Social Development Vol 22 No.

4, 701-721
2013doi: 10.1111/sode.12027

Personal Identity Processes from Adolescence

Through the Late 20s: Age Trends,
Functionality, and Depressive Symptoms
Koen Luyckx,1 Theo A. Klimstra,1 Bart Duriez,1 Stijn Van Petegem2
and Wim Beyers2
1
KU Leuven
2
Ghent University

Abstract
Personal identity formation constitutes a crucial developmental task during the teens
and 20s. Using a recently developed five-dimensional identity model, this cross-
sectional study (N = 5834) investigated age trends from ages 14 to 30 for different
commitment and exploration processes. As expected, results indicated that, despite
some fluctuations over time, commitment processes tended to increase in a linear
fashion. Exploration in breadth and exploration in depth were characterized by quad-
ratic trends, with the highest levels occurring in emerging adulthood. Further, the
functionality of these identity processes, and especially of exploration, changed over
time. Exploration in breadth and exploration in depth were strongly related to com-
mitment processes especially in adolescence and emerging adulthood, but these explo-
ration processes became increasingly associated with ruminative exploration and
depressive symptoms in the late 20s. Theoretical implications and suggestions for
future research are outlined.

Keywords: identity; exploration; commitment; emerging adulthood

Introduction
Identity formation is a core developmental challenge for adolescents and emerging
adults (Erikson, 1968). Establishing a strong sense of identity provides individuals
with a sense of continuity and sameness, and plays favourably into psychosocial
functioning. However, identity confusion is associated with a disorganized or haphaz-
ard sense of self. Identity-confused individuals seem to be out of touch with their inner
needs and lack the energy to invest in identity-related exploration and to commit to
life-defining choices (Erikson, 1968). Abundant research to date focused on processes

The fourth author is a doctoral researcher at the Fund for Scientific Research Flanders (FWO).
Correspondence should be addressed to Koen Luyckx, KU Leuven, School Psychology and Child
and Adolescent Development, Tiensestraat 102, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. Email: Koen.Luyckx@
ppw.kuleuven.be

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

2 Koen Luyckx, Theo A. Klimstra, Bart Duriez et al.
and correlates of identity formation in adolescence and the transition to adulthood
(Kroger & Marcia, 2011).
The number of studies focusing on identity development has increased considerably
during the first decade of this century (Meeus, 2011). However, due to different identity
models and measures used and the different developmental periods covered (with most
studies focusing on adolescence and emerging adulthood), a detailed picture on age
trends in identity processes through the teens and 20s has not yet fully emerged.
Further, it remains unclear how adaptive and functional different identity processes are
for individuals in different developmental periods. For instance, when individuals grow
older, the making of identity commitments becomes increasingly normative
(Waterman, 1982). Can it be expected, then, for instance, that with transitioning to
emerging adulthood commitments become more important for one’s psychosocial
functioning and well-being as well? The present study aims at addressing these
research questions and examined (1) age trends in identity processes from adolescence
through the late 20s and (2) the functionality of identity processes in these different
developmental periods.

Contemporary Models of Identity Formation

Marcia’s (1966) identity status paradigm has been the most frequently used empirical
elaboration of Erikson’s (1968) writings on identity. From Erikson’s work, Marcia
extracted two defining processes of identity formation: exploration and commitment.
Exploration refers to actively questioning identity alternatives whereas commitment
signifies adhering to and implementing a set of convictions, goals, and values. Based
on these dimensions, Marcia (1980) defined four statuses: achievement (commitments
enacted after exploring alternatives), foreclosure (commitments enacted without
exploration), moratorium (exploring alternatives without current commitments), and
diffusion (no current commitments or systematic exploration). Marcia’s model has
inspired decades of empirical work, much of which has focused on comparing identity
statuses on external variables (Kroger & Marcia, 2011). A number of identity theorists,
however, have emphasized the need to examine the underlying processes of commit-
ment and exploration (Côté & Levine, 1988; Grotevant, 1987).
Partially as a response to these suggestions, several identity researchers have devel-
oped broader process-oriented models of identity, in which they ‘unpack’ exploration
and commitment into a larger set of specific processes. Luyckx et al. (2008a) empirically
distinguished among five such identity processes. Four of these five identity processes
are subsumed under two consecutive cycles of identity formation (Luyckx, Goossens, &
Soenens, 2006). The first cycle captures the processes through which individuals explore
different identity alternatives and may arrive at making strong identity commitments.
This cycle, therefore, may be described in terms of two processes, that is, exploration in
breadth, or the pro-active exploration of various identity alternatives, and commitment
making, or the adherence to a set of convictions and values. Both of these dimensions
map onto Marcia’s (1980) classical dimensions of exploration and commitment. The
second identity cycle captures the process through which individuals re-evaluate their
identity choices and assesses the degree to which they feel certain about and identify
with these choices. The second cycle, therefore, may also be described in terms of two
processes, that is, exploration in depth, or the evaluation and exploration of current
commitments, and identification with commitment, or the degree to which these identity
commitments become integrated in their sense of self.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
 Identity Processes 3
A fifth identity process, referred to as ruminative exploration, was later added to the
model (Luyckx et al., 2008a). This particular form of exploration is conceptualized as
a process that hinders identity development. Individuals with high levels on ruminative
exploration experience difficulty settling on satisfying answers to identity questions.
Partially troubled by what they perceive as inadequate progress towards personally
important identity goals, they keep asking themselves the same questions, resulting in
feelings of uncertainty and incompetence. Research on adolescents and emerging
adults has demonstrated that ruminative exploration, and not so much the other explo-
ration processes, was associated with lowered well-being (Luyckx et al., 2008a).

