5 Material Behaviour and

Mechanics Modelling
In this Chapter, the real physical response of various types of material to different types
of loading conditions is examined. The means by which a mathematical model can be
developed which can predict such real responses is also considered.

113
114
 Section 5.1

5.1 Mechanics Modelling

5.1.1 The Mechanics Problem

Typical questions which mechanics attempts to answer were given in Section 1.1. In the
examples given, one invariably knows (some of) the forces (or stresses) acting on the
material under study, be it due to the wind, water pressure, the weight of the human body,
a moving train, and so on. One also often knows something about the displacements
along some portion of the material, for example it might be fixed to the ground and so the
displacements there are zero. A schematic of such a generic material is shown in Fig.
5.1.1 below.

Known forces
acting on boundary

?
Known
displacements at
boundary

Figure 5.1.1: a material component; force and displacement are known along some
portion of the boundary

The basic problem of mechanics is to determine what is happening inside the material.
This means: what are the stresses and strains inside the material? With this information,
one can answer further questions: Where are the stresses high? Where will the material
first fail? What can we change to make the material function better? Where will the
component move to? What is going on inside the material, at the microscopic level?
Generally speaking, what is happening and what will happen?

One can relate the loads on the component to the stresses inside the body using
equilibrium equations and one can relate the displacement to internal strains using
kinematics relations. For example, consider again the simple rod subjected to tension
forces examined in Section 3.3.1, shown again in Fig. 5.1.2. The internal normal stress
σ N on any plane oriented at an angle θ to the rod cross-section is related to the external
force F through the equilibrium equation 3.3.1: σ N = F cos2 θ / A , where A is the cross-
sectional area. Similarly, if the ends undergo a separation/displacement of ∆ = l − l0 , Fig.
5.1.2b, the strain of any internal line element, at orientation θ , is ε N = ∆ cos2 θ / l0 .
However, there is no relationship between this internal stress and internal strain: for any
given force, there is no way to determine the internal strain (and hence displacement of
the rod); for any given displacement of the rod, there is no way to determine the internal
stress (and hence force applied to the rod). The required relationship between stress and
strain is discussed next.

Solid Mechanics Part I 115 Kelly

 Section 5.1

σN θ
l0 l
internal
surface
θ

F
(a ) ( b)

Figure 5.1.2: a slender rod; (a) internal stress due to external force, (b) internal
strain due to gross displacement of rod (dotted = before straining)

5.1.2 Constitutive Equation

Stress was discussed in Chapter 3 and strain in Chapter 4. In all that discussion, no
mention was made of the particular material under study, be it metallic, polymeric,
biological or foodstuff (apart from the necessity that the strain be small when using the
engineering strain). The concept of stress and the resulting theory of stress
transformation, principal stresses and so on, are based on physical principles (Newton’s
Laws), which apply to all materials. The concept of strain is based, essentially, on
geometry and trigonometry; again, it applies to all materials. However, it is the
relationship between stress and strain which differs from material to material.

The relationship between the stress and strain for any particular material will depend on
the microstructure of that material – what constitutes that material. For this reason, the
stress-strain relationship is called the constitutive relation, or constitutive law. For
example, metals consist of a closely packed lattice of atoms, whereas a rubber consists of
a tangled mass of long-chain polymer molecules; for this reason, the strain in a metal will
be different to that in rubber, when they are subjected to the same stress.

The constitutive equation allows the mechanics problem to be solved – this is shown
schematically in Fig. 5.1.3.

Solid Mechanics Part I 116 Kelly

 Section 5.1

External External
Loads Displacements

Equilibrium Kinematics

Internal Internal
Stresses Constitutive Strains
Equation

Figure 5.1.3: the role of the constitutive equation in the equations of mechanics

Example Constitutive Equations

A constitutive equation will be of the general form

σ = f (ε ) . (5.1.1)

The simplest constitutive equation is a linear elastic relation, in which the stress is
proportional to the strain:

σ ∝ε . (5.1.2)

Although no real material satisfies precisely Eqn. 5.1.2, many do so approximately – this
type of relation will be discussed in Chapters 6-8. More complex relations can involve
the rate at which a material is strained or stressed; these types of relation will be
discussed in Chapter 10.

More on constitutive equations will follow in Section 5.3.

5.1.3 Mathematical Model

Some of the questions asked earlier can be answered using experimentation. For
example, one could use a car-crash test to determine the weakest points in a car.
However, one cannot carry out multiple tests for each and every possible scenario –
different car speeds, different obstacles into which it crashes, and so on; it would be too
time-consuming and too expensive. The only practical way in which these questions can
be answered is to develop a mathematical model. This model consists of the various
equations of equilibrium and the kinematics, the constitutive relation, equations
describing the shape of the material, etc. (see Fig. 5.1.3). The mathematical model will
have many approximations to reality associated with it. For example, it might be
assumed that the material is in the shape of a perfect sphere, when in fact it only
resembles a sphere. It may be assumed that a load is applied at a “point” when in fact it is
applied over a region of the material’s surface. Another approximation in the
mathematical model is the constitutive equation itself; the relation between stress and

Solid Mechanics Part I 117 Kelly

 Section 5.1

strain in any material can be extremely complex, and the constitutive equation can only
be an approximation of the reality.

