry and agriculture.

2. Well trained staff and laborers must be chosen to work in Nimule National Park/ Buffer
Zone.

50
 CHAPTER TEN

10.0 MONITORING AND EVALUATION

10.1 Protection Measures:

10.1.1 Fire protection:

A protection measures that must be used for Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone in order to
protect the forest form damages by fires is as follows: -

1. Identification and mapping of all fire prone areas.

2. Compilation and analysis of data base on the damage due to forest fire.

3. Installation of forest danger rating systems and fire forecasting systems.

4. Items of forest protection must be treated as a plan item in order to raise their profile and
thereby increase their budget.

5. All preventive measures are to be taken before the begging of the fire season like summer
season.

6. A crisis management group should be constituted at the state headquarters, district

headquarters and at block levels to monitor the situations during the period.

7. Communication network to be setup for quick follow of information and movement of

materials and man power to the fire site.

8. Local communities and forest protection committees are to be actively involved in the
prevention and control of forest fires.

9. Public awareness should be created against ill effect of forest fires.

10. Legal provisions for fire prevention and control should be implemented forcefully.

10.1.2 Protection against diseases:

- Protection against harmful factors in nurseries, plantations, crops and seed collection areas
must be taken into consideration.

51
- Regular checks of sanitary condition of facilities, diagnosis of harmful organisms, and
assessment of the level of endangerment.

- Provision of guidelines for the operative unit to take preventive and repressive measures and
immediate action in implementing prescribed measures.

- Activities must be taken by forecast reporting service in accordance with the low on plant
protection.

10.1.3 Protection against insects:

Four Protection measures/ methods against insect pest in Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone
can be used:

1. Chemical control. By using modern organic insecticides, but might cause unwanted
and serious harmful side effect.
2. Biological control. Can be directed primarily against introduced insect pest.
3. Silvicultural control. For the newly established stands precautions must be taken from
the very beginning (silivicultural treatment of the standing saplings, as well as during
its harvesting).
4. Mechanical control. Either by physically removing and destroying the pests or by
eliminating the alternative host.

10.1.4 Domestic Animals:

The use of hedges and Fences along the border of the forest is the most appropriate way to
prevent Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone from being depleted by domestic animals.

10.1.5 Wildlife:

The principal’s methods of controlling damages by wild animals involve the use of fences,
hedges or ditches, trapping, removal, and poison baits.

10.1.6 Man:

1. Laws and rules must be employed in order to govern and stop deforestation.

2. Clear cutting of forest must be banned.

3. Cutting must be replaced by planting young trees to replace the older ones that were cut.

52
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

11.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

11.1 Conclusion:

I. Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone forest is well grown forest, show multi varieties
of native tree species.
II. Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone is healthy, show few damages by wildlife species,
diseases and insect pests.
III. The forest is severely deforested by wood cutters and charcoal makers.
IV. Few damages by wild fire are shown in the forest.
V. The forest has very few access internal roads and bridges.

11.2 Recommendations:

I. Forest management plans must be well implemented by the forestry authorities on

local and national levels.
II. Maps and aerial photographs should be taken to determine the actual size and state of
the forest.
III. Regeneration must take place by artificially sown seed or by planting seedling.
IV. Awareness by role of the forest in stabilizing the environment and providing multi
benefits must be raised among the local communities around the forest.
V. Funding and logistic support must be properly provided to the local authorities in
managing Nimule National Park/ Buffer Zone.
VI. Forestry Laws must be well enforced in order to prohibit any intervention or illegal
use of the forest.

53
References:

A pilot survey of NNP new Sudan, 2000 p.3

Abdalla, 1988 and Noordwijk, 1984.

Davis, K. P. 1966. Forest Management. Second Ed. McGraw-Hill Inc., USA.

FAO. 1977. Planning Forest Roads and Harvesting Systems. Forestry Paper No. 2, Rome.

Forestry Paper No. 147. FAO, Rome. Available at:

Gory, 1842

http://jcringenbach.free.fr/website/beetles/buprestidae/Sphenoptera_fulgens.htm.

http://locust.cirad.fr/principales_especes/ana_en.html.

http://www.afae.org/html/98-201.html
http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Insect-pests.pdf
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http://www.ento.csiro.au/aicn/name_s/b_1961.htm
http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0400e/a0400e00.htm.

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http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/v5020e/V5020E00.htm.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/v5020e/V5020E05.htm#04.7

http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/v5020e/V5020E05.htm#04.7.

http://www.forestpests.org/subject.html?SUB=307
http://www.metla.fi/silvafennica/abs/sa34/sa344431.htm
Johnston, D. R., Grayson, A.J. Bradley, R. T. 1965. Forest Planning. Faber& Faber, London.

Lebon. (Monograph No. 4 of the World Land Use Survey, edited by SirL. Dudley Stamp.)
Geographical Publications Ltd. Bude; 1965. Pp.

Mofit’s (1978) and Noordwijk (1984),

54
Morison et al, 1948.

Olivier, 1790

Sabet, 1959

Vauterin, Hoste, Kersters &Swings, 1995

Walker, 1870

55