Identity Development from Adolescence to Young Adulthood

Identity constitutes a developmental construct which can be expected to change through
the life span with the bulk of identity changes occurring in adolescence and the transition
to adulthood (Arnett, 2000; Erikson, 1968). Prominent identity scholars such as
Waterman (1982; Waterman & Archer, 1990) forwarded the hypothesis that the transi-
tion from adolescence to adulthood would be characterized by a progressive strength-
ening of one’s sense of identity. Hence, with respect to commitment, increases are
generally to be expected through the teens and 20s as an indication of identity strength
accumulation (Koepke & Denissen, 2012; Waterman, 1982). Increasing societal expec-
tations and cognitive maturation processes through adolescence indeed instigate indi-
viduals to arrive at balanced self-views and to increasingly commit themselves to social
roles. By the time individuals embark on the transition to adulthood, they increasingly
rely on their own self standards that govern personal choices and create their own ideals
and aspirations (Harter, 1999). The self-confident use of such personally endorsed
standards motivates emerging adults to arrive increasingly at an integrated identity.
Further, of specific relevance to identity exploration, social-structural and economic
changes in many Western nations have resulted in the delaying of psychosocial matu-
rity until the late teens and the 20s (Arnett, 2000). According to Arnett (2000),
emerging adulthood (and especially ages 18–25) is the period of life that offers the
most opportunities for identity exploration in different life areas (Waterman & Archer,
1990). Life-course events that were once normatively structured (such as marriage and
entry into the labour market) are increasingly left to individuals to decide on their own
(Côté, 2002; Schwartz, Côté, & Arnett, 2005). However, due to an expanding set of
options, this emphasis on individual free choice can induce confusion in certain young
people (Schwartz et al., 2005). Scholars indeed disagree on whether this extended
transitional process mainly represents an individual choice and opportunity, or should
be considered symptomatic for society’s lack of guiding structures (Côté & Bynner,
2008; Hendry & Kloep, 2010).
Hence, exploration processes are expected to increase and peak during emerging
adulthood but decrease again thereafter. Previous research demonstrated that emerging
adulthood constitutes not only a period in life in which different options and alternatives
are explored but also represents a stage in which identity commitments are re-evaluated
on a continuous basis (Luyckx et al., 2006). Broad-based identity explorations primarily
emerge in adolescence and set the stage for forming strong and self-endorsed commit-
ments. High school students have to figure out what they want to achieve in their lives,
such as exploring which educational or vocational pathway would suit them best.
Emerging adults also have to rebalance their lives and find their way into adult life. Most
of them can no longer fully rely on their existing social network of friends and family and
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
4 Koen Luyckx, Theo A. Klimstra, Bart Duriez et al.
have to deal with many life changes, which can lead to substantial changes in identity
(Montgomery & Côté, 2003). Due to all these changes, the in-depth evaluation and
consolidation of identity commitments has been shown to be a prominent task in
emerging adults (Klimstra, Hale, Raaijmakers, Branje, & Meeus, 2010).
In most studies, examining identity development has been translated to assessing
identity status transitions across shorter or longer periods of time (Berzonsky &
Adams, 1999; Meeus, 1996; Meeus, van de Schoot, Keijsers, Schwartz, & Branje,
2010). Although substantial inter-individual differences existed in identity status tran-
sitions and stabilities, evidence was found for increased prevalence of the achievement
status and decreased prevalence of the diffusion status over time (Meeus et al., 2010),
partially supporting Waterman’s (1982) reasoning. A recent meta-analysis (Kroger,
Martinussen, & Marcia, 2010) corroborated these conclusions and, in line with the
emerging adulthood conception, further indicated that the prevalence of the morato-
rium status tended to increase steadily from mid-adolescence to the late teens but
decreased thereafter.
Although this research line has provided invaluable information with respect to
identity development, to allow for a more fine-grained view on identity development
scholars have pleaded in favour of studying development at the process-level instead of
focusing on statuses (e.g., Klimstra et al., 2010; Luyckx et al., 2006; Meeus, 1996).
Findings across studies focusing on developmental changes in separate identity proc-
esses are not unequivocal, partially due to the different developmental periods exam-
ined and the different identity models used (Koepke & Denissen, 2012). With respect
to the identity processes assessed in the present study, Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens,
Soenens, and Beyers (2008) found that in emerging adulthood especially commitment
making increased linearly whereas identification with commitment tended to decrease
initially although these decreases levelled off towards the end of their study. Con-
versely, exploration in breadth showed initial increases followed by later decreases,
which is in line with the findings for the moratorium status. However, this study
primarily focused on ages 18 to 21, and needs to be complemented with studies
providing a wider temporal window on developmental trends.

