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UNIT I FOUNDATION FOR BEGINNERS

INTRODUCTION
The field of robotics has its origins in science fiction. The term robot was derived from the
English translation of a fantasy play written in Czechoslovakia around 1920. It took another 40
years before the modern technology of industrial robotics began. Today Robots are highly
automated mechanical manipulators controlled by computers. We survey some of the science
fiction stories about robots, and we trace the historical development of robotics technology. Let
us begin our chapter by defining the term robotics and establishing its place in relation to other
types of industrial automation.

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Robotics: -

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Robotics is an applied engineering science that has been referred to as a combination of machine
tool technology and computer science. It includes machine design, production theory, micro

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electronics, computer programming & artificial intelligence.
"Robotics" is defined as the science of designing and building Robots which are suitable for real

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life application in automated manufacturing and other non-manufacturing environments

1.1 History of Robotics

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Robotics was first introduced into our vocabulary by Czech playwright Karel Capek in
his 1920’s play Rossum’s Universal Robots.

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1954 – George Devol replaced the slave manipulator in a tele operator with the

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programmability of the CNC controller, thus creating the first “industrial robot”, called
the “Programmable Article Transfer Device”.

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1956 - Joseph Engleberger, a Columbia physics student buys the rights to Devol’s robot
and founds the Unimation Company. t
• 1956 -George Devol applied for a patent for the first programmable robot, later named
'Unimate'.

• 1966 – 1968 'Shakey‘, a mobile robot is developed by SRI (Stanford Research Institute).
'Shakey' was capable of planning, route-finding and moving objects.

• 1977 – 1992 Development of mobile robot Hilaire at Laboratoise d’Automatique et

d’Analyse des Systemes (LAAS) in Toulouse, France. This mobile robot had three
wheels and it is still in use

• 1978- Puma (Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly), by Unimation.

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• 1979 - SCARA (Selective Compliant Articulated Robot for Assembly) introduced in

Japan and the US (by Adept Technologies).

• 1980’s – Legged and hopping robots (BIPER – Shimoyama) and Raibert 1986.

• 1984 -1991 –Hogg, Martin and Resnick at MIT create mobile robots using LEGO blocks
(precursor to LEGO Mindstorms). Rodney Brooks at MIT creates first insect robots at
MIT AI Lab – birth of behavioral robotics.

• 1986 - Honda starts work on its first humanoid, robot named 'E0' (later to become
ASIMO).

• 1988 - SCAMP designed as the first robot pet with emotions.

ww • 1991 - First HelpMate mobile autonomous robot used in hospitals

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1999 - Sony introduces AIBO, an autonomous robotic dog capable of seeing, walking
and interacting with its environment.

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2002 - iRobot introduces Roomba, a personal robotic vacuum cleaner.

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2003 - Osaka University unveils their first 'Actroid', the term given for a humanoid robot
with strong visual human characteristics.

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2010 - NASA and General Motors join forces to develop Robonaut-2, the new version of
NASA's humanoid robot astronaut.

1.2 Common Types of Industrial Robots

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Articulated - This robot design features rotary joints and can range from simple two joint

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structures to 10 or more joints. The arm is connected to the base with a twisting joint. The
links in the arm are connected by rotary joints. Each joint is called an axis and provides
an additional degree of freedom, or range of motion. Industrial robots commonly have t
four or six axes.
• Cartesian - These are also called rectilinear or gantry robots. Cartesian robots have three
linear joints that use the Cartesian coordinate system (X, Y, and Z). They also may have
an attached wrist to allow for rotational movement. The three prismatic joints deliver a
linear motion along the axis.
• Cylindrical - The robot has at least one rotary joint at the base and at least one prismatic
joint to connect the links. The rotary joint uses a rotational motion along the joint axis,

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while the prismatic joint moves in a linear motion. Cylindrical robots operate within a
cylindrical-shaped work envelope.
• Polar - Also called spherical robots, in this configuration the arm is connected to the base
with a twisting joint and a combination of two rotary joints and one linear joint. The axes
form a polar coordinate system and create a spherical-shaped work envelope.
• SCARA - Commonly used in assembly applications, this selectively compliant arm for
robotic assembly is primarily cylindrical in design. It features two parallel joints that
provide compliance in one selected plane.
• Delta - These spider-like robots are built from jointed parallelograms connected to a

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Heavily used in the food, pharmaceutical, and electronic industries, this robot
configuration is capable of delicate, precise movement.

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1.3 Robot Components (Anatomy)

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A Robot is a system, consists of the following elements, which are integrated to form a whole:

structural elements of the Robot.

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Manipulator / Rover: This is the main body of the Robot and consists of links, joints and

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End Effector : This is the part that generally handles objects, makes connection to other

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machines, or performs the required tasks. It can vary in size and complexity from a end effector
on the space shuttle to a small gripper.
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Actuators: Actuators are the muscles of the manipulators. Common types of actuators are
servomotors, stepper motors, pneumatic cylinders etc.
Sensors: Sensors are used to collect information about the internal state of the robot or to
communicate with the outside environment. Robots are often equipped with external sensory
t
devices such as a vision system, touch and tactile sensors etc which help to communicate with
the environment
Controller: The controller receives data from the computer, controls the motions of the actuator
and coordinates these motions with the sensory feedback information.
Processor: Brain of Robot- Calculates the motions of Robot’s joints, oversees the coordinated
actions of the controller and the sensors.
Software:

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• 3 groups of software used in Robot.

Operating Systems- operates the computer
Robotic Software-
• Calculates the necessary motions of each joint and informs the controller
• May be at different levels, from machine Language to Sophisticated languages used by
modern robots.
Collection of routines and application programs
Joints and Links:
• Manipulator of an Industrial Robot consists of series of Joints and Links

ww • Robot anatomy deals with study of different Joints and Links and other aspects of

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physical construction.
A robotic Joint provides relative motion between two links of the Robot.
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Each joint provides a certain degrees of freedom of motion.
Mostly, 1 dof is associated with each joint.

1.4 Classification of Robots En

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The Japanese Industrial Robot Association (JIRA) classifies robots into six classes:
Class 1: Manual - Handling Devices actuated by an operator
Class 2: Fixed Sequence Robot
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Class 3: Variable-Sequence Robot with easily modified sequence of control
Class 4: Playback Robot, which can record a motion for later playback g.n
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Class 5: Numerical Control Robots with a movement program to teach it tasks manually
Class 6: Intelligent robot: that can understand its environment and able to complete the task t
despite changes in the operation conditions
Robotics Institute of America (RIA)- considers only classes 3 -6 as Robots.
Classification according to Association Francaise de Robotique (AFR)
Type A: Handling Devices with manual control to telerobotics
Type B: Automatic Handling Devices with predetermined cycles
Type C: Programmable, servo controlled robots with continuous or point-to-point trajectories.
Type D: Same as type C, but with capability to acquire information from its environment.
1.5 Classification of Robots (or) Classification by co-ordinate system

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Co-ordinate systems:-
Industrial robots are available in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and physical configurations. The
vast majority of today’s commercially available robots possess one of the basic configurations:
1. Polar configuration
2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Cartesian coordinate configurable
4. Jointed-arm configuration
1. Polar configuration:-

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The polar configuration is pictured in the above Fig. It uses a telescoping arm that can be raised

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or lowered about a horizontal pivot The pivot is mounted on a mta6ng base These various joints

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provide the robot with the capability to move its arm within a spherical space, and hence the
name “spherical coordinate” robot is sometimes applied to this type. A number of commercial
robots possess the polar configuration. rin
2. Cylindrical configuration:-
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The cylindrical configurable, as shown in fig, uses a vertical column and a slide that can be
moved up or down along the column. The robot arm is attached to the slide so that it can be
moved radially with respect to the column. By routing the column, the robot is capable of
achieving a work space that approximation a cylinder.

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3. Cartesian coordinate configurable:-
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The cartesian coordinate robot, uses three perpendicular slides to construct the x, y, and z axes.

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Other names are sometimes applied W this configuration, including xyz robot and rectilinear
robot, By moving the three slides relative to one another, the robot is capable of operating within
a rectangular work envelope.
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4. Jointed-arm configuration:-
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The jointed-arm robot is pictured in Fig. Its configuration is similar to that of the human arm. It
consists of two straight components. Corresponding to the human forearm and upper arm,

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mounted on a vertical pedestal. These components are connected by two rotary joints
corresponding to the shoulder and elbow
1.6 Robot Specifications
• Payload- weight a robot can carry
• Reach -max.distance a robot can reach within its work envelope.
• V-Reach H-Reach
• Precision (validity)-how accurately a specified point can be reached.
• Repeatability (Variability) - how accurately the same position can be reached, if the
motion is repeated many times.

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1.7 Need of robots

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Industrial robot plays a significant role in automated manufacturing to perform different kinds of

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applications.
• Robots can be built a performance capability superior to those of human beings. In terms
of strength, size, speed, accuracy…etc.
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Robots are better than humans to perform simple and repetitive tasks with better quality

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and consistence’s.
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Robots do not have the limitations and negative attributes of human works .such as
fatigue, need for rest, and diversion of attention…..etc.
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Robots are used in industries to save the time compared to human beings.
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Robots are in value poor working conditions
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Improved working conditions and reduced risks.

1.8 Automation and robotics

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Automation and robotics are two closely related technologies. In an industrial context, we can dean
automation as a technology that is concerned with the use of mechanical, electronic, and computer-
based systems in the operation and control of production Examples of this technology include
transfer lines. Mechanized assembly machines, feedback control systems (applied to industrial
processes), numerically controlled machine tools, and robots. Accordingly, robotics is a form of
industrial automation.
Types of Automation:-
Automation is categorized into three types. They are:

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1) Fixed Automation
2) Programmable Automation
3) Flexible Automation.
(1) Fixed Automation:-

It is the automation in which the sequence of processing or assembly operations to be carried out is
fixed by the equipment configuration. In fixed automation, the sequences of operations (which are
simple) are integrated in a piece of equipment. Therefore, it is difficult to automate changes in the
design of the product. It is used where high volume of production is required Production rate of fixed
automation is high. In this automation, no new products are processed for a given sequence of

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assembly operations.

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Features:-
i) High volume of production rates

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ii) Relatively inflexible in product variety (no new products are produced). Ex:- Automobile
industries … etc.
(2) Programmable Automation:-
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It is the automation in which the equipment is designed to accommodate various product

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configurations in order to change the sequence of operations or assembly operations by means of

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control program. Different types of programs can be loaded into the equipment to produce products

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with new configurations (i.e., new products). It is employed for batch production of low and medium
volumes. For each new batch of different configured product, a new control program corresponding

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to the new product is loaded into the equipment. This automation is relatively economic for small
batches of the product.
Features:-
i) High investment in general purpose,
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ii) Lower production rates than fixed automation,
iii) Flexibility & Changes in products configuration,
iv) More suitable for batch production.
Ex:- Industrial robot, NC machines tools… etc.

(3) Flexible Automation:-

A computer integrated manufacturing system which is an extension of programmable automation
is referred as flexible automation. It is developed to minimize the time loss between the

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changeover of the batch production from one product to another while reloading. The program to
produce new products and changing the physical setup i.e., it 4
produces different products with no loss of time. This automation is more flexible in
interconnecting work stations with material handling and storage system

Features:-
i) High investment for a custom engineering system.
ii) Medium Production rates
iii) Flexibility to deal with product design variation,

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iv) Continuous production of variable mixtures of products. Ex:- Flexible manufacturing systems
(FMS)

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1.9 Social and Ethical Issues
The introduction of intelligent machines in our daily life brings up global social and ethical

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problems, which are summarized as follows:
Sensitive tasks that should require human supervision could be delegated entirely to
robots
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Humans will no longer take responsibility for failures
Unemployment and de-skilling of the workforce
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• AI could erode human freedom
• Using AI in unethical ways
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1.10 Applications of robots
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•
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Machine loading
Pick and Place
Welding
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• Painting
• Assembly operations
• Manufacturing
• Surveillance
• Medical Applications
• Assisting Disabled Individuals
• Hazardous Environment

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• Underwater, Space and remote locations

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UNIT II BUILDING BLOCKS OF A ROBOT

Electrical Drive
An electrical drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical
energy into mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for
various kinds of process control.

2.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF MOTORS

Stepper motor
A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in

ww steps. Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low cost, open loop position

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control systems.

