BACK TOB ASICS

What Is
Securitization?
Andreas Jobst

T
he subprime mortgage crisis that began in 2007 debt products, default rates below the historical experience,
has given the decades-old concept of securitization and the wide availability of hedging tools were encouraging
a bad name. Securitization is the process in which investors to take more risk to achieve a higher yield. Many of
certain types of assets are pooled so that they can be the loans were not kept on the balance sheets of those who
repackaged into interest-bearing securities. The interest and securitized them, perhaps encouraging originators to cut back
principal payments from the assets are passed through to the on screening and monitoring borrowers, resulting possibly in
purchasers of the securities. a systematic deterioration of lending and collateral standards.
Securitization got its start in the 1970s, when home mort-
gages were pooled by U.S. government-backed agencies. The securitization process
Starting in the 1980s, other income-producing assets began to In its most basic form, the process involves two steps (see chart).
be securitized, and in recent years the market has grown dra- In step one, a company with loans or other income-producing
matically. In some markets, such as those for securities backed assets—the originator—identifies the assets it wants to remove
by risky subprime mortgages in the United States, the unex- from its balance sheet and pools them into what is called the
pected deterioration in the quality of some of the underlying reference portfolio. It then sells this asset pool to an issuer, such
assets undermined investor confidence. Both the scale and as a special purpose vehicle (SPV)—an entity set up, usually by
persistence of the attendant credit crisis seem to suggest that a financial institution, specifically to purchase the assets and re-
securitization—together with poor credit origination, inad- alize their off-balance-sheet treatment for legal and accounting
equate valuation methods, and insufficient regulatory over- purposes. In step two, the issuer finances the acquisition of the
sight—could severely hurt financial stability. pooled assets by issuing tradable, interest-bearing securities that
Increasing numbers of financial institutions employ securi- are sold to capital market investors. The investors receive fixed
tization to transfer the credit risk of the assets they originate or floating rate payments from a trustee account funded by the
from their balance sheets to those of other financial institu- cash flows generated by the reference portfolio. In most cases,
tions, such as banks, insurance companies, and hedge funds.
Author: B2B, 6/28/08
the originator services the loans in the portfolio, collects pay-
They do it for a variety reasons. It is oftenProof
cheaper to raise ments from the original borrowers, and passes them on—less
money through securitization, and securitized assets were then a servicing fee—directly to the SPV or the trustee. In essence,
less costly for banks to hold because
financial regulators had different stan-
dards for them than for the assets that How securitization works
underpinned them. In principle, this
“originate and distribute” approach Transfer of assets SPV issues debt
from the originator to securities (asset-
brought broad economic benefits the issuing vehicle backed) to investors
too—spreading out credit exposures,
thereby diffusing risk concentrations Issuing agent Capital market
and reducing systemic vulnerabilities. Asset originator 1 (e.g., special purpose 2 investors
vehicle [SPV])
Until the subprime crisis unfolded, Issues
the impact of securitization appeared Underlying assets asset-backed
securities
largely to be positive and benign. But Reference • Assets immune Typically structured
portfolio from bankruptcy into various Senior tranche(s)
securitization also has been indicted (”collateral”) of seller classes/tranches, Mezzanine
by some for compromising the incen- • Originator rated by one or tranche(s)
tives for originators to ensure mini- retains no legal more rating
mum standards of prudent lending, interest in assets agencies Junior tranche
risk management, and investment, at a
time when low returns on conventional