Identity Processes and Depressive Symptoms

In the present study, we not only investigated age trends in identity processes but we
also assessed how these processes relate to depressive symptoms. With respect to this
relationship, a fairly consistent pattern of findings emerged from previous studies
(Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens, Beyers, & Missotten, 2011). Commitment making and
especially identification with commitment have been negatively related to depressive
symptoms. With respect to exploration, ruminative exploration has been positively and
strongly related to depressive symptoms whereas the association of depressive symp-
toms with exploration in breadth and exploration in depth was less pronounced in
adolescents.
No study to date, however, assessed whether associations between the aforemen-
tioned five identity processes and depressive symptoms changed significantly from
adolescence to the late 20s. As described earlier, such differential associations may be
expected to emerge as inspired by developmental theorizing. Meeus, Iedema, Maassen,
and Engels (2005) already established that, through adolescence and emerging adult-
hood, the making of steady identity commitments becomes increasingly important for
one’s emotional adjustment, indicating that identity processes may relate differently to
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
 Identity Processes 5
depressive symptoms depending on developmental stage. However, in this previous
study only two identity dimensions were included in the analyses. Furthermore, this
study was mainly limited to assessing individuals in the teens and early 20s, and did not
include assessments in the late 20s.
Hence, in line with the dual-cycle model of identity formation (Luyckx et al., 2006),
we expected that identity processes that are especially adaptive in a particular devel-
opmental period would show more pronounced linkages with depressive symptoms in
that particular period (Lerner & Kauffman, 1985). As adolescents grow older and start
preparing for adult roles, strong identity commitments and a clear life path sketched
out might indeed increase the clarity of the self (Schwartz et al., 2005). Although
emerging adulthood may be characterized by a diversity of choices and life options for
individuals in Western societies (Arnett, 2000), the consolidation of life-defining and
volitional identity commitments constitutes a crucial identity task in the transition to
adulthood, providing opportunities for individuals to thrive (Côté & Levine, 2002;
Schwartz et al., 2005). Likewise, whereas a broad-based exploration of alternatives
might be adaptive in adolescence and emerging adulthood, a prolonged process of
exploring in breadth beyond these developmental periods might generally be viewed as
less adaptive. In line with social investment theory (Helson, Kwan, John, & Jones,
2002; Roberts, Wood, & Smith, 2005), individuals in their late 20s are expected to
come to grips with their lives in order to function as responsible young adults and to
negotiate successfully the transition to employment (Luyckx, Duriez, Klimstra, & De
Witte, 2010).

The Present Study

The present study had two main research goals. Firstly, we examined age trends in five
identity processes (i.e., commitment making, identification with commitment, explo-
ration in breadth, exploration in depth, and ruminative exploration) from adolescence
to the late 20s. When using such a wide temporal window, we expected commitment
making and identification with commitment to increase over time, despite the fact that
substantial fluctuations could occur in the short term (Luyckx et al., 2006). Further, we
expected exploration in breadth and exploration in depth to show curvilinear age
trends, with the highest levels occurring in emerging adulthood. Further, especially in
adolescence we expected higher scores for exploration in breadth as compared to
exploration in depth. For ruminative exploration, we tentatively expected that a similar
quadratic trend would be observed, albeit at lower levels as compared to the two
proactive exploration processes (Luyckx et al., 2008a). Partially due to the many
options available and the unstructured nature of this life stage, emerging adults might
indeed be especially vulnerable for getting stuck in the identity exploration process and
ruminate where their lives would lead to (Luyckx et al., 2008b). In examining these
trends, sex was included as a potential moderator. Previous research suggested that
adolescent girls tend to be further ahead of boys when it comes to establishing identity
commitments, although boys do seem to catch up later on (Meeus et al., 2010). Similar
findings have been reported for adolescent personality development (Klimstra, Hale,
Raaijmakers, Branje, & Meeus, 2009). Collectively, these findings suggest that earlier
physical and cognitive maturational processes (such as an increased capacity for
self-reflection) in girls could account for these differences in developmental timing.
Secondly, we examined how adaptive or functional these identity processes were in
different developmental phases, that is, adolescence, emerging adulthood, and the late
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
6 Koen Luyckx, Theo A. Klimstra, Bart Duriez et al.
20s. In doing so, we aimed at answering questions such as the following: Does identity
exploration constitute an adaptive or functional process for all individuals, irrespective
of the developmental period, or does prolonged exploration become maladaptive when
entering emerging adulthood and/or the late 20s? Similarly, is the making of strong
identity commitments as beneficial for adolescents as it is for emerging adults? Two
different strategies were used to address this second research goal. We examined how the
five identity processes were interrelated in the three developmental periods and inves-
tigated whether these associations differed across these periods. For instance, if the
expected positive association between exploration in breadth and commitment making
would significantly decrease with age, we could conclude that, based on the premise that
exploration in breadth facilitates commitment making over time (Luyckx et al., 2006),
exploration in breadth seems to constitute a less functional identity process beyond
adolescence and possibly emerging adulthood. In addition, we examined how the five
identity processes were related to depressive symptoms in these developmental periods
and investigated whether these associations differed from one period to another. For
instance, if the expected negative association between commitment making and depres-
sive symptoms would be significantly stronger in emerging adulthood as compared to
adolescence, we could conclude that commitment making seems to constitute a more
adaptive identity process in emerging adults in terms of well-being.

Methods
Participants and Procedure
We used 13 cross-sectional samples collected between 2007 and 2011 in Flanders (the
Dutch-speaking part of Belgium). Table 1 gives an overview of demographic charac-
teristics for each sample. The total combined sample size was 5834 (66.2 percent
female). Mean age of the combined sample was 17.99 (SD = 3.25), ranging from 14 to
30 years. Table 2 gives an overview of the different age cohorts and how they are
distributed among the different contexts assessed (i.e., high school, college or univer-
sity, employment, and unemployment). The high school students from samples 6, 8, 10,
12, and 13 were from different regions in Flanders. Participation was voluntary and
anonymity was guaranteed. Parents and adolescents provided consent to participate.
Questionnaires were administered during a regular class period. A total of 55.3 percent
of high school students were from the academic track whereas 44.7 percent followed
the technical or vocational track. The college students from samples 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and
10 were mostly from the KU of Leuven and, although the majority was from the faculty
of psychology and educational sciences, students from a wide variety of other majors
were also included. Informed consent from the students of the different samples was
again obtained. For the employed individuals of samples 3, 4, and 9, questionnaires
were distributed in different work settings, such as schools, hospitals, and private
companies, or these individuals were contacted through email and social media (e.g.,
Facebook). Participants again gave their consent to participate. Whereas in samples 4
and 9, approximately 65 percent were working in the social sector, 29 percent of
individuals of sample 3 were working in the social sector.