2.1.1 Variable Reluctance Motor

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Figure 2.1 shows the construction of Variable Reluctance motor. The cylindrical rotor is
made of soft steel and has four poles as shown in Fig.2.1. It has four rotor teeth, 90⁰ apart

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and six stator poles, 60⁰ apart. Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator

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coils in sequence. It attracts the metal rotor. When the windings are energized in a

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reoccurring sequence of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the motor will rotate in a 30⁰ step angle. In the

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non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in the air gap, as the stator is an
electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft iron; hence, there is no detent torque. This type
of stepper motor is called a variable reluctance stepper.
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Fig. 2.1 Variable reluctance stepper motor

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2.1.2 Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor

In this type of motor, the rotor is a permanent magnet. Unlike the other stepping motors, the PM
motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at a right angle to its axis. Figure 2.2
shows a simple, 90⁰ PM motor with four phases (A-D). Applying current to each phase in
sequence will cause the rotor to rotate by adjusting to the changing magnetic fields. Although it
operates at fairly low speed, the PM motor has a relatively high torque characteristic. These are
low cost motors with typical step angle ranging between 7.5⁰ to 15⁰.

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Fig. 2.2 Permanent magnet stepper

2.1.3 Hybrid stepper motor

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Hybrid stepping motors combine a permanent magnet and a rotor with metal teeth to provide
features of the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors together. The number of

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rotor pole pairs is equal to the number of teeth on one of the rotor's parts. The hybrid motor
stator has teeth creating more poles than the main poles windings (Fig. 2.3).

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ww Fig. 2.3 Hybrid stepper

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Rotation of a hybrid stepping motor is produced in the similar fashion as a permanent
magnet stepping motor, by energizing individual windings in a positive or negative direction.

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When a winding is energized, north and south poles are created, depending on the polarity of
the current flowing. These generated poles attract the permanent poles of the rotor and also

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the finer metal teeth present on rotor. The rotor moves one step to align the offset

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magnetized rotor teeth to the corresponding energized windings. Hybrid motors are more

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expensive than motors with permanent magnets, but they use smaller steps, have greater
torque and maximum speed.

Step angle of a stepper motor is given by rin

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Advantages of stepper motors:
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• Low cost
• Ruggedness
• Simplicity of construction
• Low maintenance
• Less likely to stall or slip
• Will work in any environment
• Excellent start-stop and reversing responses

Disadvantages of stepper motors:

• Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
• Limited speed

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• During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise occur when
running at high speed.

2.2 Servomotor
Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that produce precise degrees of rotation.
A servo motor is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor combined with a position sensing
device. Servomotors are also called control motors as they are involved in controlling a
mechanical system. The servomotors are used in a closed-loop servo system as shown in
Figure 4.2.4. A reference input is sent to the servo amplifier, which controls the speed of the

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resolver. This device changes mechanical motion into electrical signals and is used as a

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feedback. This feedback is sent to the error detector, which compares the actual operation
with that of the reference input. If there is an error, that error is fed directly to the amplifier,

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which will be used to make necessary corrections in control action. In many servo systems,
both velocity and position are monitored. Servomotors provide accurate speed, torque, and
have ability of direction control.
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Fig. 2.4 Servo system block diagram

2.3 DC servomotors

DC operated servomotors are usually respond to error signal abruptly and accelerate the load
quickly. A DC servo motor is actually an assembly of four separate components, namely:

• DC motor
• gear assembly
• position-sensing device
• control circuit

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2.4 AC servo motor

In this type of motor, t he magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and current which
further produce the torque. It has no brushes so there is little noise/vibration. This motor provides
high precision control with the help of high resolution encoder. The stator is composed of a core
and a winding. The rotor part comprises of shaft, rotor core and a permanent magnet. Digital
encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. It gives digital signals, which are in proportion of
rotation of the shaft.

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Advantages of servo motors
• Provides high intermittent torque, high torque to inertia ratio, and high speeds
• Work well for velocity control

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• Available in all sizes
• Quiet in operation

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• Smoother rotation at lower speeds

Disadvantages of servo motors

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More expensive than stepper motors
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Require tuning of control loop parameters
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Not suitable for ha zardous environments or in vacuum
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Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization of DC type servo motor

2.5. DC Motor
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DC Motors are electromechanical devices which use the interaction of magnetic fields and

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conductors to convert the electrical energy into rotary mechanical energy Electrical DC
Motors are continuous actuators that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. The t
DC motor achieves this by producing a continuous angular rotation that can be used to rotate
pumps, fans, compressors, wheels, etc. As well as conventional rotary DC motors, linear
motors are also available which are capable of producing a continuous liner movement.

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Fig. 2.5 A Typical Small DC Motor

DC Motor or Direct Current Motor to give it its full title, is the most commonly used

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actuator for producing continuous movement and whose speed of rotation can easily be
controlled, making them ideal for use in applications were speed control, servo type control,

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and/or positioning is required. A DC motor consists of two parts, a “Stator” which is the
stationary part and a “Rotor” which is the rotating part. The result is that there are basically

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three types of DC Motor available.

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Brushed Motor – This type of motor produces a magnetic field in a wound rotor (the
part that rotates) by passing an electrical current through a commutator and carbon brush

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assembly, hence the term “Brushed”. The stators (the stationary part) magnetic field is

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produced by using either a wound stator field winding or by permanent

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magnets.Generally brushed DC motors are cheap, small and easily controlled.
Brushless Motor – This type of motor produce a magnetic field in the rotor by using

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permanent magnets attached to it and commutation is achieved electronically. They are

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generally smaller but more expensive than conventional brushed type DC motors because
they use “Hall effect” switches in the stator to produce the required stator field rotational
sequence but they have better torque/speed characteristics, are more efficient and have a
t
longer operating life than equivalent brushed types.
Servo Motor – This type of motor is basically a brushed DC motor with some form of

positional feedback control connected to the rotor shaft. They are connected to and controlled by
a PWM type controller and are mainly used in positional control systems and radio controlled
models.
Normal DC motors have almost linear characteristics with their speed of rotation being
determined by the applied DC voltage and their output torque being determined by the current

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flowing through the motor windings. The speed of rotation of any DC motor can be varied from
a few revolutions per minute (rpm) to many thousands of revolutions per minute making them
suitable for electronic, automotive or robotic applications. By connecting them to gearboxes or
gear-trains their output speed can be decreased while at the same time increasing the torque
output of the motor at a high speed.
The “Brushed” DC Motor
A conventional brushed DC Motor consist basically of two parts, the stationary body of the
motor called the Stator and the inner part which rotates producing the movement called the
Rotor or “Armature” for DC machines.

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The motors wound stator is an electromagnet circuit which consists of electrical coils connected

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together in a circular configuration to produce the required North-pole then a South-pole then a
North-pole etc, type stationary magnetic field system for rotation, unlike AC machines whose

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stator field continually rotates with the applied frequency. The current
which flows within these field coils is known as the motor field current. These electromagnetic

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coils which form the stator field can be electrically connected in series, parallel or both together

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(compound) with the motors armature. A series wound DC motor has its stator field windings

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connected in series with the armature. Likewise, a shunt wound DC motor has its stator field
windings connected in parallel with the armature.
Conventional (Brushed) DC Motor
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The Permanent magnet (PMDC) brushed DC motor is generally much smaller and cheaper
than its equivalent wound stator type DC motor cousins as they have no field winding. In

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permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motors these field coils are replaced with strong rare earth
(i.e. Samarium Cobolt, or Neodymium Iron Boron) type magnets which have very high t
magnetic energy fields.
The use of permanent magnets gives the DC motor a much better linear speed/torque
characteristic than the equivalent wound motors because of the permanent and sometimes very
strong magnetic field, making them more suitable for use in models, robotics and servos.
Although DC brushed motors are very efficient and cheap, problems associated with the brushed
DC motor is that sparking occurs under heavy load conditions between the two surfaces of the
commutator and carbon brushes resulting in self generating heat, short life span and electrical
noise due to sparking, which can damage any semiconductor switching device such as a

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MOSFET or transistor. To overcome these disadvantages, Brushless DC Motors were

developed.
The “Brushless” DC Motor
The brushless DC motor (BDCM) is very similar to a permanent magnet DC motor, but does
not have any brushes to replace or wear out due to commutator sparking. Therefore, little heat is
generated in the rotor increasing the motors life. The design of the brushless motor eliminates the
need for brushes by using a more complex drive circuit were the rotor magnetic field is a
permanent magnet which is always in synchronisation with the stator field allows for a more
precise speed and torque control.

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Then the construction of a brushless DC motor is very similar to the AC motor making it a true

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synchronous motor but one disadvantage is that it is more expensive than an equivalent
“brushed” motor design.

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The control of the brushless DC motors is very different from the normal brushed DC motor,
in that it this type of motor incorporates some means to detect the rotors angular position (or

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magnetic poles) required to produce the feedback signals required to control the semiconductor
switching devices. The most common position/pole sensor is the “Hall Effect

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Sensor”, but some motors also use optical sensors.
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Using Hall effect sensors, the polarity of the electromagnets is switched by the motor control

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drive circuitry. Then the motor can be easily synchronized to a digital clock signal, providing

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precise speed control. Brushless DC motors can be constructed to have, an external permanent
magnet rotor and an internal electromagnet stator or an internal permanent magnet rotor and an
external electromagnet stator.
e
Advantages of the Brushless DC Motor compared to its “brushed” cousin is higher efficiencies,
high reliability, low electrical noise, good speed control and more importantly,
t
no brushes or commutator to wear out producing a much higher speed. However, their
disadvantage is that they are more expensive and more complicated to control.
2.6 SELECTION CRITERIAN FOR ACTUATORS
Selection Criteria
The selection of the proper actuator is more complicated than selection of the sensors,
primarily due to their effect on the dynamic behaviour of the overall system. Furthermore,
the selection of the actuator dominates the power needs and the coupling mechanisms of the
entire system.

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The coupling mechanism can sometimes be completely avoided if the actuator provides the
output that can be directly interfaced to the physical system. For example, choosing a linear
motor in place of a rotary motor can eliminate the need of a coupling mechanism to convert
rotary motion to linear motion.
In general, the following performance parameters must be addressed before choosing an
actuator for a specific need:
1. Continuous power output—the maximum force/torque attainable continuously without
exceeding the temperature limits
2. Range of motion—the range of linear/rotary motion
3. Resolution—the minimum increment of force/torque attainable

ww 4. Accuracy—Linearity of the relationship between the input and output

w.E
5. Peak force/torque—the force/torque at which the actuator stalls
6. Heat dissipation—Maximum wattage of heat dissipation in continuous operation

asy
7. Speed characteristics—Force/torque versus speed relationship

En
8. No load speed—typical operating speed/velocity with no external load
9. Frequency response—the range of frequency over which the output follows the input
faithfully, applicable to linear actuators
gi nee
10. Power requirement—Type of power (AC or DC), number of phases, voltage level, and
current capacity In addition to the above-referred criteria, many other factors become

rin
important depending upon the type of power and the coupling mechanism required.

g.n
For example, if a rack- and-pinion coupling mechanism is chosen, the backlash and friction
will affect the resolution of the actuating unit

e t

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UNIT II BUILDING BLOCKS OF A ROBOT

2.7 Robot Sensors

Sensors are devices for sensing and measuring geometric and physical properties of robots and the
surrounding environment
– Position, orientation, velocity, acceleration
– Distance, size
– Force, moment
– Temperature, luminance, weight

2.7.1 Desirable features of Sensors:

ww
1. Accuracy
Accuracy should be high. How close output to the true value is the accuracy of the
device.
2. Precision
w.E
There should not be any variations in the sensed output over a period of time precisionof
the sensor should be high.
3. Operating Range asy
En
Sensor should have wide range of operation and should be accurate and precise over this
entire range.
4. Speed of Response

gin
Should be capable of responding to the changes in the sensed variable in minimum time.
5. Calibration

e
Sensor should be easy to calibrate time and trouble required to calibrate should be
minimum. It should not require frequent recalibration.
eri
ng.
6. Reliability
It should have high reliability. Frequent failure should not happen.
7. Cost and Ease of operation

easy and should not required skilled or highly trained persons.

Examples of Sensors:
net
Cost should be as low as possible, installation, operation and maintenance should be

Potentiometers
Thermocouples, thermistors.
Strain gauge
Load cell
Infrared sensors
LVDT
Pyrometers
Pizeo electric devices
Pressure Transducers
Vision and voice sensors.