Once the mathematical model has been developed, the various equations can be solved
and the model can then be used to make a prediction. The prediction of the model can
now be tested against reality: a set of well-defined experiments can be carried out – does
the material really move to where the model says it will move?

Simple models (simple constitutive relations) should be used as a first step. If the
predictions of the model are wildly incorrect, the model can be adjusted (made more
complicated), and the output tested again.

The equations associated with simple models can often be solved analytically, i.e. using a
pen and paper. More complex models result in complex sets of equations which can only
be solved approximately (though, hopefully, accurately) using a computer.

Solid Mechanics Part I 118 Kelly

 Section 5.2

5.2 The Response of Real Materials

The constitutive equation was introduced in the previous section. The means by which
the constitutive equation is determined is by carrying out experimental tests on the
material in question. This topic is discussed in what follows.

5.2.1 The Tension Test

Consider the following key experiment, the tensile test, in which a small, usually
cylindrical, specimen is gripped and stretched, usually at some given rate of stretching. A
typical specimen would have diameter about 1cm and length 5cm, and larger ends so that
it can be easily gripped, Fig. 5.2.1a. Specialised machines are used, for example the
Instron testing machine shown in Fig. 5.2.1b.

Test specimen

1
2

Figure 5.2.1: the tension test; (a) test specimen, (b) testing machine

As the specimen is stretched, the force required to hold the specimen at a given
displacement/stretch is recorded1.

The Engineering Materials

For many of the (hard) engineering materials, the force/displacement curve will look
something like that shown in Fig. 5.2.2. It will be found that the force is initially
proportional to displacement as with the linear portion OA in Fig. 5.2.2. The following
observations will also be made:
(1) if the load has not reached point A, and the material is then unloaded, the
force/displacement curve will trace back along the line OA down to zero force and
zero displacement; further loading and unloading will again be up and down OA .
(2) the loading curve remains linear up to a certain force level, the elastic limit of the
material (point A). Beyond this point, permanent deformations are induced2; on

1
the very precise details of how the test should be carried out are contained in the special standards for
materials testing developed by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

Solid Mechanics Part I 119 Kelly

 Section 5.2

unloading to zero force (from point B to C), the specimen will have a permanent
elongation. An example of this response (although not a tension test) can be seen
with a paper clip – gently bend the clip and it will “spring back” (this is the OA
behaviour); bend the clip too much (AB) and it will stay bent after you let go (C).
(3) above the elastic limit (from A to B), the material hardens, that is, the force
required to maintain further stretching, unsurprisingly, keeps increasing. (However,
some materials can soften, for example granular materials such as soils).
(4) the rate (speed) at which the specimen is stretched makes little difference to the
results observed (at least if the speed and/or temperature is not too high).
(5) the strains up to the elastic limit are small, less than 1% (see below for more on
strains).

Force B
A Parallel
elastic 
limit

unload

0 C Displacement

Permanent
displacement after
removal of load

Figure 5.2.2: force/displacement curve for the tension test; typical response for
engineering materials

Stress-Strain Curve

There are two definitions of stress used to describe the tension test. First, there is the
force divided by the original cross sectional area of the specimen A0 ; this is the nominal
stress or engineering stress,

F
n  (5.2.1)
A0

Alternatively, one can evaluate the force divided by the (smaller) current cross-sectional
area A, leading to the true stress

2
if the tension tests are carried out extremely carefully, one might be able to distinguish between a point
where the stress-strain curve ceases to be linear (the proportional limit) and the elastic limit (which will
occur at a slightly higher stress)

Solid Mechanics Part I 120 Kelly

 Section 5.2

F
 (5.2.2)
A

in which F and A are both changing with time. For small elongations, within the linear
range OA , the cross-sectional area of the material undergoes negligible change and both
definitions of stress are more or less equivalent.

Similarly, one can describe the deformation in two alternative ways. As discussed in
Section 4.1.1, one can use the engineering strain

l  l0
 (5.2.3)
l0

or the true strain

l
 t  ln   (5.2.4)
 l0 

Here, l 0 is the original specimen length and l is the current length. Again, at small
deformations, the difference between these two strain measures is negligible (see Tabel
4.1).

The stress-strain diagram for a tension test can now be described using the true
stress/strain or nominal stress/strain definitions, as in Fig. 5.2.3. The shape of the
nominal stress/strain diagram, Fig. 5.2.3a, is of course the same as the graph of force
versus displacement. C here denotes the point at which the maximum force the specimen
can withstand has been reached. The nominal stress at C is called the Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS) of the material.

After the UTS is reached, the specimen “necks”, that is, the specimen begins to deform
locally – with a very rapid reduction in cross-sectional area somewhere about the centre
of the specimen until the specimen breaks, as indicated by the asterisk in Fig. 5.2.3. The
appearance of a test specimen at each of these stages of the stress-strain curve is shown
top of Fig. 5.2.3a.