Measures
Identity Processes. All participants completed the dimensions of identity development
scale (DIDS), which was originally developed in Dutch and provides highly reliable
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
 Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the 13 Samples

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

N Measures % females M (SD) age Age range Sample description

Sample 1 208 DIDS; CESD-12 79.3 18.18 (1.39) 17–26 College students
Sample 2 369 DIDS; CESD-12 77.5 18.25 (1.27) 16–30 College students
Sample 3 371 DIDS; CESD-12 65.0 23.28 (3.21) 17–30 College students (54.2%);
employed individuals (45.2%)
Sample 4 345 DIDS; CESD-12 70.1 23.89 (2.85) 18–30 College students (41.4%);
employed individuals (58.6%)
Sample 5 353 DIDS; CESD-12 77.9 18.50 (1.02) 17–28 College students
Sample 6 342 DIDS; CESD-12 39.8 18.29 (.60) 17–21 High school students
Sample 7 456 DIDS 83.8 18.36 (1.35) 17–30 College students
Sample 8 600 DIDS; CESD-20 52.0 15.70 (1.30) 14–20 High school students
Sample 9 193 DIDS; CESD-12 81.9 25.73 (2.30) 21–30 Employed individuals
Sample 10 249 DIDS 63.1 16.49 (.68) 15–19 High school students
Sample 11 407 DIDS; CESD-12 83.8 18.35 (1.41) 17–29 College students
Sample 12 567 DIDS 51.0 15.80 (1.02) 14–18 High school students
Sample 13 1388 DIDS; CESD-12 64.1 15.72 (1.19) 14–18 High school students

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Identity Processes 7
8 Koen Luyckx, Theo A. Klimstra, Bart Duriez et al.

Table 2. Distribution of Age Cohorts in Different Contexts

Context

Age High school College/University Employment Unemployment Total N

14 456 0 0 0 456
15 670 0 0 0 670
16 855 1 0 0 856
17 647 159 0 0 806
18 420 1233 1 0 1654
19 80 308 3 0 391
20 15 89 11 0 115
21 3 68 76 0 147
22 0 57 77 0 134
23 0 36 78 2 116
24 0 16 92 5 113
25 0 5 73 4 82
26 0 4 70 0 74
27 0 4 51 1 56
28 0 5 56 2 63
29 0 4 57 0 61
30 0 3 37 0 40
Total N 3146 1992 682 14 5834

scores with a clear factor structure in Belgian high school and college student samples
(Luyckx et al., 2008a). The DIDS assesses identity processes with respect to future
plans and possible life paths. For more information on the DIDS and how it is related
to other identity measures, readers are referred to Luyckx et al. (2011). The identity
processes were each measured by five items. Each item was responded to on a 5-point
Likert-type rating scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Sample items include ‘I have decided on the direction I want to follow in my life’
(commitment making), ‘I sense that the direction I want to take in my life will really
suit me’ (identification with commitment), ‘I regularly think over a number of different
plans for the future’ (exploration in breadth), ‘I regularly talk with other people about
the plans for the future I have made for myself’ (exploration in depth), and ‘It is hard
for me to stop thinking about the direction I want to follow in my life’ (ruminative
exploration). Across the different samples, Cronbach’s alphas ranged between .83 and
.93 for commitment making, .79 and .89 for identification with commitment, .76 and
.87 for exploration in breadth, .75 and .83 for exploration in depth, and between .80
and .89 for ruminative exploration.
A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to check the factor structure across
all samples. In all estimated models, we used standard model fit indices (Kline, 2006).
The chi-square index, which tests the null hypothesis of perfect fit to the data, should
be as small as possible; the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) should
be less than .08; the comparative fit index (CFI) should exceed .90; and the standard-
ized root mean square residual (SRMR) should be less than .10. A CFA indicated that
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
 Identity Processes 9
a five-factor model (including two error covariances between similarly worded items
patterning on the same latent factor) fitted the data adequately (c2 (263) = 5082.68,
RMSEA = .06, CFI = .94; SRMR = .07). Additionally, we checked whether pattern
coefficients could be set equal for men and women and in adolescence (14–17 year
olds), emerging adulthood (18–25 year olds), and the late 20s (26–30 year olds). The
null hypothesis of invariant pattern coefficients would be rejected if at least two of the
following criteria were satisfied (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000): Dc2 significant at p <
.05; DCFI ⱖ.01; and the change in non-normed fit index (DNNFI) ⱖ.02. Although the
NNFI was not used to evaluate the fit of a single model, it is extremely sensitive to
small deviations or differences in model fit and is a useful tool in invariance testing
(Little, 1997). Invariance tests indicated that all pattern coefficients could be set as
equal for men and women (Dc2 (20) = 46.11, p < .001; but DCFI <.01; DNNFI <.01)
and in the different developmental periods (Dc2 (40) = 250.02, p < .001; but DCFI <.01;
DNNFI <.01).