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Robotic Sensors

Static Sensors Environmental Sensors

Force, Position, Velocity, Motion,Force,Torque
Acceleration touch,tactile

ww Contact Sensors Non Contact Sensors

w.E Force, temperature, PH Vision, optical, range,

Chemical

asy
En
There are generally two categories of sensors used in robotics; these are for internal

gin
purposes, and those for external purposes. Internal sensors are used to monitor and control
the various joints of the robot; they form a feedback control loop with the robot controller.

e eri
Examples of internal sensors include potentiometers and optical encoders, while tachometers
of various types can be deployed to control the speed of the robot arm. External sensors are

ng.
external to the robot itself, and are used when we wish to controlthe operations of the

simple devices, such as limit switches that determine whether a part has been positioned
properly, or whether a part is ready to be picked up from an unloading bay.
net
robotwith other pieces of equipment in the robotic work cell. External sensors can be relatively

ROBOTIC SENSORS For certain robot application, the type of workstation control
using interlocks is not adequate the robot must take on more human like senses and
capabilities in order to perform the task in a satisfactory way these senses and capability
includes vision and hand eye coordination, touch, hearing accordingly we will dived the types
of sensors used in robotics into the following three categories.

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A number of advanced sensor technologies may also be used; these are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1: Advanced sensor technologies for robotics

Sensor Type Description

Used to determine whether contact is made between sensor and another

object. Two types: touch sensors—which indicate when contact is made, and
Tactile sensors
no more; and force sensors—which indicate the magnitude of the force with
the object.

Used to determine how close an object is to the sensor. Also called a range
Proximity sensors
sensor.

Photocells and other photometric devices that are used to detect the presence
Optical sensors or absence of objects. Often used in conjunction to proximity sensors.

ww
w.E
Machine vision
Used in robotics for inspection, parts identification, guidance, and other
uses.

Others
asy
Miscellaneous category of sensors may also be used; including devices for
measuring: temperature, fluid pressure, fluid flow, electrical voltage,
current, and other physical properties.

En
2.7.2 Range sensor:
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e
Ranging sensors include sensors that require no physical contact with the object being

eri
detected. They allow a robot to see an obstacle without actually having to come into contact

ng.
with it. This can prevent possible entanglement, allow for better obstacle avoidance (over
touch- feedback methods), and possibly allow software to distinguish between obstacles of

net
different shapes and sizes. There are several methods used to allow a sensor to detect obstacles
from a distance.

Light-based ranging sensors use multiple methods for detecting obstacles and
determining range. The simplest method uses the intensity of the reflected light from an
obstacle to estimate distance. However, this can be significantly affected by the
color/reflectivity of the obstacle and external light sources. A more common method is touse
a beam of light projectedat an angle and a strip of detectors spaced away from the emitter as in
the animation to the right. The pictured Sharp sensor uses this method. This method is less
affected by the color/reflectivity of the object and ambient light.

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LIDAR, a more advanced method of range detection, uses a laser that is swept across
the sensor's field of view. The reflected laser light is usually analyzed one of two ways. Units
with longer ranges sometimes actually determine distance by measuring the time it takes for
the laser pulse to return to the sensor. This requires extremely fast timing circuitry.
Another method uses phase shift detection to determine range by analyzing the incoming
light and comparing it toa reference signal.
Working principle
– Triangulation: Use the triangle formed by the travelling path of the signal to calculate the
distance

ww
Time-of-flight: Use the time of flight of the signals to measure the distance

w.E
Typical range sensors
– Infra-red range sensor (triangulation)
– Ultrasonic sensors (time-of-flight)

asy
– Laser range sensor (triangulation)
Ultrasonic Sensors
En
gi
Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to 20kHz)
– Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is detected.

nee
– Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor
D=v*t
rin
g.n
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of propagation (340 m/s)
t = elapsed time
Applications:
– Distance Measurement
e t
– Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the proximity of objects surrounding the robot)
Limitations of Ultrasonic Sensors
• Background noises: If there are other ultrasonic sources, the sensor may detect signals emitted
by another source.
• The speed of sound varies with air temperature and pressure – a 16 degree centigrade
temperature change can cause a 30cm error at 10m!

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• Cross-talk problem: If a robot has more than one ultrasonic sensor, measurement ranges
intersect, a sensor may receive signals emitted by others.
• Poor surface reflection: Surface materials absorb ultrasonic waves.
• Surface orientation affects the reflection of ultrasonic signals.
2.7.3 Tactile sensor
Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to respond to contact forces
between itself and other objects within its work volume. Tactile sensors can be divided into
twotypes:
1. Touch sensors

ww 2. Stress sensors

w.E
Touch sensors are used simply to indicate whether contact has been made with an
object. A simple micro switch can serve the purpose of a touch sensor. Stress sensors are

asy
used to measure the magnitude of the contact force. Strain gauge devices are typically
employed in force measuring sensors. Potential use of robots with tactile sensing capabilities

En
would be in assembly and inspection operations. In assembly, the robot could perform

gi
delicate part alignment and joining operations. In inspection, touch sensing would be used
in gaugingoperations and dimensional measuring activities.

nee
2.7.4 Proximity sensor
rin
g.n
Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is close to another object. On a
robot, the proximity sensors would be located n or near the end effectors. This sensing

e
capability can be engineered by means of optical proximity devices, eddy-current proximity
detectors, magnetic field sensors, or other devices. In robotics, proximity sensors might be
used to indicate the presence or absence of a work part or other object. They could also be
t
helpful in preventing injury to the robots human coworkers in the factory.

2.7.5 Optical or Infrared Light-Based sensors

This is one of the areas that is receiving a lot of attention in robotics research
computerized visions systems will be an important technology in future automated factories.
Robot vision is made possible by means of video camera a sufficient light source and
acomputer programmed to process image data. The camera is mounted either on the robot
or in a fixed position above the robot so that its field of vision includes the robots

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work volume. The computer software enables the vision system to sense the presence of an
object and its position and orientation. Vision capability would enable the robot to carry out
the following kinds of operations. Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented on a conveyor
Recognize particular parts which are intermixed with other objects Perform assembly
operations which requirealignment.
Another very popular method uses projected light waves, usually infrared, to detect
obstacles. This system projects a pulse of light and looks for the reflection. Properties of the
reflected light are analyzed to determine characteristics about the object detected. Light has
the advantages of traveling extremely fast, allowing for fast sensor response time, high

ww
resolution, and less error to account for. Light from this type of sensor is often formed into

w.E
a narrow beam or many times a laser is used. This provides good resolution over large
distances.

2.7.6 Proximity sensors

asy
The simplest light-based obstacle sensor projects a light and looks for a reflection of

En
certain strength. If the reflection is strong enough, it can be inferred that an obstacle lies within

resolution to the sensor as in the figures. gi

a certain range of the sensor. Multiple light sources can be pulsed on in sequence to give some

nee
2.7.7 Voice sensors
rin
Another area of robotics research is voice sensing or voice programming. Voice

g.n
programming can be defined as the oral communication of commands to the robot or other

e
machine. The robot controller is equipped with a speech recognition system which analyzes
the voice input and compares it with a set of stored word patterns when a match is found
between the input and the stored vocabulary word the robot performs some actions which
t
corresponds to the word. Voice sensors could be useful in robot programming to speed up
the programming procedure just as it does in NC programming. It would also be beneficial
in especially in hazardous working environments for performing unique operations such as
maintenance and repair work. The robot could be placed in hazardous environment and
remotely commanded to perform the repair chores by means of step by step instructions.

Internal sensor

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Internal sensors measure the robot's internal state. They are used to measure its position,
velocityand acceleration.
2.7.8 Position sensor

Position sensors measure the position of a joint (the degree to which the joint is extended).
Theyinclude:
 Encoder: a digital optical device that converts motion into a sequence of digital pulses.

ww Potentiometer: a variable resistance device that expresses linear or angular displacements

in terms of voltage.


w.E
Linear variable differential transformer: a displacement transducer that provides high
accuracy. It generates an AC signal whose magnitude is a function of the displacement
ofa moving core.
asy
 Synchronous and Resolvers
En
2.7.9 Velocity Sensor
gi nee
A velocity or speed sensor measures consecutive position measurements at known
intervals andcomputes the time rate of change in the position values.
rin
2.7.10 Acceleration Sensors: g.n
Accelerometer
e t
An accelerometer measures acceleration (change in speed) of anything that it's
mounted on. How does it work? Inside an accelerator MEMS device are tiny micro- structures
that bend due to momentum and gravity. When it experiences any form of acceleration, these
tiny structures bend by an equivalent amount which can be electrically detected. Today,
accelerometers are easily and cheaply available, making it a very viable sensor for cheap
roboticshobbyists like you and me

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Applications for Accelerometers are very important in the sensor world because they
can sense such a wide range of motion. They're used in the latest Apple Power books (and
other laptops) to detect when the computer's suddenly moved or tipped, so the hard drive can
be lockedup during movement. They're used in cameras, to control image stabilization
functions. They're used in pedometers, gait meters, and other exercise and physical therapy
devices. They're used ingaming controls to generate tilt data. They're used in automobiles, to
control airbag release when there's a sudden stop. There are countless other applications for
them.

ww
Possible uses for accelerometers in robotics:



w.E
Self balancing robots
Tilt-mode game controllers



Alarm systems asy
Model airplane auto pilot



Collision detection
Human motion monitoring
En


Leveling sensor, inclinometer
gi
Vibration Detectors for Vibration Isolators
G-Force Detectors
nee
Axis of acceleration

rin
g.n
The tiny micro-structures can only measure force in a single direction, or axis of
acceleration. This means with a single axis measured, you can only know the force in either

e
the X, Y, or Z directions, but not all. So if say your X-axis accelerometer endowed robot was
running around and ran into a wall (in the X direction). Your robot could detect this t
collision.But if say another robot rammed into it from the side (the Y direction), your robot
would be oblivious to it. There are many other situations where a single axis would not be
enough. It is always a good idea to have at least 2 axes (more than one axis).

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ww
w.E
asy
Gravity En
gi nee
Gravity is acceleration. Your accelerometer will always be subject to a -9.81 m/s^2
acceleration (negative means towards the ground). Because of this, your robot can detect what

rin
angle it is in respect to gravity. If your robot is a biped, and you want it to always remain

g.n
balanced and standing up, just simply use a 2-axis accelerometer. As long as the X and Y axes
detect zero acceleration, this means your robot device is perfectly level and balanced.

e
Accelerometers, Rated G When you buy your accelerometer, you will notice it saying
something like 'rated at 2g' or '3g accelerometer.' This is the maximum g force your sensor t
can report. Gravity accelerates objects at 1g, or 9.81 m/s^2. For example, if your robot is
moving at 1g upwards, then that means you sensor will detect 2g. For most robotics
applications a 2g rating will be fine. So why not just get the highest rating possible? The lower
the rating, the more sensitive it will be to changes in motion. You will always have a finer
tuned sensor the lower the rating. But then again, more sensitive sensors are more affected by
vibration interference.

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ww
Chances are you would have no need to measure the force, but if you reverse the

w.E
equation youcan calculate the angle by knowing the angleAvailability and cost.
The MEMS IC's are easily available and very affordable. However they all require

asy
support circuitry and come as surface mounts. I highly discourage buying an IC and doing

En
your own wiring. However there are many already setup accelerometer packages you can buy.
For example, Dimension Engineering has a great plug and play dual axis accelerometer which

gi
requires no additional support circuitry. There are several other great sensors out there, some

nee
as a3-axis, and now some even with built in rotation sensor.

rin
Wiring Requirements Any accelerometer package will have a power and ground

g.n
line, anda single output analog pin for each axis of acceleration. Some of the sensors come
with additional features/pins, read their datasheets. Additional Tips and Uses Placing an

e
accelerometer on a mobile robot that experiences bumps can trigger the accelerometer
unintentionally. Use a capacitor to smooth out output over several hundred milliseconds t
(testing required) to prevent this. Also, read the interpret sensor data tutorial to enhance your
accelerator sensor accuracy.

2.7.11 Touch, Force, Torque:

A tactile sensor is a device that measures information arising from physical interaction
with its environment. Tactile sensors are generally modeled after the biological sense of
coetaneous touch which is capable of detecting stimuli resulting from mechanical stimulation,
temperature, and pain (although pain sensing is not common in

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artificial tactile sensors). Tactile sensors are used in robotics, computer hardware and security
systems. A common application of tactile sensors is in touch screen devices on mobile phones
and computing.
Tactile sensors may be of different types including piezoresistive, piezoelectric,
capacitive and elasto-resistive sensors
Force Sensors (Force Transducers) There are many types of force sensors, usually
referred to as torque cells (to measure torque) and load cells (to measure force).

