Chapter 1: Forces and Motion

Movement and Position Created by- Tasfia Ibrahim

Lecture Note-1
Calculating Average Speed

 The speed of an object is the distance it travels every second

 Speed is a scalar quantity
o This is because it only contains a magnitude (without a direction)

For example: A hiker might have an average speed of 2.0 m/s, whereas a particularly excited
bumble bee can have average speeds of up to 4.5 m/s!

 The equation for calculating the average speed of a moving object is:

Average Speed= Total distance/ total time taken

The formula for average speed can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle below:

How to Use Formula Triangles

 Formula triangles are really useful for knowing how to rearrange physics equations to use
them:

1. Cover up the quantity to be calculated, this is known as the 'subject' of the equation
2. Look at the position of the other two quantities
o If they are on the same line, this means they are multiplied
o If one quantity is above the other, this means they are divided - make sure to keep
the order of which is on the top and bottom of the fraction!

In the example below, to calculate speed, cover-up 'speed' and only distance and time are left
This means it is equal to distance (on the top) ÷ time (on the bottom)
Let’s look at a worked example:
Planes fly at typical speeds of around 250 m/s. Calculate the distance travelled by a plane moving at
this average speed for 2 hours.

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Average speed = 250 m/s

o Time taken = 2 hours

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Rearrange for the distance moved

Distance moved = average speed × time taken

Step 4: Convert any units

o The time given in the question is not in standard units

o Convert 2 hours into seconds:

2 hours = 2 × 60 × 60 = 7200 s

Step 5: Substitute the values for average speed and time taken

Distance moved = 250 × 7200 = 1 800 000 m

Distance-Time Graphs

 A distance-time graph shows how the distance of an object moving in a straight line (from a
starting position) varies over time:
 This graph shows a moving object moving
further away from its origin

Constant Speed on a Distance-Time Graph

 Distance-time graphs also show the following information:

o If the object is moving at a constant speed
o How large or small the speed is

 A straight line represents constant speed

 The slope of the straight line represents the magnitude of the speed:
o A very steep slope means the object is moving at a large speed
o A shallow slope means the object is moving at a small speed
o A flat, horizontal line means the object is stationary (not moving)

This graph shows how the slope of a line is used to interpret the speed of moving objects.
Both of these objects are moving with a constant speed, because the lines are straight.

Changing Speed on a Distance-Time Graph

 Objects might be moving at a changing speed

o This is represented by a curve
 In this case, the slope of the line will be changing
 o If the slope is increasing, the speed is increasing (accelerating)
o If the slope is decreasing, the speed is decreasing (decelerating)
 The image below shows two different objects moving with changing speeds

Gradient of a Distance-Time Graph

 The speed of a moving object can be calculated from the gradient of the line on a distance-
time graph:

The speed of an object can be found by calculating the gradient of a distance-time graph

 The rise is the change in y (distance) values

 The run is the change in x (time) values

Worked example
A distance-time graph is drawn below for part of a train journey. The train is travelling at a
constant speed.
Calculate the speed of the train.
Step 1: Draw a large gradient triangle on the graph and label the magnitude of the rise and
run

o The image below shows a large gradient triangle drawn with dashed lines

o The rise and run magnitude is labeled, using the units as stated on each axes

Step 2: Convert units for distance and time into standard units.

o The distance travelled (rise) = 8 km = 8000 m

o The time taken (run) = 6 mins = 360 s

Step 3: State that speed is equal to the gradient of a distance-time graph.

o The gradient of a distance-time graph is equal to the speed of a moving object.

Step 4: Substitute values in to calculate the speed

speed = gradient = 8000 ÷ 360

speed = 22.2 m/s

Acceleration

 Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity

o In other words, it describes how much an object's velocity changes every second
 The equation below is used to calculate the average acceleration of an object:

 Where:
o a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
o Δv = change in velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o t = time taken in seconds (s)

 The change in velocity is found by the difference between the initial and final velocity, as

written below:

Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

Δv = v − u

 Where:
o v = final velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o u = initial velocity in metres per second (m/s)

Speeding Up & Slowing Down

 An object that speeds up is accelerating
 An object that slows down is decelerating
  The acceleration of an object can be positive or negative, depending on whether the
object is speeding up or slowing down
 If an object is speeding up, its acceleration is positive
If an object is slowing down, its acceleration is negative (deceleration)

A rocket speeding up (accelerating) and a car slowing down (decelerating)

Worked example
A Japanese bullet train decelerates at a constant rate in a straight line.The velocity of the train
decreases from 50 m/s to 42 m/s in 30 seconds.

(a) Calculate the change in velocity of the train.

(b) Calculate the deceleration of the train, and explain how your answer shows the train is slowing
down.