For many materials, it will be observed that there is very little volume change during the
permanent deformation phase, so A0l0  Al and    N 1    . This nominal stress to
true stress conversion formula will only be valid up to the point of necking.

Solid Mechanics Part I 121 Kelly

 Section 5.2

n  C
C 

 t
(a ) (b)

Figure 5.2.3: typical stress-strain curve for an engineering material; (a) engineering
stress and strain, (b) true stress and strain

The stress-strain curves for mild steel and aluminium are shown in Fig. 5.2.4. For mild
steel, the stress at first increases after reaching the elastic limit, but then decreases. The
curve contains a distinct yield point; this is where a large increase in strain begins to
occur with little increase in required stress3, i.e. little hardening. There is no distinct yield
point for aluminium (or, in fact, for most materials), Fig. 5.2.4b. In this case, it is useful
to define a yield strength (or offset yield point). This is the maximum stress that can be
applied without exceeding a specified value of permanent strain. This offset strain is
usually taken to be 0.1 or 0.2% and the yield strength is found by following a line parallel
to the linear portion until it intersects the stress-strain curve.

elastic yield yield

n limit point strength

  


offset

strain
(a ) (b)

Figure 5.2.4: typical stress-strain curves for (a) mild steel, (b) aluminium

3
this is also called the lower yield point; the upper yield point is then the higher stress value just above
the elastic limit

Solid Mechanics Part I 122 Kelly

 Section 5.2

The Young’s Modulus

The slope of the stress-strain curve over the linear region, before the elastic limit is
reached, is the Young’s Modulus E:


E (5.2.5)


The Young’s Modulus has units of stress and is a measure of how “stiff” a material is.

Eqn. 5.2.5 is a constitutive relation (it is of the general form of Eqn. 5.1.1-2); it is the one-
dimensional linear elastic constitutive relation.

Use of the Tension Test Data

What is the data from the tension test used for? First of all, it is of direct use in many
structural applications. Many structures, such as bridges, buildings and the human
skeleton, are composed in part of relatively long and slender components. In service,
these components undergo tension and/or compression, very much like the test specimen
in the tension test. The tension test data (the Young’s Modulus, the Yield Strength and
the UTS) then gives direct information on the amount of stress that these components can
safely handle, before undergoing dangerous straining or all-out failure.

More importantly, the tension test data (and similar test data – see below) can be used to
predict what will happen when a component of complex three-dimensional shape is
loaded in a complex way, nothing like as in the simple tension test. This can be put
another way: one must be able to predict the world around us without having to resort to
complex, expensive, time-consuming materials testing – one should be able to use the test
data from the tension test (and similar simple tests) to achieve this. How this is actually
done is a major theme of mechanics modelling.

Test data for a number of metals are listed in Table 5.2.1 below. Note that although some
materials can have similar stiffnesses, for example Nickel and Steel, their relative
strengths can be very different.

Young’s 0.2% Yield Ultimate Tensile

Modulus Strength Strength
E (GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Ni 200 70 400
Mild steel 203 220 430
Steel (AISI 1144) 210 540 840
Cu 120 60 400
Al 70 40 200
Al Alloy (2014-T651) 73 415 485
Table 5.2.1: Tensile test data for some metals (at room temperature)

Data as listed above should be treated with caution – it should be used only as a rough
guide to the actual material under study; the data can vary wildly depending on the purity
and precise nature of the material. For example, the tensile strength of glass as found in a

Solid Mechanics Part I 123 Kelly

 Section 5.2

typical glass window is about 50MPa. For fine glass fibres as used in fibre-reinforced
plastics and composite materials, the tensile strength can be 4000MPa. In fact, glass is a
good reminder as to why the tensile values differ from material to material – it is due to
the difference in microstructure. The glass window has many very fine flaws and cracks
in it, invisible to the naked eye, and so this glass is not very strong; very fine slivers of
glass have no such flaws and are extremely strong – hence their use in engineering
applications.

The Poisson’s Ratio

Another useful material parameter is the Poisson’s ratio  .4 As the material stretches in
the tension test, it gets thinner; the Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the ease with which it
thins:

w / w0 
   w (5.2.6)
l / l0 

Here, w  w  w0 , w0 are the change in thickness and original thickness of the specimen,
Fig. 5.2.5; l  l  l0 , l0 are the change in length and original length of the specimen;
 w  ( w  w0 ) / w0 is the strain in the thickness direction. A negative sign is included
because w is negative, making the Poisson’s ratio a positive number. (It is implicitly
assumed here that the material is getting thinner by the same amount in all directions; see
below in the context of anisotropy for when this is not the case.)