Depressive Symptoms. As detailed in Table 1, in 10 out of 13 samples, depressive

symptoms were measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression
Scale (CESD; Radloff, 1977). The 20-item version was used in sample 8; the brief
12-item version developed by Roberts and Sobhan (1992) was used in the remaining
samples. Items were responded to using a 4-point Likert-type rating scale, ranging
from 0 (Seldom) to 3 (Most of the time or always). Each item asks participants how
often they had experienced symptoms of depression during the week prior to assess-
ment. A sample item is ‘During the last week, I felt depressed’. Cronbach’s alpha of
CESD-20 in sample 8 was .91; Cronbach’s alphas of CESD-12 ranged between .80
and .88.

Results
Preliminary Mean-level Analyses on Identity Processes
Before we describe the different analyses conducted, readers should note that, due to
the large sample size, our analyses attained high power and, therefore, the significance
level was set at p < .01 for all analyses. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
was conducted to examine sex differences in identity. Based on Wilks’ Lambda,
statistically significant multivariate sex differences were found (F(5, 5767) = 27.59,
p < .001, partial h2 = .02). Follow-up univariate analyses, as detailed in Table 3,
indicated that women scored higher on all identity processes, except for identification
with commitment. However, all partial h2-values accompanying these mean differ-
ences were very small. Next, a MANOVA was conducted to examine context differ-
ences in identity processes. Due to the small group size of the unemployed (N = 12),
these individuals were combined with employed individuals, yielding three groups
(i.e., high school, college or university, and employment or unemployment). Based on
Wilks’ Lambda, statistically significant multivariate context differences were found
(F(10, 11 563) = 18.43, p < .001, partial h2 = .02). Follow-up univariate analyses, as
detailed in Table 3, indicated that high school students scored lowest on all identity
processes, except for ruminative exploration. Again, all the effect sizes accompanying
these mean differences were small.
Finally, in an ancillary MANOVA, we explored whether high school students fol-
lowing the academic track vs. those following the technical/vocational track differed
on identity. Significant multivariate effects were found (F(5, 3089) = 13.49, p < .001,
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
 10

Table 3. Mean-Level Differences in Identity Processes Based on Analysis of Variance

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Total sample Sex differences Context differences

High College/
Males Females Partial school University (Un)employment Partial
Variable M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) F ratio h2 M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) F Ratio h2

Commitment 3.50 (.86) 3.44 (.90) 3.53 (.84) 14.11** <.01 3.41 (.91)a 3.63 (.80)b 3.58 (.74)b 44.18** .02
making
Identification 3.46 (.76) 3.47 (.79) 3.46 (.74) .64 .00 3.40 (.81)a 3.51 (.70)b 3.60 (.65)c 27.58** .01
commitment
Exploration 3.54 (.75) 3.48 (.80) 3.57 (.72) 21.80** <.01 3.50 (.76)a 3.59 (.71)b 3.57 (.77)b 8.97** <.01
in breadth
Koen Luyckx, Theo A. Klimstra, Bart Duriez et al.

Exploration 3.28 (.75) 3.16 (.78) 3.34 (.73) 74.85** .01 3.19 (.78)a 3.39 (.71)b 3.37 (.73)b 48.75** .02
in depth
Ruminative 2.75 (.85) 2.68 (.88) 2.78 (.83) 17.60** <.01 2.75 (.86)a 2.77 (.81)a 2.66 (.92)b 4.69* <.01
exploration

Note: For context differences, means that differ significantly from one another have a different superscript.
* p < .01. ** p < .001.

Social Development, 2013

 Identity Processes 11
partial h2 = .02). Follow-up univariate analyses indicated that students in the academic
track scored lower, as compared to students in the technical and vocational track, on
commitment making (M = 3.33, SD = .90; and M = 3.50, SD = .91, respectively) and
higher on exploration in depth (M = 3.23, SD = .76; and M = 3.14, SD = .79,
respectively) and ruminative exploration (M = 2.82, SD = .83; and M = 2.66, SD = .88,
respectively). Again, all partial h2-values accompanying these mean differences were
ⱕ.01. In sum, although some mean differences were identified depending on sex,
context, and track, they should not be overstated due to small effect sizes.

Age Trends in Identity Processes

To ascertain whether age differences could be observed when simultaneously control-
ling for the effects of sex and context, a multivariate analysis of covariance
(MANCOVA) was conducted with sex and context as fixed factors, age as covariate,
and the identity processes as dependent variables. The interaction term between age
and sex was added to investigate whether age trends would differ between men and
women. However, this multivariate interaction effect did not reach significance (F(5,
5763) = 2.86, ns) and was left out of the model. Significant main effects of age were
found (F(5, 5764) = 15.72, p < .001, partial h2 = .02). Follow-up univariate analyses
revealed that significant age differences were observed for all identity processes (with
F-values significant at p < .001 and partial h2-values = .01) except for ruminative
exploration (F(1, 5768) = .18, ns).
Figure 1 displays the mean observed scores for the different identity processes in the
different age cohorts for the total sample. Whereas the two commitment processes
seemed to follow a linear increasing trend, exploration in breadth and in depth seemed
to follow a quadratic trend. Ancillary hierarchical regression analyses were performed
to investigate whether a linear or a quadratic function would be the best approximation
of the trends observed. Hence, in a first step, the centred value of age was entered as
predictor of the identity processes to examine linear age trends. In a second step, the
squared centred value of age (referred to as age2) was entered to examine quadratic age
trends. Beta-coefficients had to be significant at p < .01, and change in R2 of subsequent
steps had to be .01 or greater (Cohen, 1988) to be labelled as a meaningful effect.
Following this rule of thumb, age was a predictor for commitment making (b = .11,
p < .001; DR2 = .012), identification with commitment (b = .11, p < .001; DR2 = .012),
and exploration in depth (b = .12, p < .001; DR2 = .014), but not for exploration in
breadth (b = .08, p < .001; but DR2 = .006) and ruminative exploration (b = -.03, ns;
DR2 = .001). Age2 was a predictor for exploration in breadth (b = -.20, p < .001;
DR2 = .018) and exploration in depth (b = -.23, p < .001; DR2 = .014), but not for
commitment making (b = -.10, p < .001; but DR2 = .006), identification with commit-
ment (b = -.09, p < .001; but DR2 = .003), and ruminative exploration (b = -.09, p <
.001; but DR2 = .003). In sum, whereas the commitment processes were found to
increase linearly with age, exploration in breadth and exploration in depth demon-
strated quadratic changes with age (coupled with small linear increases for exploration
in depth).