Force transducers are devices useful in directly measuring torques and forces within your

ww
mechanical system. In order to get the most benefit from a force transducer, you must have
a basic understanding of the technology, construction, and operation of this unique device.

w.E
Forces can be measured by measuring the deflection of an elastic element.
Strain gauges: Most common sensing elements of force. It converts the deformation to the change of

asy
its resistance. Gauge resistance varies from 30 to 3K, corresponding to deformation from 30µm to 100 µm.
Shaft torque is measured with strain gauges mounted on a shaft with specially designed cross-
section.
En
gi
2.7.12 Position Measurement
• An optical encoder is to measure the rotational angle of a motor shaft.

nee
• It consists of a light beam, a light detector, and a rotating disc with a radial grating on its surface.
• The grating consists of black lines separated by clear spaces. The widths of the lines and spaces are the
same.
rin
– Line: cut the beam and hence a low signal output
– Space: allow the beam to pass and hence a high signal output g.n
• A train of pulses is generated with rotation of the disc.
By counting the pulses, it is possible to know the rotational angle. e t

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ww
w.E

UNIT 3a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

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UNIT III KINEMATICS, DYNAMICS AND DESIGN OF ROBOTS & END-EFFECTORS

3.1 ROBOT KINEMATICS

Robot kinematics applies geometry to the study of the movement of multi-degree of

freedom kinematic chains that form the structure of robotic systems. The emphasis on geometry means
that the links of the robot are modeled as rigid bodies and its joints are assumed to provide pure
rotation or translation.

Robot kinematics studies the relationship between the dimensions and connectivity of
kinematic chains and the position, velocity and acceleration of each of the links in the robotic system, in

ww
order to plan and control movement and to compute actuator forces and torques. The relationship
between mass and inertia properties, motion, and the associated forces and torques is studied as part

w.E
of robot dynamics. The robot kinematics concepts related to both open and closed kinematics chains.
Forward kinematics is distinguished from inverse kinematics.

SERIAL MANIPULATOR:

asy
Serial manipulators are the most common industrial robots. They are designed as a series of

En
links connected by motor-actuated joints that extend from a base to an end-effector. Often they have
an anthropomorphic arm structure described as having a "shoulder", an "elbow", and a "wrist". Serial

gi
robots usually have six joints, because it requires at least six degrees of freedom to place a manipulated

nee
object in an arbitrary position and orientation in the workspace of the robot. A popular application for
serial robots in today's industry is the pick-and-place assembly robot, called a SCARA robot, which has
four degrees of freedom.

rin
g.n
e t

Fig 3.1 SCARA robot

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STRUCTURE:

In its most general form, a serial robot consists of a number of rigid links connected with joints.
Simplicity considerations in manufacturing and control have led to robots with only revolute or prismatic
joints and orthogonal, parallel and/or intersecting joint axes the inverse kinematics of serial
manipulators with six revolute joints, and with three consecutive joints intersecting, can be solved in
closed-form, i.e. analytically this result had a tremendous influence on the design of industrial robots.

The main advantage of a serial manipulator is a large workspace with respect to the size of the
robot and the floor space it occupies. The main disadvantages of these robots are:

 The low stiffness inherent to an open kinematic structure,

ww  Errors are accumulated and amplified from link to link,

 The fact that they have to carry and move the large weight of most of the actuators, and

w.E
 The relatively low effective load that they can manipulate.

asy
En
gi nee
rin
PARALLEL MANIPULATOR:
Fig.3.2 Serial manipulator with six DOF in a kinematic chain
g.n
e
A parallel manipulator is a mechanical system that uses several computer-controlled serial
chains to support a single platform, or end-effector. Perhaps, the best known parallel manipulator is t
formed from six linear actuators that support a movable base for devices such as flight simulators. This
device is called a Stewart platform or the Gough-Stewart platform in recognition of the engineers who
first designed and used them.

Also known as parallel robots, or generalized Stewart platforms (in the Stewart platform, the
actuators are paired together on both the basis and the platform), these systems are articulated
robots that use similar mechanisms for the movement of either the robot on its base, or one or
more manipulator arms. Their 'parallel' distinction, as opposed to a serial manipulator, is that the end
effector (or 'hand') of this linkage (or 'arm') is connected to its base by a number of (usually three or six)
separate and independent linkages working in parallel. 'Parallel' is used here in the computer
science sense, rather than the geometrical; these linkages act together, but it is not implied that they

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are aligned as parallel lines; here parallel means that the position of the end point of each linkage is
independent of the position of the other linkages.

ww Fig: 3.3 Abstract render of a Hexapod platform (Stewart Platform)

w.E
Forward Kinematics:

asy
It is used to determine where the robot’s hand, if all joint variables are known)

Inverse Kinematics:

En
It is used to calculate what each joint variable, if we desire that the hand be located at a particular
point.

3.2 ROBOTS AS MECHANISMS gi nee

rin
g.n
e t
Fig 3.4 a one-degree-of-freedom closed-loop (a) Closed-loop versus (b) open-loop mechanism Four-bar
mechanism

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MATRIX REPRESENTATION

Representation of a Point in Space

A point P in space: 3 coordinate relative to a reference frame

^ ^ ^

ww P  ax i by j cz k

w.E
asy
En
Fig. 3.5 Representation of a point in space

Representation of a Vector in Space gi nee

A Vector P in space: 3 coordinates of its tail and of its head

 rin


 g.n
__ ^

e
^

P  ax i by j cz k
^

t
Fig. 3.6 Representation of a vector in space
 x 
__  y 
P   
 z 
 
w
 

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Representation of a Frame at the Origin of a Fixed-Reference Frame

Each Unit Vector is mutually perpendicular: normal, orientation, approach vector

nx ox ax 
F  n o a  
 y y y
 nz oz az  





ww


w.EFig. 3.7 Representation of a frame at the origin of the reference frame

asy
Representation of a Frame in a Fixed Reference Frame

En
Each Unit Vector is mutually perpendicular: normal, orientation, approach vector

gi nee
rin
g.n
e t
Fig. 3.8 Representation of a frame in a frame

nx ox ax Px 
n o a P 
y 
F y y y
nz oz az Pz 
 
0 0 0 1 

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Representation of a Rigid Body

An object can be represented in space by attaching a frame to it and representing the frame in space.

ww
w.E
asy
Fig. 3.9 Representation of an object in space

nx ox ax
En
Px 
P 
gi
n o a
y 
Fobject   y y y

n
 z
0
oz
0
az
0
Pz 

1  nee


rin
3.3 HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATION MATRICES

g.n
Transformation matrices must be in square form. It is much easier to calculate the inverse of square
matrices. To multiply two matrices, their dimensions must match.

Representation of a Pure Translation

e t
 A transformation is defined as making a movement in space.
 A pure translation.
 A pure rotation about an axis.
 A combination of translation or rotations

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ww Fig. 3.10 Representation of a pure translation in space

w.E 1
0
T  
0 0 d x 
1 0 d 
y
0

0 asy
0 1 d z 
0 0 1 



En
gi
Representation of a Pure Rotation about an Axis

nee
Assumption: The frame is at the origin of the reference frame and parallel to it.

rin
g.n
e t

Fig. 3.11 Coordinates of a point in a rotating frame before and after rotation

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ww
w.E
asy
Fig. 3.12 Coordinates of a point relative to the reference

Representation of Combined Transformations En

gi
A number of successive translations and rotations

nee
rin
g.n
e t

Fig. 3.13 Effects of three successive transformations

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ww
w.E
asy
Fig 3.14 changing the order of transformations will change the final result

E
Transformations Relative to the Rotating Frame
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t
Fig. 3.15 Transformations relative to the current frames

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UNIT III KINEMATICS, DYNAMICS AND DESIGN OF ROBOTS & END-EFFECTORS

3.4 KINEMATICS EQUATIONS:

A fundamental tool in robot kinematics is the kinematics equations of the kinematic chains that
form the robot. These non-linear equations are used to map the joint parameters to the configuration of
the robot system. Kinematics equations are also used in biomechanics of the skeleton and computer
animation of articulated characters.

Forward kinematics uses the kinematic equations of a robot to compute the position of the end-
effector from specified values for the joint parameters. The reverse process that computes the joint
parameters that achieve a specified position of the end-effector is known as inverse kinematics. The

ww
dimensions of the robot and its kinematics equations define the volume of space reachable by the
robot, known as its workspace.

w.E
There are two broad classes of robots and associated kinematics equations serial
manipulators and parallel manipulators. Other types of systems with specialized kinematics equations
are air, land, and submersible mobile robots, hyper-redundant, or snake, robots and humanoid robots.

asy
3.5 DENAVIT-HARTENBERG PARAMETERS:

En
The Denavit–Hartenberg parameters (also called DH parameters) are the four parameters

chain, or robot manipulator.

Denavit-Hartenberg convention:
gi
associated with a particular convention for attaching reference frames to the links of a spatial kinematic

nee
rin
A commonly used convention for selecting frames of reference in robotics applications is
the Denavit and Hartenberg (D–H) convention. In this convention, coordinate frames are attached to

g.n
the joints between two links such that one transformation is associated with the joint, [Z], and the
second is associated with the link [X]. The coordinate transformations along a serial robot consisting
of n links form the kinematics equations of the robot,
e t
Where, [T] is the transformation locating the end-link.

In order to determine the coordinate transformations [Z] and [X], the joints connecting the links
are modeled as either hinged or sliding joints, each of which have a unique line S in space that forms the
joint axis and define the relative movement of the two links. A typical serial robot is characterized by a
sequence of six lines Si, i=1,...,6, one for each joint in the robot. For each sequence of lines Si and Si+1,
there is a common normal line Ai,i+1. The system of six joint axes Si and five common normal lines
Ai,i+1 form the kinematic skeleton of the typical six degree of freedom serial robot. Denavit and
Hartenberg introduced the convention that Z coordinate axes are assigned to the joint axes Si and X
coordinate axes are assigned to the common normal’s Ai,i+1.

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This convention allows the definition of the movement of links around a common joint axis Si by
the screw displacement,

Where θi is the rotation around and di is the slide along the Z axis---either of the parameters can be
constants depending on the structure of the robot. Under this convention the dimensions of each link in
the serial chain are defined by the screw displacement around the common normal Ai,i+1 from the joint
Si to Si+1, which is given by

ww
w.E
asy
Where αi,i+1 and ri,i+1 define the physical dimensions of the link in terms of the angle measured around
and distance measured along the X axis.

En
In summary, the reference frames are laid out as follows:

gi
 the -axis is in the direction of the joint axis

 the -axis is parallel to the common normal:

nee If there is no unique common
normal (parallel axes), then (below) is a free parameter. The direction of is from
to , as shown in the video below.
rin
g.n
 the -axis follows from the - and -axis by choosing it to be a right-handed coordinate system.

Four parameters

e t

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The four parameters of classic DH convention are . With those four parameters, we can
translate the coordinates from to .

The transformation the following four parameters known as D–H parameters:

d: offset along previous z to the common normal

θ: angle about previous z, from old x to new x

r: length of the common normal. Assuming a revolute joint, this is the radius about
previous z.

α: angle about common normal, from old z axis to new z axis

ww
There is some choice in frame layout as to whether the previous x axis or the next x points along the

w.E
common normal. The latter system allows branching chains more efficiently, as multiple frames can all
point away from their common ancestor, but in the alternative layout the ancestor can only point
toward one successor. Thus the commonly used notation places each down-chain x axis collinear with

asy
the common normal, yielding the transformation calculations shown below.

En
We can note constraints on the relationships between the axes:


 -axis intersects both
 Origin of joint
gi
-axis is perpendicular to both the
and axes
is at the intersection of
and

nee
and
axes

 completes a right-handed reference frame based on

rin
and

Denavit-Hartenberg Matrix:
g.n
line and a pure rotation about the line,[5][6] so that
e
It is common to separate a screw displacement into the product of a pure translation along a

t
And,

Using this notation, each link can be described by a coordinate transformation from the previous
coordinate system to the next coordinate system.

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Note that this is the product of two screw displacements, the matrices associated with these operations
are:

ww
w.E
asy
En
This gives:
gi nee
rin
g.n
e
Where R is the 3×3 sub matrix describing rotation and T is the 3×1 sub matrix describing translation. t
DENAVIT-HARTENBERG REPRESENTATION OF FORWARD KINEMATIC EQUATIONS OF ROBOT:

Denavit-Hartenberg Representation:

1. Simple way of modeling robot links and joints for any robot configuration, regardless of its
sequence or complexity.
2. Transformations in any coordinates are possible.
3. Any possible combinations of joints and links and all-revolute articulated robots can be
represented

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ww
w.E
asy
En
DENAVIT-HARTENBERG REPRESENTATION PROCEDURES:
gi
Fig 3.16 a D-H representation of a general-purpose joint-link combination

nee
Start point:

 Assign joint number n to the first shown joint. rin

g.n
 Assign a local reference frame for each and every joint before or after these joints.