Most engineering materials have a Poisson’s Ratio of about 0.3. Values for a range of
materials are listed in Table 5.2.2 further below.

l l0 l l0 y
w0
x

Figure 5.2.5: Change in dimensions of a test specimen

Recall from Section 4.3 that the volumetric strain is given by the sum of the normal
strains. There is no harm in re-calculating this for the tensile test specimen of Fig. 5.2.5.
One has V / V  w2l / w02l0  1 , so that, assuming the strains are small so that the terms
 w ,  w2 and  w2 can be neglected, V / V    2 w (this is the sum of the normal

4
this is the Greek letter nu, not the letter “v”

Solid Mechanics Part I 124 Kelly

 Section 5.2

strains,  xx   yy   zz , Fig. 5.2.5). Using the definition of the Poisson’s ratio, Eqn. 5.2.6,
one has

V
  1  2  (5.2.7)
V

A material which undergoes little volume change thus has a Poisson’s Ratio close to 0.5;
rubber and other soft tissues, for example biological materials, have Poisson’s Ratios very
close to 0.5. A material which undergoes zero volume change (  0.5 ) is called
incompressible (see more on incompressibility in Section 5.2.4 below). At the other
extreme, materials such as cork can have Poisson’s Ratios close to zero. The reason for
this can be seen from the microstructure of cork shown in Fig. 5.2.6; when tested in
compression, the hexagonal honeycomb structure simply folds down, with no necessary
lateral expansion.

Figure 5.2.6: Microstructure of Cork

Auxetic materials are materials which have a negative Poisson’s Ratio; when they are
stretched, they get thicker. Examples can be found amongst polymers, foams, rocks and
biological materials. These materials obviously have a very peculiar microstructure. A
typical example is the network microstructure shown in Fig. 5.2.7.

(a ) (b)

Figure 5.2.7: Auxetic material (a) before loading, (b) after loading

Solid Mechanics Part I 125 Kelly

 Section 5.2

Ductile and Brittle Materials

The engineering materials can be grouped into two broad classes: the ductile materials
and the brittle materials. The ductile materials undergo large permanent deformations,
stretching and necking before failing5. The term ductile rupture is usually reserved for
materials which fail in this way. The separate pieces of the specimen pull away from
each other gradually, leaving rough surfaces. A simple measure of ductility is the
engineering strain at failure. The brittle materials are generally more stiff and strong, but
fail without undergoing much permanent deformation – the tension specimen undergoes a
sudden clean break – a fracture. The UTS in the case of a brittle material is the same as
the failure/fracture stress. Ceramics and glasses are extremely brittle – they fractures
suddenly without undergoing any permanent deformation. The difference is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 5.2.8 below.

clean
n fracture
brittle 
Moderate
ductile
rupture
ductile 
Severe
ductile
rupture


Figure 5.2.8: the difference between ductile and brittle materials

Ductility will depend on temperature – a very cold metal will tend to shatter suddenly,
whereas it will stretch more easily when hot.

Soft Materials

Tension test data for (the traditionally) non-engineering materials can be very different to
that given above. For example, the typical response of a “soft” material, such as rubber,
is shown in Fig. 5.2.9. For many soft materials, the elastic limit (or yield strength) can be
very high on the stress-strain curve, close to failure. Most of the curve is elastic, meaning
that when one unloads the material, the unloading curve traces over the loading curve
back down to zero stress and zero strain: the material does not undergo any permanent
deformation6. Note that the stress-strain curve is non-linear (curved), unlike the straight
line elastic portion for a typical metal, Fig. 5.2.2-4, so these materials do not have a single
Young’s Modulus through which their response can be described.

5
the term ductile is used for a specimen in tension; the analogous term for compression is malleability – a
malleable material is easily “squashed”
6
here, as elsewhere, these statements should not be taken literally; a real rubber will undergo some
permanent deformation, only it will often be so small that it can be discounted, and an unload curve will
never “exactly” trace over a loading curve

Solid Mechanics Part I 126 Kelly

 Section 5.2

n 
load
unload

Figure 5.2.9: typical load/unload curves for rubber

5.2.2 Compression Tests

Many materials are used, or designed for use, in compression only, for example soils and
concrete. These materials are tested in compression. A common testing method for
concrete is to place a cylindrical specimen between two parallel plates and bring the
plates together. The typical response of concrete is shown in Fig. 5.2.10a; at failure, the
concrete crushes catastrophically, as in the specimen shown in Fig. 5.2.10b. Nominal
stresses in the region 20-70MPa are typical and a good concrete would strain to much less
than 1% at failure.

n 

 5

(a) (b)

Figure 5.2.10: typical compressive response of concrete; (a) stress-strain curve, (b)
specimen at failure

For many materials, e.g. metals, a compression test will lead to similar results as the
tensile stress. The yield strength in compression will be approximately the same as (the
negative of) the yield strength in tension. If one plots the true stress versus true strain
curve for both tension and compression (absolute values for the compression), and the
two curves more or less coincide, this would indicate that the behaviour of the material
under compression is broadly similar to that under tension. However, if one were to use
the nominal stress and strain, then the two curves would not coincide even if the real
tensile/compressive behaviour was similar (although they would of course in the small-
strain linear region); this is due to the definition of the engineering strain/stress.