Associations Among Identity Processes

We examined whether the correlations among the identity dimensions (as displayed in
Table 4) would differ in adolescence (14–17 year olds), emerging adulthood (18–25
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
12 Koen Luyckx, Theo A. Klimstra, Bart Duriez et al.

Figure 1. Observed Age Trends for the Total Sample for the Two Commitment Proc-
esses (A) and the Three Exploration Processes (B). Due to the Fact That Less Than 100
Individuals Belonged to Each of the Last Six Age Cohorts (i.e., from Age 25 to Age 30),
These Age Cohorts were Combined Two by Two (Ages 25–26, Ages 27–28, and Ages
29–30). CM = Commitment Making; IC = Identification with Commitment; EB =
Exploration in Breadth; ED = Exploration in Depth; RE = Ruminative Exploration.

year olds), and the late 20s (26–30 year olds). Of specific relevance to our hypotheses,
using the z-test for independent correlation coefficients (which, again, had to be
significant at p < .01), the positive association between exploration in breadth and both
commitment processes was higher in adolescence as compared to especially the late
20s. Rather similarly, exploration in depth was the most strongly related to the com-
mitment processes in adolescence and the least strongly so in the late 20s. Further, the
negative correlations between ruminative exploration and the two commitment proc-
esses were significantly higher in emerging adulthood as compared to adolescence.
Similarly, the positive association between exploration in depth and ruminative explo-
ration was highest in the late 20s.

Associations between Identity Processes and Depressive Symptoms

In the total sample, as can be seen in Table 5, commitment making and identification
with commitment related negatively, and ruminative exploration related positively to
depressive symptoms. Again, using the z-test for independent correlation coefficients,
the negative association between commitment making and depressive symptoms and
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
 Table 4. Correlations Among Identity Processes

Developmental period Z-scores group comparisons

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Adolescence: Emerging adult-hood: Late 20s:
Age 14–17 Age 18–25 Age 26–30
Associations Total (N = 2757)a (N = 2801)a (N = 220)a 1–2 1–3 2–3

Commitment making
With identification commitment .69** .69** .71** .60** 1.46 2.20 2.60*
With exploration in breadth .32** .34** .29** .14 2.07 3.02* 2.24
With exploration in depth .39** .42** .36** .09 2.64* 5.07** 4.07**
With ruminative exploration -.43** -.38** -.49** -.55** 5.07** 3.10* 1.17
Identification commitment
With exploration in breadth .36** .39** .32** .19* 2.99* 3.11* 1.98
With exploration in depth .47** .52** .42** .20* 4.79** 5.30** 3.48**
With ruminative exploration -.38** -.32** -.45** -.47** 5.70** 2.53 .36
Exploration in breadth
With exploration in depth .57** .58** .54** .69** 2.17 2.63* 3.46**
With ruminative exploration .19** .20** .16** .29** 1.54 1.36 1.96
Exploration in depth
With ruminative exploration .11** .12** .09** .33** 1.13 3.15* 3.58**
a
Sample sizes are based on listwise deletion in the correlational analyses within each developmental period.
* p < .01. ** p < .001.

Social Development, 2013

Identity Processes 13
 14

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Table 5. Correlations between Identity Processes and Depressive Symptoms

Developmental period Z-scores group comparisons

Adolescence: Age Emerging adult-hood: Late 20s:

Association with 14–17 Age 18–25 Age 26–30
depressive symptoms Total (N = 2757)a (N = 2801)a (N = 220)a 1–2 1–3 2–3

Commitment making -.18** -.13** -.22** -.35** 3.01* 3.13* 1.87

Identification -.26** -.24** -.28** -.30** 1.38 .85 .29
commitment
Exploration in breadth .01 -.03 .02 .21* 1.60 3.19** 2.55
Exploration in depth -.02 -.05 -.00 .11 1.60 2.11 1.46
Koen Luyckx, Theo A. Klimstra, Bart Duriez et al.

Ruminative .35** .30** .40** .43** 3.76** 2.02 .48

exploration
a
Sample sizes are based on listwise deletion in the correlational analyses within each developmental period.
* p < .01. ** p < .001.

Social Development, 2013

 Identity Processes 15
the positive association between ruminative exploration and depressive symptoms
were the weakest in adolescence. Further, the positive association between exploration
in breadth and depressive symptoms appeared to be strongest in the late 20s.

Discussion
The present study examined age trends from adolescence through the late 20s and the
adaptation or functionality of different identity exploration and commitment processes
in a large sample comprising 5834 Belgian 14-to-30-year-olds. We relied on a recently
developed model of identity formation in which two commitment processes (i.e.,
commitment making and identification with commitment), two proactive exploration
processes (i.e., exploration in breadth and exploration in depth), and a maladaptive or
ruminative exploration process are distinguished (Luyckx et al., 2008a). In so doing, a
detailed developmental perspective on core processes of personal identity formation
was provided. The present study not only investigated how the quantity or strength of
these identity processes changed over time, but also explored if the quality or func-
tionality of these processes changed over time. As such, the present findings can
substantially advance our theorizing about identity development from adolescence
through the late 20s.