 Y-axis does not used in D-H representation.

Procedures for assigning a local reference frame to each joint:
e t
All joints are represented by a z-axis. (Right-hand rule for rotational joint, linear movement for prismatic
joint)

 The common normal is one line mutually perpendicular to any two skew lines.
 Parallel z-axes joints make a infinite number of common normal.
 Intersecting z-axes of two successive joints make no common normal between them(Length is
0.).

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Symbol Terminologies:

  : A rotation about the z-axis.

 d : The distance on the z-axis.

 a : The length of each common normal (Joint offset).

  : The angle between two successive z-axes (Joint twist)

Only  and d are joint variables

The necessary motions to transform from one reVference frame to the next.

ww I) Rotate about the zn-axis an able of n+1. (Coplanar)

w.E
II) Translate along zn-axis a distance of dn+1 to make xn and xn+1 colinear.

III) Translate along the xn-axis a distance of an+1 to bring the origins of xn+1 together.

asy
IV) Rotate zn-axis about xn+1 axis an angle of n+1 to align zn-axis with zn+1-axis.

En
Determine the value of each joint to place the arm at a desired position and orientation.

R
T AA AA AA
H 1 2 3 4 5 6
gi nee
rin
g.n
e t

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UNIT 4a syE
ngi
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Unit IV Navigation, Path Planning and Control Architecture

4.1 Localization and Navigation

Robot localization is the process of determining where a mobile robot is
located with respect to its environment. Localization is one of the most
fundamental competencies required by an autonomous robot as the knowledge
of the robot's own location is an essential precursor to making decisions about
future actions.
Encoder: an encoder is a sensing device that provides feedback. Encoders

ww
convert motion to an electrical signal that can be read by some type of control
device in a motion control system, such as a counter or PLC. The encoder sends

w .Ea
a feedback signal that can be used to determine position, count, speed, or
direction. A control device can use this information to send a command for a
particular function. syE
Position prediction:
ngi
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The robot then collects actual sensor data and extracts appropriate features (e.g.
lines, doors, or even the value of a specific sensor) in the observation step. At

rin
the same time, based on its predicted position in the map, the robot generates a
measurement prediction which identifies the features that therobot expects to
g.n
find and the positions of those features.
Observation:
et
The observation is the result of a feature extraction process executed on the raw
sensor data.

Matching:
In matching the robot identifies the best pairings between the features actually
extracted during observation and the expected features due to measurement
prediction

The parameters of the features are usually specified in the sensor frame and

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therefore in a local reference frame of the robot. However, for matching we

need to represent the observations and measurement predictions in the same
frame.

Estimation:
Next we compute the best estimate of the robot’s position based on the position
prediction and all the observations.There are two methods for prediction of
position;

Odometry : Use wheel sensors to update position

ww Dead Reckoning: Use wheel sensors and heading sensor to update

w .Ea
position Odometry Error Sources:
 Limited resolution during integration

syE
Unequal wheel diameter


 ngi
Variation in the contact point of the wheel
Unequal floor contact and variable friction can lead to slipping
 nee
Deterministic errors can be eliminated through proper calibration

rin
Non-deterministic errors have to be described by error models and will
always lead to uncertain position estimate.
g.n
From a geometric point of view one can classify the errors into three types:

• Range error:integrated path length (distance) of the robots movement ->

et
sum of the wheel movements
• Turn error: similar to range error, but for turns -> difference of the wheel

motions
• Drift error: difference in the error of the wheels leads to an error in the
robot’s angular orientation

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In navigation, dead reckoning is the process of calculating one's current

position by using a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that
position based upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed time and course.

 Heading sensors can be proprioceptive (gyroscope, inclinometer) or

exteroceptive (compass).

 Used to determine the robots orientation and inclination.

 Allow, together with an appropriate velocity information, to integrate

ww the movement to an position estimate.

w
This procedure is called dead reckoning (ship navigation)

.Ea
4.2 Probabilistic based Localization

syE
There are two classes of probabilistic localization.

ngi
The first class, Markov localization, uses an explicitly specified probability
distribution across all possible robots positions.
nee
rin
The second method, Kalman filter localization, uses a Gaussian probability
density representation of robot position and scan matching for localization.
Unlike Markov localization, Kalman filter localization g.n
does not
independently consider each possible pose in the robot’s configuration space. et
Markov localization allows for localization starting from any unknown
position and can thus recover from ambiguous situations because the robot
can track multiple, completely disparate possible positions. However, to
update the probability of all positions within the whole state space at any time
requires a discrete representation of the space (grid). The required memory
and computational power can thus limit precision and map size.

Kalman filter localization tracks the robot from an initially known position

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and is inherently both precise and efficient. In particular, Kalman filter

localization can be used in continuous world representations. However, if the
uncertainty of the robot becomes too large (e.g. due to a robot collision with
an object) and thus not truly unimodal, the Kalman filter can fail to capture the
multitude of possible robot positions and can become irrevocably lost.

The key difference between the Kalman filter approach and our earlier
Markov localization approach lies in the perception update process. In
Markov localization, the entire perception,i.e. the robot’s set of instantaneous

ww
sensor measurements, is used to update each possible robot position in the
belief state individually using Bayes formula. In some cases, the perception is

w .Ea
abstract, having been produced by a feature extraction mechanism as in
Dervish. In other cases, as with Rhino, the perception consists of raw sensor

syE
readings. By contrast, perception update using a Kalman filter is a multi-step

ngi
process. The robot’s total sensory input is treated, not as a monolithic whole,
but as a set of extracted features that each relate to objects in the environment.

nee
Given a set of possible features, the Kalman filter is used to fuse the distance
estimate from each feature to a matching object in the map. Instead of
rin
carrying out this matching process for many possible robot locations
individually as in the Markov approach, the Kalman filter accomplishes the g.n
same probabilistic update by treating the whole, unimodal and Gaussian
belief state at once.
et
4.3 NAVIGATION:

The specific aspect of cognition directly linked to robust mobility is

navigation competence. Given partial knowledge about its environment and a
goal position or series of positions, navigation encompasses the ability of the
robot to act based on its knowledge and sensor values so as to reach its goal
positions as efficiently and as reliably as possible

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Localization versus Navigation:

In creating a navigation system, it is clear that the mobile robot will need
sensors and a motion control system. Sensors are absolutely required to avoid
hitting moving obstacles such as humans, and some motion control system is
required so that the robot can deliberately move.

Two methods of Navigation:

Behavior based Community:

ww
w
An alternative, espoused by the behavior-based community, suggests that,

.Ea
since sensors and effectors are noisy and information-limited, one should

syE
avoid creating a geometric map for localization.

ngi
This approach avoids explicit reasoning about localization and position, and
thus generally avoids explicit path planning as well.

nee
This technique is based on a belief that there exists a procedural solution to

rin
the particular navigation problem at hand. For example, in Fig. 4.1, the
behavioralistic approach to navigating from Room A to Room B might be to
g.n
design a left-wall-following behavior and a detector for Room B that is
triggered by some unique queue in Room B, such as the color of the carpet.
et
Then, the robot can reach Room B by engaging the left wall follower with the
Room B detector as the termination condition for the program

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ww
Fig.4.1 A Sample environment

w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
Fig. 4.2 An Architecture for Behaviour based (Model based) Navigation et
The architecture of this solution to a specific navigation problem is shown in
figure 4.2. The key advantage of this method is that, when possible, it may be
implemented very quickly for a single environment with a small number of
goal positions.

It suffers from some disadvantages, however. First, the method does not
directly scale to other environments or to larger environments. Often, the
navigation code is location-specific, and the same degree of coding and

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E ngi
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et

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debugging is required to move the robot to a new environment.

In contrast to the behavior-based approach, the map-based approach

includes both localization and cognition modules (see Fig. 4.3). In map-based
navigation, the robot explicitly attempts to localize by collecting sensor data,
then updating some belief about its position with respect to a map of the
environment. The key advantages of the map-based approach for navigation
are as follows:
• The explicit, map-based concept of position makes the system’s belief

ww about position transparently available to the human operators.

w• The existence of the map itself represents a medium for communication

.Ea
between human and robot: the human can simply give the robot a new map if

syE
the robot goes to a new environment.

ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et
Fig. 4.3 An Architecture for Map based (Model based) Navigation

The map, if created by the robot, can be used by humans as well, achieving two
uses. The map-based approach will require more up-front development effort to
create a navigating mobile robot.

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4.4 Simultaneous Localizationand Mapping (SLAM)

The simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) problem asks if it is

possible for a mobile robot to be placed at an unknown location in an unknown
environment and for the robot to incrementally build a consistent map of this
environment while simultaneously determining its location within this map. A
solution to the SLAM problem has been seen as a “holy grail” for the mobile
robotics community as it would provide the means to make a robot truly
ww
autonomous.

w
The “solution” of the SLAM problem has been one of the notable successes of

.Ea
the robotics community over the past decade. SLAM has been formulated and

syE
solved as a theoretical problem in a number of different forms. SLAM has also
been implemented in a number of different domains from indoor robots to

ngi
outdoor, underwater, and airborne systems. At a theoretical and conceptual

nee
level, SLAM can now be considered a solved problem. However, substantial

rin
issues remain in practically realizing more general SLAM solutions and notably in
building and using perceptually rich maps as part of a SLAM algorithm.
g.n
Formulation and Structureof the SLAM Problem et
SLAM is a process by which a mobile robot can build a map of an
environment and at the same time use this map to deduce its location. In
SLAM, both the trajectory of the platform and the location of all landmarks are
estimated online without the need for any a priori knowledge of location.

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ww
SLAM problem. A simultaneous estimate of both robot and landmark locations is required. The true locations are
never known or measured directly. Observations are made between true robot and landmark locations.
Preliminaries
w .Ea
Consider a mobile robot moving through an environment taking relative
observations of a number of unknown landmarks using a sensor located on the

syE
robot as shown in above Figure. At a time instant k, the following quantities are
defined:
ngi
◆xk: the state vector describing the location and orientation of the vehicle
nee
◆uk: the control vector, applied at time k − 1 to drive the vehicle to a state xk at
time k
rin
mi: a vector describing the location of the ith landmark whose true location is
g.n
assumed time invariant
◆zik : an observation taken from the vehicle of the location of the ith landmark et
at time k. When there are multiple landmark observations at any one time or
when the specific landmark is not relevant to the discussion, the observation
will be written simply as zk.
In addition, the following sets are also defined:
◆X0:k = {x0, x1, · · · , xk} = {X0:k−1, xk}: the history of vehicle locations
◆U0:k = {u1, u2, · · · , uk} = {U0:k−1, uk}: the history of control inputs
◆m = {m1,m2, · · · ,mn} the set of all landmarks

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◆ Z0:k = {z1, z2, · · · , zk} = {Z0:k−1, zk} : the set of all landmark
observations.

Probabilistic SLAM
In probabilistic form, the simultaneous localization and map building (SLAM)
problem requires that the probability distribution

P(xk, m|Z 0:k, U0:k, x0) (1)

be computed for all times k. This probability distribution describes the joint

ww
posterior density of the landmark locations and vehicle state (at time k) given

w
the recorded observations and control inputs up to and including time k

.Ea
together with the initial state of the vehicle. In general, a recursive solution to

the |
distribution syE
the SLAM problem is desirable. Starting with an estimate
− for P(xk−1, m Z0:k−1, U0:k−1) at time k-1, the joint

ngi
posterior, following a control uk and observation zk, is computed using Bayes

nee
theorem. This computation requires that a state transition model and an
observation model are defined describing the effect of the control input and
observation respectively. rin
g.n
The observation model describes the probability of making an observation zk
when the vehicle location and landmark locations are known and is generally
described in the form
et
P(zk|xk, m). (2)

It is reasonable to assume that once the vehicle location and map are defined,
observations are conditionally independent given the map and the current
vehicle state.
The motion model for the vehicle can be described in terms of a probability
distribution on state transitions in the form

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P(xk|xk−1, uk) (3)

That is, the state transition is assumed to be a Markov process in which the next
state xk depends only on the immediately preceding state xk−1 and the applied
control uk and is independent of both the observations and the map.
The SLAM algorithm is now implemented in a standard two-step recursive
(sequential) prediction (time-update) correction (measurement-update) form:

ww
w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
Equations (4) and (5) provide a recursive procedure for calculating the joint et
posterior P(xk,m|Z0:k,U0:k, x0) for the robot state xk and map m at a time k
based on all observations Z0:k and all control inputs U0:k up to and including
time k. The recursion is a function of a vehicle model P(xk|xk−1, uk) and an
observation model P(zk|xk,m).
It is worth noting that the map building problem may be formulated as
computing the conditional density P(m|X0:k,Z0:k,U0:k). This assumes that the
location of the vehicle xk is known (or at least deterministic) at all times,

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subject to knowledge of initial location. A map m is then constructed by fusing

observations from different locations.
Conversely, the localization problem may be formulated as computing the
probability distribution P (xk|Z0: k,U0:k,m). This assumes that the landmark
locations are known with certainty, and the objective is to compute an estimate
of vehicle location with respect to these landmarks.