Solid Mechanics Part I 127 Kelly

 Section 5.2

5.2.3 Shear Tests

In the shear test, the material is subjected to a shear strain   2 xy by applying a shear
stress7    xy , Fig. 5.2.11a. The resulting shear stress-strain curve will be similar to the
tensile stress-strain curve, Fig. 5.2.11b. The shear stress at failure, the shear strength,
can be greater or smaller than the UTS. The shear yield strength, on the other hand, is
usually in the region of 0.5-0.75 times the tensile yield strength. In the linear small-strain
region, the shear stress will be proportional to the shear strain; the constant of
proportionality is the shear modulus G:


G (5.2.8)


For many of the engineering materials, G  0.4 E .

  



(a) (b)

Figure 5.2.11: the shear test; (a) specimen subjected to shear stress and shear strain
(dotted = undeformed), (b) shear stress-strain curve

5.2.4 Compressibility
In the confined compression test, a sample is placed in a container and a piston is used
to compress it at some pressure p, Fig. 5.2.12a. This test can be used to determine how
compressible a material is. When a material is compressed by equal pressures on all
sides, the ratio of applied pressure p to (unit) volume change, i.e. volumetric strain
V / V , is called the Bulk Modulus K, Fig. 5.2.12b (this is not quite the situation in Fig.
5.2.12a – the reaction pressures on the side walls will only be about half the applied
surface pressure p; see Section 6.2):

p
K  (5.2.9)
V / V

The negative sign is included since a positive pressure implies a negative volumetric
strain, so that the Bulk Modulus is a positive value.

7
there are many ways that this can be done, for example by pushing blocks of the material over each other,
or using more sophisticated methods such as twisting thin tubes of the material (see Section 7.2)

Solid Mechanics Part I 128 Kelly

 Section 5.2

p p

 V / V
(a) (b)

Figure 5.2.12: the confined compression test; (a) specimen subjected to confined
compression, (b) pressure plotted against volume change

A material which can be easily compressed has a low Bulk Modulus. As mentioned
earlier, a material which cannot be compressed at all is called incompressible ( K   ).

No real material is incompressible, but some can be regarded as incompressible so as to

make the mechanics modelling easier. For example, the Shear Modulus of rubber is very
much smaller than its Bulk Modulus, Table 5.2.2. Essentially, this means that the shape
of rubber can be easily changed as compared to its volume. Thus, in applications where a
rubber component is being deformed or subjected to arbitrary stressing, it is perfectly
reasonable to simply assume that rubber is incompressible. The same applies, only more
so, to water; the Shear Modulus is effectively zero and there is no resistance to change in
shape (which will be observed on pouring a glass of water on to the ground); it is thus
regarded almost always as completely incompressible. On the other hand, even though
the Bulk Modulus of the metals and other engineering materials is very much larger than
that of water or rubber, they are still regarded as compressible in applications – the
extremely small changes in volume are significant.

Young’s Modulus E Shear Modulus G Bulk Modulus K Poissons

(GPa) (GPa) (GPa) Ratio
Ni 200 76 180 0.31
Mild steel 203 78 138 0.30
Steel (AISI 1144) 210 80 140 0.31
Cu 120 46 142 0.34
Al 70 26 76 0.35
Rubber 14.9  104 5  104 1 0.49
14 14
Water  10  10 2.2
Table 5.2.2: Moduli and Poisson’s Ratios for a number of materials

5.2.5 Cyclic Tests

Many materials are subjected to complex loading regimes when in service, not simply a
one-off stretching, shearing or compression. A classic example are the wings of an
aircraft which are continually loaded in tension, then compression, then tension and so on,
as in Fig. 5.2.13. Another example would be the stresses experienced by cardiac tissue in
a pumping heart. Anything moving back and forward is likely to be subjected to this
tension/compression-type cyclic loading.

Solid Mechanics Part I 129 Kelly

 Section 5.2

Figure 5.2.13: cyclic loading; alternating between tension (positive stress) and
compression (negative stress) over time t

Cyclic tests can be carried out to determine the response of materials to such loading
cycles. An example is shown in Fig. 5.2.14a, the stress-strain response of a Stainless
Steel. The Steel is first cycled between two strain values (one positive, one negative,
differing only in sign) a number of times. The stress is seen to increase on each
successive cycle. The strain is then increased for a number of further cycles, and so on.

One does not have to move from tension to compression; many materials cycle in only
tension or compression. For example, the response to cyclic (compressive) loading of
polyurethane foam is shown in Fig. 5.2.14b (note how the loading curve is similar to that
in 5.2.9).

6 7

(a) (b)

Figure 5.2.14: cyclic loading; (a) cyclic straining of a Stainless Steel, (b) cyclic
loading (in compression) of a polyurethane foam

5.2.6 Other Tests

There are other important tests, for example the Vickers and Brinell hardness tests, and
the three-point bending test (the bending test is discussed in section 7.4.9, in the context
of beam theory). Another two very important tests, the creep test and the stress
relaxation test, will be discussed in Chapter 10.

Solid Mechanics Part I 130 Kelly

 Section 5.2

5.2.7 Isotropy and Anisotropy

Many materials have a strong direction-dependence. The classic example is wood, which
has a clear structure –along the grain, along which fine lines can be seen, and against the
grain, Fig. 5.2.15. The wood is stiffer and stronger along the grain than against the grain.
A material which has this direction-dependence of mechanical (and physical) properties is
called anisotropic.