48   Finance & Development September 2008

securitization represents an alternative and diversified source of Moreover, the assets are detached from the originator’s
finance based on the transfer of credit risk (and possibly also balance sheet (and its credit rating), allowing issuers to raise
interest rate and currency risk) from issuers to investors. funds to finance the purchase of assets more cheaply than
In a more recent refinement, the reference portfolio is would be possible on the strength of the originator’s balance
divided into several slices, called tranches, each of which sheet alone. For instance, a company with an overall “B” rat-
has a different level of risk associated with it and is sold ing with “AAA”-rated assets on its books might be able to
separately. Both investment return (principal and inter- raise funds at an “AAA” rather than “B” rating by securitizing
est repayment) and losses are allocated among the various those assets. Unlike conventional debt, securitization does
tranches according to their seniority. The least risky tranche, not inflate a company’s liabilities. Instead it produces funds
for example, has first call on the income generated by the for future investment without balance sheet growth.
underlying assets, while the riskiest has last claim on that Investors benefit from more than just a greater range of
income. The conventional securitization structure assumes investible assets made available through securitization. The
a three-tier security design—junior, mezzanine, and senior flexibility of securitization transactions also helps issuers tai-
tranches. This structure concentrates expected portfolio lor the risk-return properties of tranches to the risk tolerance
losses in the junior, or first loss position, which is usually the of investors. For instance, pension funds and other collective
smallest of the tranches but the one that bears most of the investment schemes require a diverse range of highly rated
credit exposure and receives the highest return. There is lit- long-term fixed-income investments beyond what the pub-
tle expectation of portfolio losses in senior tranches, which, lic debt issuance by governments can provide. If securitized
because investors often finance their purchase by borrow- debt is traded, investors can quickly adjust their individual
ing, are very sensitive to changes in underlying asset qual- exposure to credit-sensitive assets in response to changes in
ity. It was this sensitivity that was the initial source of the personal risk sensitivity, market sentiment, and consumption
problems in the subprime mortgage market last year. When preferences at low transaction cost.
repayment issues surfaced in the riskiest tranches, lack of Sometimes the originators do not sell the securities out-
confidence spread to holders of more senior tranches— right to the issuer (called “true sale securitization”) but
causing panic among investors and a flight into safer assets, instead sell only the credit risk associated with the assets
resulting in a fire sale of securitized debt. without the transfer of legal title (“synthetic securitization”).
Securitization was initially used to finance simple, self- Synthetic securitization helps issuers exploit price differences
liquidating assets such as mortgages. But any type of asset between the acquired (and often illiquid) assets and the price
with a stable cash flow can in principle be structured into a investors are willing to pay for them (if diversified in a greater
reference portfolio that supports securitized debt. Securities pool of assets).
can be backed not only by mortgages but by corporate and
sovereign loans, consumer credit, project finance, lease/trade Growth of securitization
receivables, and individualized lending agreements. The The landscape of securitization has changed dramatically in
generic name for such instruments is asset-backed securi- the last decade. No longer is it wed to traditional assets with
ties (ABS), although securitization transactions backed by specific terms such as mortgages, bank loans, or consumer
mortgage loans (residential or commercial) are called mort- loans (called self-liquidating assets). Improved modeling and
gage-backed securities. A variant is the collateralized debt risk quantification as well as greater data availability have
obligation, which uses the same structuring technology as an encouraged issuers to consider a wider variety of asset types,
ABS but includes a wider and more diverse range of assets. including home equity loans, lease receivables, and small
business loans, to name a few. Although most issuance is
The allure of securitizing concentrated in mature markets, securitization has also reg-
Securitization started as a way for financial institutions and istered significant growth in emerging markets, where large
corporations to find new sources of funding—either by mov- and highly rated corporate entities and banks have used secu-
ing assets off their balance sheets or by borrowing against ritization to turn future cash flow from hard-currency export
them to refinance their origination at a fair market rate. It re- receivables or remittances into current cash.
duced their borrowing costs and, in the case of banks, lowered In the future, securitized products are likely to become
regulatory minimum capital requirements. simpler. After years of posting virtually no capital reserves
For example, suppose a leasing company needed to raise against highly rated securitized debt, issuers will soon be
cash. Under standard procedures, the company would take faced with regulatory changes that will require higher capital
out a loan or sell bonds. Its ability to do so, and the cost, charges and more comprehensive valuation. Reviving securi-
would depend on its overall financial health and credit rating. tization transactions and restoring investor confidence might
If it could find buyers, it could sell some of the leases directly, also require issuers to retain interest in the performance of
effectively converting a future income stream to cash. The securitized assets at each level of seniority, not just the junior
problem is that there is virtually no secondary market for tranche. n
individual leases. But by pooling those leases, the company
can raise cash by selling the package to an issuer, which in Andreas Jobst is an Economist in the IMF’s Monetary and
turn converts the pool of leases into a tradable security. Capital Markets Department.

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