Solutions to the SLAM Problem

Solutions to the probabilistic SLAM problem involve finding an appropriate

ww
representation for both the observation model (2) and motion model (3) that
allows efficient and consistent computation of the prior and posterior
w .Ea
distributions in (4) and (5). By far, the most common representation is in the
form of a state-space model with additive Gaussian noise, leading to the use of
syE
the extended Kalman filter (EKF) to solve the SLAM problem. One important

ngi
alternative representation is to describe the vehicle motion model in (3) as a set

nee
of samples of a more general non- Gaussian probability distribution. This leads
to the use of the Rao-Black wellized particle filter, or Fast SLAM algorithm, to
solve the SLAM problem. While EKF-SLAM and Fast SLAM are the two most
rin
important solution methods, newer alternatives, which offer much potential,
g.n
have been proposed, including the use of the information-state form.
et
4.5 Optimization Algorithms for Robot Navigation
There are many different types of navigation algorithms that a robot may
use to traverse space. Often these algorithms have similar processes but
differ only slightly in different situations. For example, when a robot hits a
dead end, where does it go next? Two different algorithms could have
gotten the robot there using the exact same path, but differ by how they
choose the next step.

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Another way two algorithms could differ is in how they choose the path
back to the original start state after it has found the goal.

There to be three specific situations where there is a major difference

between navigation algorithms when choosing a path. Because of these
situations, we chose to split the algorithms into three different steps.

The first step deals with the generic situation, how to begin and continue
the traversal of unknown space. This step chooses which one of the
neighboring cells to visit.

ww
The second situation is used when the first situation cannot pick an

w
unvisited cell to visit. This occurs when either, all the adjacent unvisited

.Ea
cells are blocked by walls, or if all the adjacent cells have already been

syE
visited. At this point, a decision needs to be made by the robot. It needs to
choose a path to continue its search of the unknown environment.
ngi
nee
The third step is when the robot has found the goal and needs to proceed
back to the initial starting point. There are several different ways that the
robot may choose to return to the origin.
rin
g.n
There are several algorithms implemented for each of the steps. For the first
step there are two different algorithms. One is called “Follow the Right et
Wall.” This consists of the robot following a wall similarly to a person walking
along a path with their hand always touching the wall on that side. A wall can
be substituted with a cell that has already been visited.
The second algorithm implemented for the first step is called “Right Left
Sweep.” This algorithm is similar to “Follow the Right Wall” except when
the robot enters a cell that is adjacent to a boundary wall, the direction
switches. For example, if the robot is currently following the right wall and
enters a cell with a boundary wall the robot would start following the left

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wall. This would continue until it enters another cell that is bordered by a
boundary wall.

The implemented algorithms for the second step are as follows. The first
implementation is called “Find Closest Unvisited Cell.” This algorithm will
consider the cells the robot has not yet been in, and pick the one that is
closest to the robot. The second algorithm is “Find Closest Unvisited Cell
to Start.” This is similar to the first algorithm except that the base reference
point is the start instead of the robot’s current position.
ww
The third algorithmic step, returning to the start after finding the goal, also has

w
multiple implementations. The first implementation is “Assume No Walls.”

.Ea
This is an optimistic path finding algorithm that will plot a path back to the

syE
start assuming that all unknown potential walls will not have walls. If a wall is
found along the return path, a new path needs to be calculated. The second is
ngi
“Assume Walls.” This is a pessimistic algorithm that will plot a path back to

nee
the start using only the information gathered. All the unknowns are assumed to

rin
be a wall when traveling back to the start with this algorithm. A new path will
never need to be calculated because the return path is based upon a path the
g.n
robot knows exists. The third is “Assume Walls Unless Cell is Visited.” This is
in between the previous two algorithms. It will only assume an unknown is not
a wall if the cell it is attempting to enter has already been visited. Otherwise it
et
will assume that all unknowns are walls.

Twelve different algorithms can be created with the different

combinations of the above steps. We number the algorithms for later
reference.

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ww
The results from these tests were split into three different categories. The

w
robot logged the number of bumps, turns and moves it took during the

.Ea
duration of each test. With these different statistics we can apply weights to

syE
each type of movement and anticipate the amount of time it would take
different robots to reach the goal in the same situation. The weights are

ngi
multipliers applied to the different movement types. We used three

nee
different sets of weights against our results, each adding up to a total of 15.
The first weight applied was five on each of the three movement types.

rin
This was to model the robot that takes the same amount of time to do all
three movements. The second is three on one and six on the other two. This
g.n
set demonstrates the robots that are quick at one of the movements and
slower at the other two. The third is nine on one and three on the other two.
et
This weight set describes the robots that are really slow at one of the
movements and fast at the other two movements.

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Unit IV Navigation, Path Planning and Control Architecture

4.6 Cartesian Control Architecture

Parallel manipulators are robotic devices that differ from the more
traditional serial robotic manipulators by their kinematic structure. Parallel
manipulators are composed of multiple closed kinematic loops.

Typically, these kinematic loops are formed by two or more kinematic chains
that connect a moving platform to a base, where one joint in the chain is
actuated and the other joints are passive. This kinematic structure allows

ww
parallel manipulators to be driven by actuators positioned on or near the base of

w.E
the manipulator. In contrast, serial manipulators do not have closed kinematic
loops and are usually actuated at each joint along the serial linkage.

asy
Accordingly, the actuators that are located at each joint along the serial linkage

En
can account for a significant portion of the loading experienced by the

gi
manipulator, whereas the links of a parallel manipulator generally need not

nee
carry the load of the actuators. This allows the parallel manipulator links to be
made lighter than the links of an analogous serial manipulator. The most
rin
noticeable interesting features of parallel mechanisms being:

g.n
High payload capacity, High throughput movements (high accelerations), High
mechanical rigidity, Low moving mass, simple mechanical construction. Actuators
et
can be located on the base.
However, the most noticeable disadvantages being:
• They have smaller workspaces than serial manipulators of similar
size.
• Singularities within working volume.

• High coupling between the moving kinematic chains.

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Cartesian Control in robot manipulators:

In order to understand application of cartesian control in robot manipulators a
case of study will be used, which all the concepts were evaluated. In this
section we will obtain the forward kinematics of a three degrees of freedom
cartesian robot, Figure 4.4; and we will use this information in the following
sections.

ww
w.E
asy
En
Fig. 4.4
gi nee
3 –DOF Cartesian Robot

rin
As it is observed, translation is the unique movement that realizes this kind of
robots, then the forward kinematics are defined as:
g.n
et
---(1)

where q1 , q2, q3 are join displacements; and m1 , m2, m3 represent the masses of
each link.
We can observe, that in the first vector is contemplated only by the first
displacement of value q1 , in the second one considers the movement of
translation in q1 and q2 respecting the axis x and y, and finally the complete
displacement in third axis described in the last vector, being this representation

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the robot forward kinematics.

Jacobian matrix:
The Jacobian matrix J(q) is a multidimensional form of the derivative. This
matrix is used to relate the joint velocity q˙ with the cartesian velocity x˙, based
on this reason we are able to think about Jacobian matrix as mapping velocities
in q to those in x:

ww ------ (2)

w.E
where x˙ is the velocity on cartesian space; q˙ is the velocity in joint space; and

asy
J(q) is the Jacobian matrix of the system.

En
gi
One of the most important quantities (for the purpose of analysis) in (2), is the

nee
Jacobian matrix J(q). It reveals many properties of a system and can be used for

rin
the formulation of motion equations, analysis of special system configurations,
static analysis, motion planning, etc. The robot manipulator’s Jacobian matrix
J(q) is defined as follow: g.n
et

----(3)

where f(q) is the relationship of forward kinematics, equation (3); n is the

dimension of q; and m is the dimension of x. We are interested about finding
what joint velocities q˙ result in given (desired) v. Hence, we need to solve a
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system equations.

Jacobian matrix of the cartesian robot

In order to obtain the Jacobian matrix of the three degrees of freedom
cartesian robot it is necessary to use the forward kinematics which is
defined as:

ww ----(4)

w.E
asy
En
gi nee
rin
g.n
et

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4.7 Force and Hybrid control Architecture

The basic hybrid control idea is an architectural concept that links the
constraints of a task requiring force feedback to the controller design. The
transformation form (C) to the joints of the manipulator is such that, for
the general case, control of one manipulator joint involves every
dimension in (C):

ww Qi =Qi(Xi,X2 XN) ------- (1)

w.E
where: q, = position of/th joint
of manipulator fi, = inverse
a
kinematic function
syE
Xj = position of /'th degree of freedom in {C)
ngi
nee
Therefore in hybrid control the actuator drive signal for each joint

rin
represents that particular joint's instantaneous contribution to satisfying
each positional and each force constraint. The actuator control signal for
the /'th joint has N components - one for each force controlled degree of g.n
freedom in [C], and one for each position controlled degree of freedom:
et

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The compliance selection vector, S, is a binary iV-tuple that specifies

which degrees of freedom in [C\ are under force control (indicated by Sj =
1), and which are under position control (Sj = 0). (In this paper it is
assumed that the number of manipulator joints equals N < 6.)

For example: if S = [0,0, 1,0, l,l]T

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

Fig. 4.5 Conceptual Organisation of Hybrid Cylinder

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Though the total number of active control loops is always N, the

type mix will vary as the task geometry and natural constraints
change.

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
Figure illustrates a hybrid control system that incorporates these ideas.

nee
The two complementary sets of feedback loops (upper-position, lower-

rin
force), each with its own sensory system and control law, are shown here
controlling a common plant, the manipulator. Notice that sensory signals
must be transformed from the coordinate system of the transducer, [q] for g.n
position and [H] for force, into (C) before errors are found and the
compliance selection vector is applied:
et

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ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

In addition to these error-driven control signals, an ideal manipulator

trajectory controller, whether controlling position or force, can include
feed-forward compensation for the nonlinear dynamics that characterize

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the manipulator control problem [8], Such signals take into account the
configuration dependent inertia and gravity forces, state dependent
Coriolis forces, velocity dependent friction forces, and externally
generated hand contact forces. Ideally, when a wrist- mounted force
sensor is used there should also be adjustments for accelerations of the
hand mass present between a wrist sensor and contact surfaces of interest
(including mass of hand held objects or tools).

While each degree of freedom in (C) is controlled by only one loop,

ww
both sets of loops act cooperatively to control each manipulator

w.E
joint. This is the central idea of hybrid control. As is usually the case
when sensing, control, and actuation each take place in different

a syE
coordinate systems, the same sensors and actuators participate in
each "separate" control loop.

ngi
nee
In certain respects, hybrid control is a modification and extension of Paul
and Shimano's compliant control. Both approaches employ a task-related
rin
coordinate system C, both partition [C] into position controlled and force
controlled subspaces, and both given freedom in specifying position and g.n
force trajectories. However, because they pair individual force controlled
joints with individual force constraints in [Cj on each servo cycle,
et
position and force errors result. These errors are corrected on subsequent
cycles by adjusting the position set points differentially. These
adjustments are not necessary for the hybrid approach because each joint
always contributes to control of force and position.