Figure 5.2.15: Wood

Fig. 5.2.16 shows stress-strain curves for human ligament tissue; in one test, the ligament
is stretched along its length (the longitudinal direction), in the second, across the width
of the ligament (the transverse direction). It can be seen that the stiffness is much higher
in the longitudinal direction. Another example is bone – it is much stiffer along the
length of the bone than across the width of the bone. In fact, many biological materials
are strongly anisotropic.

Figure 5.2.16: Anisotropic response of human ligament

A material whose properties are the same in all directions is called isotropic. In
particular, the relationship between stress and strain at any single location in a material is
the same in all directions. This implies that if a specimen is cut from an isotropic material
and subjected to a load, it would not matter in which orientation the specimen is cut, the

Solid Mechanics Part I 131 Kelly

 Section 5.2

resulting deformation would be the same – as illustrated in Fig. 5.2.17. Most metals and
ceramics can be considered to be isotropic (see Section 5.4).

o
o

o
o

Figure 5.2.17: Illustration of Isotropy; the relationship between stress and strain is
the same no matter in what “direction” the test specimen is cut from the material

Anisotropy will be examined in more detail in §6.3. It will be shown there, for example,
that an anisotropic material can have a Poisson’s ratio greater than 0.5.8

5.2.8 Homogeneous Materials

The term homogeneous means that the mechanical properties are the same at each point
throughout the material. In other words, the relationship between stress and strain is the
same for all material particles. Most materials can be assumed to be homogeneous.

In engineering applications, it is sometimes beneficial to design materials/components

which are specifically not homogeneous, i.e. inhomogeneous. Such materials whose
properties vary gradually throughout are called Functionally Graded Materials, and
have been gaining popularity since the 1980s-90s in advanced technologies.

Note that a material can be homogeneous and not isotropic, and vice versa –
homogeneous refers to different locations whereas isotropy refers to the same location.

5.2.9 Problems
1. Steel and aluminium can be considered to be isotropic and homogeneous materials. Is
the composite sandwich-structure shown here isotropic and/or homogeneous?
Everywhere in the sandwich?

steel
aluminiu
steel

8
cork was mentioned earlier and it was pointed out that it has a near-zero Poisson’s Ratio; actually, cork is
quite anisotropic and the Poisson’s Ratio in other “directions” will be different (close to 1.0)

Solid Mechanics Part I 132 Kelly

 Section 5.2

Images used:
1. http://site.metacos.com/main/3108/index.asp?pageid=84386&t=&AlbumID=0&page=2
2. http://travisarp.wordpress.com/2012/01/24/how-do-they-do-that-tenderness/
3. http://www.ara.com/Projects/SVO/popups/weld_geometry.html
4. http://10minus9.wordpress.com/2010/03/23/10minus9-interview-philip-moriarty-part-2/
5. http://info.admet.com/blog/?Tag=Compression%20Test
6. Chaboche JL, On some modifications of kinematic hardening to improve the description of ratcheting effects, Int.
J. Plasticity 7(7), 661-678, 1991.
7. Shen Y, Golnaraghi F, Plumtree A, Modelling compressive cyclic stress-strain behaviour of structural foam, Int J
Fatigue, 23(6), 491-497, 2001.
8. http://www.sufaparket.com/solid-parquet/product-profile-solid/sungkai
9. Quapp KM, Weiss JA, Material characterization of human medial collateral ligament, J Biomech Engng, 120(6),
757-763, 1998.

Solid Mechanics Part I 133 Kelly

 Section 5.3

5.3 Material Models

The response of real materials to various loading conditions was discussed in the previous
section. Now comes the task of creating mathematical models which can predict this
response. To this end, it is helpful to categorise the material responses into ideal models.
There are four broad material models which are used for this purpose: (1) the elastic
model, (2) the viscoelastic model, (3) the plastic model, and (4) the viscoplastic model.
These models will be discussed briefly in what follows, and in more depth throughout the
rest of this book.

5.3.1 The Elastic Model

An ideal elastic material has the following characteristics:
(i) the unloading stress-strain path is the same as the loading path
(ii) there is no dependence on the rate of loading or straining
(iii) it does not undergo permanent deformation; it returns to its precise original shape
when the loads are removed

Typical stress-strain curves for an ideal elastic model subjected to a tension (or
(compression) test are shown in Fig. 5.3.1. The response of a linear elastic material,
where the stress is proportional to the strain, is shown in Fig. 5.3.1a and that for a non-
linear elastic material is shown in Fig. 5.3.1b.

From the discussion in the previous section, the linear elastic model will well represent
the engineering materials up to their elastic limit (see, for example, Figs. 5.2.2-4). It will
also represent the complete stress-strain response up to the point of fracture of many very
brittle materials. The model can also be used to represent the response of almost any
material, provided the stresses are sufficiently small.

The non-linear elastic model is useful for predicting the response of soft materials like
rubber and biological soft tissue (see, for example Fig. 5.2.9).