Age Trends, Adaptation, and Functionality of Commitment Processes

Important and theoretically meaningful age trends were uncovered. Further, these
trends in identity generally appeared to be very gradual through adolescence, and the
transition to adulthood, although some fluctuations did occur for various identity
processes (Luyckx et al., 2006). Before going into detail in these trends, readers should
note that no authoritative claims with respect to identity development can be made
based on the present cross-sectional design. A long-term longitudinal study in which
cohorts of individuals are followed through their teens and 20s is needed to reach
definite conclusions. However, in the absence of such a large-scale longitudinal study,
the present findings might foreshadow how such developmental trends could look like.
The general linear trends for the commitment processes suggest some form of
identity maturation (Meeus et al., 2010). As expected, individuals do not only succeed
in making stronger identity commitments, they also increasingly identify themselves
with these commitments. Hence, a more solid identity structure emerges as individuals
make the transition to adult life (Meeus, Iedema, Helsen, & Vollebergh, 1999), which
increasingly enables them to attend to societal expectations and roles. As such, through
the establishment of firm identity choices which are personally endorsed, individuals
increasingly succeed in tackling the challenging quest for an individualized life tra-
jectory (Schwartz et al., 2005).
Our findings not only suggested that identity commitments become increasingly
more integrated in the self, these identity commitments also tend to become more
important for one’s well-being, as evidenced by the increased associations with depres-
sive symptoms from emerging adulthood to the late 20s. Whereas the making of
identity commitments was not that strongly negatively related to depressive symptoms
in adolescence, this association was significantly stronger in emerging adulthood and
beyond. Collectively, these findings suggest that with increasing maturation, identity
commitments occupy a more prominent place in one’s self-definition (Waterman &
Archer, 1990), not only with respect to the strength of the choices made but also with
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
16 Koen Luyckx, Theo A. Klimstra, Bart Duriez et al.
respect to their centrality towards psychosocial functioning. These findings corroborate
the view that the making of identity commitments becomes an increasingly normative
process with greater repercussions for daily functioning as adolescents make the
transition to adulthood.

Age Trends, Adaptation, and Functionality of Exploration Processes

Age trends for the exploration processes are generally in line with core tenets upheld
in identity theorizing and the emerging adulthood conception (Arnett, 2000;
Waterman, 1982). Exploration in breadth and exploration in depth but not so much
ruminative exploration demonstrated a curvilinear trend with the highest levels gen-
erally occurring in emerging adulthood. Apparently, the emerging adult years represent
the most volitional years across the age-span studied, as this period allows for contin-
ued role experimentations and identity re-evaluations (Arnett, 2000; Erikson, 1968).
Previous research indicated that this period in life is also characterized by a high degree
of demographic instability and risk behaviours which can be considered symptomatic
for extensive identity explorations of some individuals (Arnett, 2005). Further, in line
with the tenet that identity formation comes into prominence in adolescence (Erikson,
1968), initial increases in exploration in breadth and exploration in depth were
observed through adolescence. Hence, although exploration is at its peak in the
emerging adult years, it is not limited to this period in life (Meeus et al., 1999).
With respect to the functionality of these exploration processes, especially in the late
20s, the supposedly proactive identity processes of exploration in breadth and explo-
ration in depth became more and more detached or disconnected from the commitment
processes. Indeed, whereas especially in adolescence and somewhat less in emerging
adulthood, these two exploration processes were strongly and positively related to
commitment, these positive correlations decreased significantly in strength in the late
20s. Furthermore, especially exploration in breadth became increasingly and positively
associated with depressive symptoms with increasing age, with the strongest correla-
tion again emerging in the late 20s. These findings could indicate that identity explo-
ration might somewhat lose its functionality and become increasingly less adaptive
when sustained through the late 20s. Similarly, the association of exploration in depth
with ruminative exploration was stronger in the late 20s as compared to adolescence
and emerging adulthood. Ruminative exploration, in turn, also became more strongly
related to depressive symptoms in the 20s as compared to the teen years. In sum,
whereas exploration processes in adolescence and emerging adulthood seem to serve
an important goal, which is arriving at and evaluating identity commitments, these
processes seem to become less functional when sustained until the late 20s. This
conclusion is in line with Waterman and Archer’s (1990, p. 36) theorizing: ‘During the
early phases of identity exploration, the emotional tone is often one of exhilaration,
anticipation, or curiosity. Later, this may give way to anxiety or other forms of
subjective discomfort as the person finds that exploration, per se, does not necessarily
provide clear cut answers.’
Indeed, to the extent that young people are engaged in a perpetual exploration phase,
they may experience increased depressive symptoms (Marcia, 2002; Stephen, Fraser,
& Marcia, 1992). Côté and Levine (2002) have described a subgroup of individuals in
the moratorium status who are driven by excessively high standards and criteria for
functioning, which undermine their ability to form a steady set of commitments. These
individuals seem to be locked in a vicious cycle of continued exploration, contributing
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
 Identity Processes 17
to feelings of hopelessness and uncontrollability. Hence, future longitudinal research
should examine developmental trends across extended periods of time from a person-
oriented perspective, that is, with a view on distinct developmental subgroups or
classes. Such research would not only allow for examining the degree to which the
generic trends described in the present study apply to everyone or, as expected based
on previous efforts (e.g., Luyckx et al., 2008b), whether distinct developmental classes
would emerge each characterized by different trends over time. Such research could
also ascertain whether the associations obtained between identity processes and
depressive symptoms would be moderated by membership to such developmental
classes. For instance, the increased association between exploration in breadth and
depressive symptoms might apply especially to those individuals who do not simulta-
neously arrive at self-endorsed commitments. In contrast, increased levels of explora-
tion in breadth are probably less associated with depressive symptoms in the late
twenties, if these individuals have strong identity commitments at the same time. Such
additional analyses could shed further light on the exact meaning of different identity
processes and how their functionality changes across these different developmental
periods.
Future longitudinal research should also be extended beyond the late 20s well into
adulthood. Identity formation has been cast as a lifelong developmental task charac-
terized by continuous changes and re-evaluations over the adult life span (Kroger,
2000). Hence, it remains to be examined if the developmental trends uncovered in the
present study would consolidate or continue through adulthood, or if at some point in
time distinctive developmental trajectories would emerge for certain individuals (e.g.,
temporary increases in exploration for those individuals experiencing an important life
crisis; Kroger, 2000). Only recently has it been demonstrated that, generally speaking,
identity status trajectories obtained in young adulthood (i.e., in the 30s) were quite
similar to those obtained in emerging adulthood (Luyckx, Klimstra, Schwartz &
Duriez, in press). Nonetheless, research on identity trajectories assessed over extended
periods of time (i.e., beyond young adulthood) is needed, as well as a detailed inquiry
in the functionality of different identity strategies across the life span.