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4.8 BEHAVIOUR BASED CONTROL

Behavioural Mapping

Introduction
For any system we can define a space that includes all the system's
states. We call this space the state space. Each point of the space
represents a different state of the system. The configuration space is an
example of such a space that covers all the geometric position of an n -

ww
degrees-of-freedom system in an Euclidean space .

w.E
Another example is the phase space in which each point represents the
kinematics state of the system. A topological space was used to describe
a syE
the possibilities of a living system. A subspace of the states' space is used
to describe the "permitted" domain of the system, the free space in the
ngi
case of the configuration space or the viability subspace.

nee
We name this subspace the subspace of existence or the Viability
subspace for a system. One can regard the system behaviour as the rin
g.n
results of a function (or functions) that the system uses to change its state
and the state of the world. By analysing the behaviour of the latter in the
existence subspace one can obtain an interesting result. The existence
et
subspace can be divided into zones in which the function(s) is continuous
and to zones in which the function is not continuous. Those zones of non
continuity can be regarded as zones of decision where the system or its
operator should select one of the possibilities, if there are any, or activate
another function. When these zones are retracted to points and the
continuous zones in between are retracted to lines connecting these
points, a graph representation of the existence subspace is obtained.

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The advantage of such a representation lies in the control of the system,

in continuous zone it is not necessary to consider or calculate any option,
only following that zone by the right behaviour and a local optimisation
are required. In the next paragraph the mapping of single behaviour is
discussed. This theory of behaviour mapping can be generalised to a
multi behaviour system. In this case we define the term behaviours'
equivalence. Behaviours are defined equivalent if at a given state their
effects are topologicaly equal, that is if they change the system situation
to an equal topological state.
ww
w.E
Single Behaviour Mapping
Let us consider a system that exercises only one behaviour that conforms

a syE
to the existence constraints. Hence from any place in the existence
subspace the behaviour will conduct the system to a place inside that

ngi
subspace. We define as trivial the case when that behaviour is continuous

nee
all over the subspace of existence. A more interesting case is when there
are points or zones of non continuity and bifurcation of the behaviour in
the existence subspace. We can rin
use these zones and points of non
continuity as landmarks and describe the existence subspace of a system g.n
as graph in which these zones are the nodes. Whenever the behaviour
connects one zone to another their representations in the graph are
et
connected. A formal definition is given below.

Let :
W be the topological space that represents the world.
V be a connected subspace of W that represents the subspace of
existence for the system. f:V → V an application defined over V
that represents the system behaviour.
f is continuous at v∈V iff:

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(1) f(v) = u, u ∈V
(2) for any neighbourhood of u, Nu, we can find a neighbourhood of v, Nv,
such as Nu⊇ f(Nv)
Let d be an open set of non continuous points such as
(1) v ∈d if f (v ) is not continuous
(2) d is a connected set The closure of d cl(d) is composed of continuous
points such as that at any neighbourhood of v ∈ cl(d) there is at least
one point of d.
ww
Let D = {d1...dn} be the collection of the non continuous sets of V under f.
w.E
Let n f (v) = f ° f ° f °...° f(v) describes a sequence of n

a
iteration of the behaviour

syE
directly connected to di by f n iff
f. The set dj is said to be

1. there

2.
ngi
exists x ∈cl(di) such as n f ∈cl(d j).
f (x)... n−1 f (x) are continuous under f We define a path from di to
nee
dj as l x x ∈di , n ( f ∈d j) = f(x)... n { f } Let ij p = l(x1)𝖴...𝖴l(xk)
where l(x1)...l(xk) are all the paths from di to dj.
rin
We call p a passage from di to dj . Any d from which there are two or g.n
more passages is a bifurcation zone.
et
V now can be described as a directed graph. The non continuous sets {d}
are the nodes of the graph which are connected according to the passages
defined above. Now we can plan the future of the system based on the
graph. The nodes play quite a significant role, they are the decision
points for the system. On a passage the behaviour will lead the system to
the same neighbourhood independent of perturbations or deviations on
the way.

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In the non continuous zones the situation is quite different, any deviation
or little perturbation can lead the system to a totally different situation.
We call these zones decision zones because a decision can be taken here,
a decision that will have quite an influence on the future of the system

An example of uni-behaviour
We bring here as an example go-toward behaviour. The behaviour was
developed by a team of the Institute for Micro technology of the
University of Neuchâtel (IMT). A vision system tracks a reflecting target

ww
and the robot moves toward that target. When the target is too close the

w.E
robot stops. The angle of vision is 90 deg.

a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
When there is only one target the non continuity zones are: 1. when the
distance from the robot to the target is less than the minimum and the et
robot stops 2. When the angle between the centre line of the camera and
the target is out of the ± 45 deg. range the robot looses the target and
stops For a distance bigger than the minimum and within the ± 45 deg. the
behaviour is continuous. When a second target is introduced into the
scene the situation changes. The robot is programmed to follow the target
which is closer to the centre line. The line defined by θ1 = θ 2, where θ1
and θ2 are the angles to the first and the second target respectively,
becomes a bifurcation zone. The graph describing the subspace of

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existence for the robot under the go-toward behaviour is given in figure
4.7

Multi Behaviours Mappings

The analysis of the subspace V can be generalized to multi behaviours'
mapping. Here we deal not only with bifurcation of a single behaviour. To
define bifurcation points for several behaviours first we have to define the
term b-equivalence that stands for behaviours' equivalence. We use here
the term b-equivalence when different behaviours give the same results

ww
when exercised at the same situation.
Two behaviours are considered to be b-equivalent at a certain part of the
w.E
existence subspace if when exercise at any point of this part they bring the

a
system to the same topological state. Hence any behaviour of the system
syE
that follows gives the same results. The points of bifurcation are the

ngi
points where the behaviours' results separate. These points are used to

nee
create a graph description in which the nodes represent the bifurcation
points and the branches are defined according to their connection by the
behaviours.
rin
g.n
in which either at least one of the behaviours is not continuous or where et
the behaviours are not b- equivalent. The set dj is said to be directly
connected to di by f and g iff 1. there exists n, m and x ∈cl(di) such as n
f (x) ∈cl(d j) and . mg (x) ∈cl(d j) 2. g and f are continuous and b-
equivalent along the path. We can now describe the existence space of
the multi behaviours system by a graph. The nodes of the graph
represent the bifurcation zones. The branches are according to the direct
connectivity defined above.
An example for such a system is a corridors' navigator mobile robot that

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possesses the three following behaviours:

1 follow-the-centre of the corridor
2. follow-the-right-wall
3. follow- the-left-wall.
As long as the robot is in a corridor the three behaviours are b-
equivalent. When the robot arrives to a corridors' intersection the
follow-the-centre behaviour becomes non continuous, the robot can
follow anyone of the corridors that exit the intersection. The other two
behaviours are not equivalent. The follow-the-left-wall will follow the
ww
most left corridor while the follow-the-right- wall will follow the most

w.E
right corridor. Any selection of a behaviour will give different results,
as a consequence the corridors' intersection becomes a decision zone.

a
Meta Behaviour Mapping
syE
In this section we generalise the notion of a behaviour by defining the
ngi
Meta Behaviour, which is the result of looking at the system's actions as

nee
being one behaviour even if it results from the composition of several
behaviours. In the following paragraph we lay the mathematical
rin
foundation for such a definition.
g.n
et

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4.8.2. Meta-Behaviour and Control

We can look now at a system that possesses an ensemble of behaviours B
that it executes in a working space U. Let assume that U is decomposable
to decision zones D and passages P under the behaviours B. Looking at
the behaviour of the system within the frame of the graph description of
the working space an interesting phenomenon emerges. The system
demonstrates a behaviour of following the passages from one decision
point to another. This behaviour which we denote meta-behaviour is
independent of the behaviour actually executed by the system as long as it
ww
follows the passages.

w.E
A definition of a trajectory can be given as a sequence of passages to be

a syE
followed. Following a given path is reduced to selecting at each decision
point the behaviour that will follow the next passage. Each of the
equivalent behaviours will be adequate. ngi
nee
To navigate, the system should be able to recognise the decision points
and to select the appropriate behaviour while in the decision zone. The
rin
selection of the behaviour can be made based on local parameters or using
a plan. In the latter case the plan is not the classic plan as a program butg.n
more like a general frame that gives the system the criteria by which it
makes the selection.
et

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ww
w.E

UNIT 5a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

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UNIT V AI AND OTHER RESEARCH TRENDS IN ROBOTICS

5.1 APPLICATION OF MACHINE LEARNING TO ROBOTICS

In recent years there has been an increasing interest in applying machine learning techniques to
robotics. The applications are manipulator as well as mobile system tasks. The learning techniques
used range from rote learning and inductive learning algorithms over analogical reasoning to
Explanation Based Learning (EBL) and Case Based Learning (CBL).Besides these symbolic
approaches considering mainly cognitive aspects of a robot control system
there are numerous works on using neural networks, reinforcement learning and genetic algorithms
in robotics.

ww
5.1.1 Applying ML to Robotics

w.E
In contrast to typical industrial automation systems an autonomous robot should be able to react to

asy
unexpected, uncertain and/or unknown events by parameter adaptation or additional planning

En
activities. Thus, an autonomous system should be able to act in environments which are not
perfectly modelled or where no a priori models are given at all, i.e. in applications where nowadays

gin
a telerobotic system could at most be used. We add to this definition the robot's ability to learn from
its own experience and through human guidance.
e eri
One important reason for the limitations of today's robots lies in the enormous programming effort

ng.
for even simple tasks or -if teach-in techniques are used - in the inflexibility and non-reusability of
the programs.

net
Considering these aspects of autonomous systems the investigation of ML-techniques in robotics
can help to accomplish the following principal tasks:

 ML as a programming tool for robotics applications (e.g. programming by showing)

 ML as a tool for the development and refinement (e.g. adaptation) of knowledge bases for
autonomous robots (i.e. by using experience and experiments)
 ML for the stepwise transfer from telerobotic systems to semi-autonomous and further to
autonomous behavior (comprises aspects of task 1 and 2)

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5.1.2 Possible applications of ML to robotics

1. World model and elementary (sensor-based) actions

 Learning of object properties (e.g. mass distribution, stable positions, geometry)

 Exploration of the current world (e.g finding known or prototypically represented objects,
determining obstacles)
 Learning of elementary (sensor-based) actions in the world (e.g. collision-free paths, macro-
trajectories, hand-eye coordination, effects of actions)
 Learning of elementary (sensor-based) actions with objects (e.g. reactive execution of a
joining task, manipulation of an object)

ww 

Optimization and refining of certain actions (e.g.trajectories)
Learning to recognize/classify states in the internal world model
2. Sensors

w.E
asy
Learning of classifiers for objects based on image data
 Learning of sensor strategies/plans, i.e. how to monitor an action to ensure the correct

En
execution or how to determine certain states of the real world
3. Error analysis
 gin
Learning of error recognition, error diagnosis and error repairing rules
4. Planning

e eri
Improvement (speed-up) of the planning module (e.g. planning macros, control rules)

ng.
Learning of domain knowledge (e.g. general planning rules, orders that have to be taken into



account in assembly applications)
Learning of action rules or plans, i.e. how to solve a (sub)task in principle net
Learning of couplings between typical task classes and related action plans (e.g. generalized
action plan for a set of tasks)
 Learning at the task level (e.g. which geometrical arrangements/action plans satisfy certain
functional specifications.
The learning goals given above can be tackled by one single or a mixed approach of the
three learning modes:
1. Supervised: A user acts as a teacher of the system, e.g. by typing input, by using a
master-slave or a telerobotic system, or by solving the problem by his own;

2. Semi-supervised: The system plans experiments and executes them or formulates

hypotheses, and a user criticizes/comments them;

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3. Unsupervised: The system makes implicit knowledge an explicit one and plans
experiments which can be criticized by itself.

5.1.3 System Architecture

Three main modules are used for acquiring object and action knowledge using visual and tactile
sensing facilities.
 Learning of generic object descriptions (visually)
 Learning of static and dynamic object properties (tactile & visually)
 Learning of action rules for manipulation of the objects

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While the first and second component are mainly working in unsupervised mode, action rules are

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acquired either by unsupervised generalization or through supervised learning by analyzing user
actions.Figure 1 gives an overview of the architecture.

The system consists of asy

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(1) A set of knowledge units, each consisting of a set of boards which store facts belonging to a

gin
semantic unit of knowledge (e.g. a board for facts of one object, of one planning subgoal, of one

e
experiment), and an agent responsible for the interpretation of facts on instantiated boards with
adequate learning strategies.
eri
ng.
(2) A set of channels which pass information from one board to interested other boards. A

net
knowledge unit receives all possibly interesting hypotheses. In the case of a request for certain facts
by one agent these channels are also responsible for routing the request to knowledge units that
might be able to give an appropriate answer.
.