Part (a)

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Initial velocity = 50 m/s

o Final velocity = 42 m/s

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

Step 3: Substitute values for final and initial velocity

change in velocity = 42 − 50 = −8 m/s

Part (b)

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Change in velocity, Δv = − 8 m/s

o Time taken, t = 30 s
Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Substitute the values for change in velocity and time

a = −8 ÷ 30 = −0.27 m/s2

Step 4: Interpret the value for deceleration.

o The answer is negative, which indicates the train is slowing down

Velocity-Time Graphs

 A velocity-time graph shows how the velocity of a moving object varies with time
o The red line represents an object with increasing velocity
o The green line represents an object with decreasing velocity

Increasing and decreasing velocity represented on a velocity-time graph

Acceleration on a Velocity-Time Graph

 Velocity-time graphs also show the following information:

o If the object is moving with a constant acceleration/deceleration
o The magnitude of the acceleration/deceleration

 A straight line represents constant acceleration

 The slope of the line represents the magnitude of acceleration
o A steep slope means large acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the object's speed
changes very quickly
o A gentle slope means small acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the object's speed
changes very gradually
 o A flat line means the acceleration is zero - i.e. the object is moving with a constant
velocity

Gradient of a Velocity-Time Graph

 The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a velocity-time graph

How to find the gradient of a velocity-time graph

Worked example
Tora is training for a cycling tournament. The velocity-time graph below shows her motion as she
cycles along a flat, straight road.
(a) In which section (A, B, C, D, or E) of the velocity-time graph is Tora’s acceleration the largest?

(b) Calculate Tora’s acceleration between 5 and 10 seconds.

Part (a)

Step 1: Recall that the slope of a velocity-time graph represents the magnitude of
acceleration

 The slope of a velocity-time graph indicates the magnitude of acceleration

 Therefore, the only sections of the graph where Tora is accelerating is section B and section D
 Sections A, C, and E are flat – in other words, Tora is moving at a constant velocity (i.e. not
accelerating)

Step 2: Identify the section with the steepest slope

 Section D of the graph has the steepest slope

 Hence, the largest acceleration is shown in section D

Part (b)

Step 1: Recall that the gradient of a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration.
 Calculating the gradient of a slope on a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration for that time
period

Step 2: Draw a large gradient triangle at the appropriate section of the graph
A gradient triangle is drawn for the time period between 5 and 10 seconds below:

Step 3: Calculate the size of the gradient and state this as the acceleration
 The acceleration is given by the gradient, which can be calculated using:
 Acceleration = gradient = 5 ÷ 5 = 1 m/s 2

Therefore, Tora accelerated at 1 m/s2 between 5 and 10 seconds

Area under a Velocity-Time Graph

 The area under a velocity-time graph represents the displacement (or distance travelled)

by an object

The displacement, or distance travelled, is represented by the area beneath the graph

 If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle (i.e. the object

is accelerating or decelerating), then the area can be determined by using the following
formula:

Area = ½ × Base × Height

  If the area beneath the graph forms a rectangle (i.e. the object is moving at a constant
velocity), then the area can be determined by using the following formula:

Area = Base × Height

Determining Distance from a Velocity-Time Graph

 Enclosed areas under velocity-time graphs represent total displacement (or total distance

travelled)

 If an object moves with constant acceleration, its velocity-time graph will comprise of straight lines.
 In this case, calculate the distance travelled by working out the area of enclosed rectangles and
triangles as in the image above

Calculating Uniform Acceleration

 The following equation of motion applies to objects moving with uniform (constant)

acceleration:

(final speed)2 = (initial speed)2 + 2 × acceleration × distance moved

v2 = u2 + 2as

 Where:
o s = distance moved in metres (m)
o u = initial speed in metres per second (m/s)
o v = final speed in metres per second (m/s)
o a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)

 This equation is used to calculate quantities such as initial or final speed, acceleration,

or distance moved in cases where the time taken is not known

Worked example
A car accelerates steadily from rest at a rate of 2.5 m/s2 up to a speed of 16 m/s.Calculate how far
the car moves during this period of acceleration.
Step 1: Identify and write down the equation to use

o The question says that the car 'accelerates steadily' - so the equation for uniform
acceleration can be used:

v2 = u2 + 2 × a × s

Step 2: List the known quantities

o Initial speed, u = 0 m/s (the car starts from rest)

o Final speed, v = 16 m/s
o Acceleration, a = 2.5 m/s2
o Distance moved, s = ? (this needs to be calculated)

Step 3: Substitute known quantities into the equation and simplify where possible

162 = 02 + (2 × 2.5 × s)

o This can be simplified to: 256 = 5 × s

Step 4: Rearrange the equation to work out the distance moved

s = 256 ÷ 5

s = 51.2 m