 

load
unload

 
(a ) ( b)

Figure 5.3.1: The Elastic Model; (a) linear elastic, (b) non-linear elastic

It goes without saying that there is no such thing as a purely elastic material. All
materials will undergo at least some permanent deformations, even at low loads; no
material’s response will be exactly the same when stretched at different speeds, and so on.

Solid Mechanics Part I 134 Kelly

 Section 5.3

However, if these occurrences and differences are small enough to be neglected, the ideal
elastic model will be useful.

Note also that a prediction of a material’s response may be made with accuracy using the
elastic model in some circumstances, but not in others. An example would be metal; the
elastic model might be able to predict the response right up to high stress levels when the
metal is cold, but not so well when the temperature is high, when inelastic effects may not
be so easily disregarded (see below).

5.3.2 Viscoelasticity
When solid materials have some “fluid-like” characteristics, they are said to be
viscoelastic. A fluid is something which flows easily when subjected to loading – it
cannot keep to any particular shape. If a fluid is one (the “viscous”) extreme and the
elastic solid is at the other extreme, then the viscoelastic material is somewhere in
between.

The typical response of a viscoelastic material is sketched in Fig. 5.3.2. The following
will be noted:
(i) the loading and unloading curves do not coincide, Fig. 5.3.2a, but form a
hysteresis loop
(ii) there is a dependence on the rate of straining d / dt , Fig. 5.3.2b; the faster the
stretching, the larger the stress required
(iii) there may or may not be some permanent deformation upon complete unloading,
Fig. 5.3.2a

  1 2
load 1  2

unload

 
possible permanent
deformation
(a ) ( b)

Figure 5.3.2: Response of a Viscoelastic material in the Tension test; (a) loading and
unloading with possible permanent deformation (non-zero strain at zero stress), (b)
different rates of stretching

The effect of rate of stretching shows that the viscoelastic material depends on time. This
contrasts with the elastic material; it makes no difference whether an elastic material is
loaded to some given stress level for one second or one day, or quickly or slowly, the
resulting strain will be the same. This rate effect can be seen when you push your hand
through water – it is easier to do so when you push slowly than when you push fast.

Solid Mechanics Part I 135 Kelly

 Section 5.3

Depending on how “fluid-like” or “solid-like” a material is, it can be considered to be a

viscoelastic fluid, for example blood or toothpaste, or a viscoelastic solid, for example
Silly Putty™ or foam. That said, the model for both and the theory behind each will be
similar.

Viscoelastic materials will be discussed in detail in Chapter 10.

5.3.3 Plasticity
Plasticity has the following characteristics:
(i) The loading is elastic up to some threshold limit, beyond which permanent
deformations occur
(ii) The permanent deformation, i.e. the plasticity, is time independent

This plasticity can be seen in Figs. 5.2.2-4. The threshold limit – the elastic limit – can be
quite high but it can also be extremely small, so small that significant permanent
deformations occur at almost any level of loading. The plasticity model is particularly
useful in describing the permanent deformations which occur in metals, soils and other
engineering materials. It will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 11.

5.3.4 Viscoplasticity
Finally, the viscoplastic model is a combination of the viscoelastic and plastic models. In
this model, the plasticity is rate-dependent. One of the main applications of the model is
in the study of metals at high temperatures, but it is used also in the modeling of a huge
range of materials and other applications, for example asphalt, concrete, clay, paper pulp,
biological cells growth, etc. This model will be discussed in Chapter 12.

Solid Mechanics Part I 136 Kelly

 Section 5.4

5.4 Continuum Models and Micromechanics

The models mentioned in the previous section are continuum models. What this means
is explained in what follows.

5.4.1 Stress and Scale

In the definition of the traction vector, §3.3.1, it was assumed that the ratio of force over
area would reach some definite limit as the area S of the surface upon which the force
F acts was shrunk to zero. This issue can be explored further by considering Fig. 5.4.1.
Assume first that the plane upon which the force acts is fairly large; it is then shrunk and
the ratio F / S tracked. A schematic of this ratio is shown in Fig. 5.4.2. At first (to the
right of Fig. 5.4.2) the ratio F / S undergoes change, assuming the stress to vary within
the material, as it invariably will if the material is loaded in some complex way.
Eventually the plane will be so small that the ratio changes very little, perhaps with some
small variability  . If the plane is allowed to get too small, however, down below some
distance h * say and down towards the atomic level, where one might encounter
“intermolecular space”, there will be large changes in the ratio and the whole concept of a
force acing on a single surface breaks down.

force
force
plane
point
plane
point

Figure 5.4.1: A force acting on an internal surface; allowing the plane on which the
force acts to get progressively smaller

In a continuum model, it is assumed that the ratio F / S follows the dotted path shown in
Fig. 5.4.2; a definite limit is reached as the plane shrinks to zero size. It should be kept in
mind that the traction in a real material should be evaluated through

F
t  lim (5.4.1)
S  ( h *) 2 S

Solid Mechanics Part I 137 Kelly

 Section 5.4

where h * is some minimum dimension below which there is no acceptable limit. On the
other hand, it is necessary to take the limit to zero in the mathematical modelling of
materials since that is the basis of calculus1.