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

The present study was characterized by a number of limitations. Firstly, as noted, the
cross-sectional design of the present study limited the validity of the conclusions that
could be drawn. Further, the present study remains fairly descriptive and does not
provide insights into how the observed age trends came about. Only recently, Koepke
and Denissen (2012) provided a compelling overview of how contextual affordances
and close interpersonal relationships may play into identity development. Hence,
future longitudinal research should not only assess identity development across longer
periods of time but should also try to illuminate some of the contextual, interpersonal,
and individual mechanisms that potentially cause the observed changes. Additional
demographic variables that might be confounded with age or developmental period
(e.g., whether individuals are living at home and whether or not they have a partner)
need to be included as well. Further, although the present study still had a sufficient
amount of males to draw valid conclusions with respect to potential sex differences, a
more balanced sex distribution is advisable for future research using smaller samples
than the one used in the present study. Finally, the cross-sectional design used also
limits the conclusions that can be drawn with respect to directionality of effect.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
18 Koen Luyckx, Theo A. Klimstra, Bart Duriez et al.
Inspired by identity developmental theorizing, the present findings are interpreted, for
instance, as identity processes having an influence on depressive symptoms. Until
longitudinal research actually demonstrates that this is the case, such conclusions need
to be drawn cautiously.
Secondly, virtually all of our participants were from European-Caucasian descent,
which limits the generalizability of the present findings. It remains to be investigated
how the different variables assessed in the present study interrelate in non-Western
cultures or in non-Whites living in Western cultures, the latter being a rapidly growing
population. Relatedly, it is important to note that, despite the sociocultural changes that
have created the emerging adult life stage, Arnett’s (2000) approach applies primarily
to those individuals who have the economic wherewithal to postpone adult responsi-
bilities. Many youth from less advantaged backgrounds, especially those from devel-
oping countries, have much more limited freedom for extended identity exploration
(Galambos & Martínez, 2007).
Thirdly, the validity of the conclusions that can be drawn based on the present findings
is limited to the identity processes and domain assessed. More specifically, the present
study assessed five identity processes with respect to future plans, goals, and lifestyles.
Although the transition to adulthood constitutes a period of life in which future-related
choices become very salient, it is by no means the only identity challenge these
individuals are confronted with (Erikson, 1968). Individuals do not only have to make
so-called personal identity choices across a wide variety of domains, they also develop
personal and social identities in close interaction with the social world (Schwartz,
Luyckx, & Vignoles, 2011). Similarly, an additional limitation of the present study is its
sole reliance on self-reported depressive symptoms as an outcome variable. Future
research efforts examining similar research questions should broaden their scope and
include positive indicators of well-being as well, such as life satisfaction and self-
esteem. A recent longitudinal study found that commitment processes appeared to be a
stronger predictor of self-esteem over time for college students as compared to high
school students (Luyckx, Klimstra, Duriez, Van Petegem, Beyers, Teppers & Goossens,
2013), again indicating that the developmental period under study could partially
determine how functional or adaptive certain identity processes may be.
Finally, the present findings seemed to suggest that students in the vocational and
technical tracks (which directly prepare adolescents for certain jobs or careers) score
higher on commitment making and lower on exploration as compared to students in the
academic track (which consists of a general, broad education, preparing students for
higher education). These findings do not come as a surprise given that, especially in the
vocational track, students already have a rather clear view on their future job whereas
this is much less the case for students in the academic track. Hence, future research
should continue to sample students from different tracks to allow for authoritative
claims on the high school period.
In conclusion, meaningful identity trends were found which were in line with
prominent theories on identity development. Commitment processes were mainly
characterized by linear increases, exploration processes were mainly characterized by
quadratic trends. Secondly, these identity processes did not seem to be equally func-
tional or adaptive in different developmental periods examined. As expected, especially
commitment making became more functional and adaptive with age, whereas espe-
cially exploration in breadth became less functional in older age cohorts. We hope that
the present study will instigate researchers to address similar research questions in
long-term longitudinal research.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social Development, 2013
 Identity Processes 19

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