F
S
getting closer to the
“point”
continuum h*
approximation

more or less constant F/S

Molecular level – with some variability  F/S changing as one moves
away from “point”

Figure 5.4.2: the change in traction as the plane upon which a force acts is reduced
in size

In a continuum model, then, there is a minimum sized element one can consider, say of
size V  (h*) 3 . When one talks about the stress on this element, the mass of this
element, the density, velocity and acceleration of this element, one means the average of
these quantities throughout or over the surface of the element – the discrete atomic
structure within the element is ignored and is averaged out, or “smeared” out, into a
continuum element.

The continuum element is also called a representative volume element (RVE), an

element of material large enough for the heterogeneities to be replaced by homogenised
mean values of their properties. The order of the dimensions of RVE’s for some common
engineering materials would be approximately (see the metal example which follows)

Metal: 0.1mm
Polymers/composites: 1mm
Wood: 10mm
Concrete: 100mm

One does not have any information about what is happening inside the continuum
element – it is like a “black box”. The scale of the element (and higher) is called the

1
calculus is not used too much in this book – it is absolutely necessary and ubiquitous in more refined and
advanced mechanics theories

Solid Mechanics Part I 138 Kelly

 Section 5.4

macroscale – continuum mechanics is mechanics on the macroscale. The scale of

entities within the element is termed the microscale – continuum models cannot give any
information about what happens on the microscale.

5.4.2 Example: Metal

Metal, from a distance, appears fairly uniform. With the help of a microscope, however,
it will be seen to consist of many individual grains of metal. For example, the metal
shown in Fig. 5.4.3 has grains roughly 0.05mm across, and each one has very individual
properties (the crystals in each grain are aligned in different directions).

Figure 5.4.3: metal grains

If one is interested in the gross deformation of a moderately sized component of this

metal, it would be sufficient to consider deformations that are averaged over volumes
which are large compared to individual grains, but small compared to the whole
component. A minimum dimension of, say, h *  0.5mm for the metal of Fig. 5.4.3 would
seem to suffice, and this would be the macro/micro-scale boundary, with a minimum
surface area of dimension (h * ) 2 for the definition of stress.

When one measures physical properties of the metal “at a point”, for example the density,
one need only measure an average quantity over an element of the order, say, (0.5mm) 3
or higher. It is not necessary to consider the individual grains of metal – these are inside
the “black box”. The model will return valuable information about the deformation of the
gross material, but it will not be able to furnish any information about movement of
individual grains.

It was shown how to evaluate the Young’s Modulus and other properties of a metal in
Section 5.2.1. The test specimens used for such tests are vastly larger than the continuum
elements discussed above. Thus the test data is perfectly adequate to describe the
response of the metal, on the macroscale.

What if the response of individual grains to applied loads is required? In that case a
model would have to be constructed which accounted for the different mechanical
properties of each grain. The metal could no longer be considered to be a uniform

Solid Mechanics Part I 139 Kelly

 Section 5.4

material, but a complex one with many individual grains, each with different properties
and orientation. The macro/micro boundary could be set at about h *  0.1m . There are
now two problems which need to be dealt with: (1) experiments such as the tensile test
would have to be conducted on specimens much smaller than the grain size in order to
provide data for any mathematical model, and (2) the mathematical model will be more
complex and difficult to solve.

5.4.3 Micromechanical Models

Consider the schematic of a continuum model shown in Fig. 5.4.4 below. One can
determine the material’s properties, such as the Young’s modulus E, through
experimentation, and the resulting mathematical continuum model can be used to make
predictions about the material’s response. With the improved power of computers,
especially since the 1990s, it has now become possible to complement continuum models
with micromechanical models. These models take into account more fine detail of the
material’s structure (for example of the individual grains of the metal discussed earlier).
Usually, one will have a micromechanical model of a small (typical) RVE of material.
This then provides information regarding the properties of the RVE to be included in a
continuum model (rather than having a micromechanical model of the complete material,
which is in most cases still not practical). The means by which the properties at the micro
scale are averaged (for example into a “smeared out” single E value) and passed “up” to
the continuum model is through homogenisation theory. Such micromechanical models
can provide further insight into material behaviour than the simpler continuum model.

continuum
element

E macro-to-
micro scale

Figure 5.4.4: continuum model and micromechanical model

5.4.4 Problems
1. You want to evaluate the stiffness E of a metal for inclusion in a mechanics model.
What minimum size specimen would you use in your test - 10 m , 0.1mm, 5mm or
5cm ?

2. Individual rice grains are separate solid particles. However, rice flowing down a
chute at a food processing plant can be considered to be a fluid, and the flow of rice
can be solved using the equations of mechanics. What minimum dimension h*

Solid Mechanics Part I 140 Kelly

 Section 5.4

should be employed for measurements in this case to ensure the validity of a

continuum model of flowing rice?

Solid Mechanics Part I 141 Kelly

 Section 5.4

Solid Mechanics Part I 142 Kelly