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asy
EnFig.1 System Architecture
The context consists of the set of active boards and their interconnections. During the solution of a

gin
task new boards and channels are dynamically created and related agents take over new

if new objects have to be considered. e

interpretation tasks. This will be the case, if new planning or experimentation tasks are necessary or

eri
5.2 Tele-robotics and Virtual Reality ng.
net
A telerobot is defined for our purposes as a robot controlled at a distance by a human operator,
regardless of the degree of robot autonomy makes a finer distinction, which depends on whether all
robot movements are continuously controlled by the operator (manually controlled teleoperator), or
whether the robot has partial autonomy (telerobot and supervisory control). By this definition, the
human interface to a telerobot is distinct and not part of the telerobot. Haptic interfaces that
mechanically link a human to a telerobot nevertheless share similar issues in mechanical design and
control, and the technology survey presented here includes haptic interface development.

INTRODUCTION

Telerobotic devices are typically developed for situations or environments that are too dangerous,
uncomfortable, limiting, repetitive, or costly for humans to perform. Some applications are listed
below:

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Underwater: inspection, maintenance, construction, mining, exploration, search and recovery,

science, surveying.

Space: assembly, maintenance, exploration, manufacturing, science.

Resource industry: forestry, farming, mining, power line maintenance.

Process control plants: nuclear, chemical, etc., involving operation, maintenance, decommissioning,
emergency.

Military: operations in the air, undersea, and on land.

Medical: patient transport, disability aids, surgery, monitoring, remote treatment.

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Construction: earth moving, building construction, building and structure inspection, cleaning and
maintenance.
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Civil security: protection and security, firefighting, police work, bomb disposal.

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Categorizing past developments in telerobotics:

Remote manipulators
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Remote vehicles
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Low-level control
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Supervisory control
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Real-time computing

Relation to Robotics
net
Telerobots may be remotely controlled manipulators or vehicles. The distinction between robots and
telerobots is fuzzy and a matter of degree. Although the hardware is the same or is similar, robots
require less human involvement for instruction and guidance than do telerobots. There is a
continuum of human involvement, from direct control of every aspect of motion, to shared or traded
control, to nearly complete robot autonomy.

Any robot manipulator can be hooked up to a haptic interface and hence become a telerobot.
Similarly, any vehicle can be turned into a teleoperated mobile robot. There are many examples in
the literature of different industrial robots that have been used as telerobots, even though that was
not the original intended use. For example, a common laboratory robot, the PUMA 560, has
frequently been teleoperated. There have also been a number of telerobots specifically designed as

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such, often with a preferred haptic interface. The design issues for robots, telerobots, and haptic
interfaces are essentially the same .Often telerobots have to be designed for hazardous
environments, which require special characteristics in the design. Industrial robots have most often
been designed for benign indoor environments.

Why don't we do everything with robots, rather than involve humans in telerobotic control? We
can't, because robots are not that capable. Often there is no substitute for human cognitive
capabilities for planning and human sensorimotor capabilities for control, especially for
unstructured environments. In telerobotics, these human capabilities are imposed on the robot
device. The field of robotics is not that old (35 years), and the task of duplicating (let alone
improving upon) human abilities has proven to be an extremely difficult endeavor; it would be

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disturbing if it were not so. There is a tendency to overextrapolate from the few superior robot

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abilities, such as precise positioning and repetitive operation. Yet robots fare poorly when
adaptation and intelligence are required. They do not match the human sensory abilities of vision,

asy
audition, and touch, human motor abilities in manipulation and locomotion, or even the human
physical body in terms of compact and powerful musculature that adapts and self-repairs, and

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especially in terms of a compact and portable energy source. Hence in recent years many robotics

gin
researchers have turned to telerobotics, partly out of frustration.

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Nevertheless, the long-term goal of robotics is to produce highly autonomous systems that

eri
overcome hard problems in design, control, and planning. As advances are made in robotics, they

ng.
will feed through to better and more independent telerobots. For example, much of the recent work
in low-level teleoperator control is influenced by developments in robot control. Often, the control

net
ideas developed for autonomous robots have been used as the starting points for slave, and to a
lesser extent, master controllers. Advances in high-level robot control will help in raising the level
of supervisory control.

Yet the flow of advances can go both ways. By observing what is required for successful human
control of a telerobot, we may infer some of what is needed for autonomous control. There are also
unique problems in telerobotic control, having to do with the combination of master, slave, and
human operator. Even if each individual component is stable in isolation, when hooked together
they may be unstable. Furthermore, the human represents a complex mechanical and dynamic
system that must be considered.

5.2.1 Relation to Virtual Environments

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Telerobotics encompasses a highly diversified set of fundamental issues and supporting

technologies . More generally, telerobots are representative of human-machine systems that must
have sufficient sensory and reactive capability to successfully translate and interact within their
environment. The fundamental design issues encountered in the field of telerobotics, therefore, have
significant overlap with those that are and will be encountered in the development of veridical
virtual environments (VEs). Within the virtual environment, the human-machine system must allow
translation of viewpoint, interaction with the environment, and interaction with autonomous agents.
All this must occur through mediating technologies that provide sensory feedback and control. The
human-machine interface aspects of telerobotic systems are, therefore, highly relevant to VE
research and development from a device, configuration, and human performance perspective.

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Yet the real-environment aspect of telerobotics distinguishes it from virtual environments to some


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extent. Telerobots must:

interact in complex, unstructured, physics-constrained environments,

 asy
deal with incomplete, distorted, and noisy sensor data, including limited views, and

 En
Expend energy which may limit action.

gin
The corresponding features of virtual environments are more benign:

e eri
Form, complexity, and physics of environments are completely controllable.

Interactions based on physical models must be computed.

ng.
net
Virtual sensors can have an omniscient view and need not deal with noise and distortions.

The ability to move within an environment and perform tasks is not energy-limited.

Despite such simplifications, virtual environments play an important role in telerobotic supervisory
control. A large part of the supervisor's task is planning, and the use of computer-based models has
a potentially critical role. The virtual environment is deemed an obvious and effective way to
simulate and render hypothetical environments to pose ''what would happen if" questions, run the
experiment, and observe the consequences. Simulations are also an important component of
predictive displays, which represent an important method of handling large time delays. VE
research and development promises to revolutionize the field of multimodal, spatially oriented,
interactive human-machine interface technology and theory to an extent that has not been achievable
in the robotics field. The two fields should therefore not be viewed as disparate but rather as

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complementary endeavours whose goals include the exploration of remote environments and the
creation of adaptable human-created entities.

5.3 Micro & Nanorobots

The field of microrobotics covers the robotic manipulation of objects with dimensions in the
millimeter to micron range as well as the design and fabrication of autonomous robotic agents that
fall within this size range. Nanorobotics is defined in the same way only for dimensions smaller
than a micron. With the ability to position and orient objects with micron- and nanometer-scale
dimensions, manipulation at each of these scales is a promising way to enable the assembly of
micro- and nanosystems, including micro- and nanorobots.

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Progress in robotics over recent years has dramatically extended our ability to explore, perceive,

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understand, and manipulate the world on a variety of scales extending from the edges of the solar
system, to the bottom of the sea, down to individual atoms. At the lower end of this scale,

asy
technology has been moving toward greater control of the structure of matter, suggesting the

En
feasibility of achieving thorough control of the molecular structure of matter atom by atom, as
Richard Feynman first proposed in 1959 in his prophetic article on miniaturization.

gin
e
Feynman foresaw the possibility of employing a microrobotic manipulator (a master–slave system)

eri
for bottom-up manufacturing (manipulation, assembly, etc.) of minute machines; one such device he

ng.
described as “swallowing the surgeon”. Micro- and nanorobotics research has progressed from these
seemingly far-out concepts of the 1960s and 1970s to reality when microelectromechanical systems

net
(MEMS) began to emerge in the late 1980s. These building blocks took the form of surface-micro
machined micro motors and micro grippers made of polysilicon fabricated on a silicon chip..Today,
a variety of microrobotic devices are enabling new applications in various fields.

In industry, interesting areas for microrobotics include assembly characterization, inspection

and maintenance microoptics (positioning of microoptical chips, microlenses and prisms) and
microfactories Many of these applications require automated handling and assembly of small parts
with accuracy in the submicron range.

Other important fields include biology (manipulation, capturing, sorting and combining cells
and medical technology. In surgery, the use of steerable catheters and endoscopes is very attractive
and the development of increasingly small microrobotic devices is rapidly progressing. Wireless

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untethered microrobots that will explore and repair our bodies (“swallowing the surgeon”) appear to
be simply a matter of time. In fact, endoscopy using wireless capsules (camera pills) is already on
the market and allow for endoscopic imaging of the entire gastrointestinal tract. something currently
not possible using standard scopes. Magnetic steering or crawling type motions serve as promising
ways for such devices to
locomote in a controlled fashion. Doctors could steer pill-mounted cameras and other actuators to
areas of interest for visual investigation and biopsies beyond the range of current endoscopes.

Nanorobotics represents the next stage in miniaturization for maneuvering nanoscale objects.
Nanorobotics is the study of robotics at the nanometer scale, and includes robots that are nanoscale

ww
in size, i. e., nanorobots, and large robots capable of manipulating objects that have nanometer
dimensions with nanometer resolution, i. e., nanorobotic manipulators.

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The field of nanorobotics brings together several disciplines, including nanofabrication processes
used for producing nanoscale robots, nanoactuators, nanosensors, and physical modeling at

asy
nanoscales. Nanorobotic manipulation technologies, including the assembly of

En
nanometer-sized parts, the manipulation of biological cells or molecules, and the types of robots
used to perform these types of tasks also form a component of nanorobotics.

gin
e
One of the most important applications of nanorobotic manipulation will be nanorobotic assembly.

eri
However, it appears that, until assemblers capable of replication can be built, the combination of

ng.
chemical synthesis and self-assembly are necessary when starting from atoms; groups of molecules

net
can self-assemble quickly due to their thermal motion, enabling them to explore their environments
and find (and bind to) complementary molecules.

Classification of Microrobots
• task
• size,
• mobility
• functionality
Many robots usually consist of sensors and actuators, a control unit, and an energy source.
• Depending on the arrangement of these components, one can classify microrobots according
to the following criteria:
• locomotive and positioning possibility

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• manipulation possibility
• control type (wireless or tethered)
• Autonomy
• The majority of MEMS-based microrobotic devices developed so far could be categorized
as moveable links
 Microcatheters and microgrippers
 Smart pills

5.4 Cognitive robotics

Cognitive robotics is a new approach to robot programming based on high level primitives for

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perception and action. These primitives draw inspiration from ideas in cognitive science

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Endowing robotic or software agents with higher level cognitive functions that involve reasoning,

asy
for example, about goals, perception, actions, the mental states of other agents, collaborative task
execution, etc.

En
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Cognitive Robotics as building robots with cognitive capabilities:
−High-Level Perception and Action

−Attention e eri
−Memory
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−Learning

−Concept Formation
net
−Reasoning and Problem Solving

−Communication and Use of Language

−Theory of Mind

−Social Interaction

Cognitive Robotics can be used to drive the science of cognition

–Cognitive robotics as a platform to test theories about human cognition.

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–Cognitive Science as the science of all forms and kinds of cognition and cognitive agents, whether
these be human, animal, alien, robot, or otherwise. Thus:
–Robotic systems are cognitive systems, and are interesting to study in and of themselves

Cognitive Robotics as Experimental Cognitive Science

–Cognitive Robotics as the use of robotics to explore cognitive systems or architectures, to develop
new concepts and frameworks of cognition, and to formulate and test cognitive hypothesis.
Traditional Cognitive Architecture

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asy
En
gin
Fig.5.2 Operation of a Cognitive Robot

e eri
Cognition is the process by which an autonomous system perceives its environment, learns from
experience, anticipates the outcome of events, acts to pursue goals, and adapts to changing
circumstances.”
ng.
net
Cognitive robots achieve their goals by
(1)Perceiving their environment
Perception makes use of many sensory modalities, e.g. vision, audition, and haptic (tactile and
kinesthetic)
(2) Paying attention to the events that matter
Selective- Selecting a given feature or object
Restrictive- restricting what to look for or where to look for it
Suppressive-suppressing features, objects, or locations that are deemed to be not relevant
(3) Anticipating the need for some action
 Anticipation; also referred to as prospection

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 The anticipated action is often associated with achieving a goal

 Four modes of operation:
Simulation, prediction, intention, and planning
(4) Planning what to do
 Planning is sometimes effected by reasoning about the current state of the world or
anticipated futures states
 Exploits memories of past experience (episodic memory) and knowledge of the world
(semantic memory)
(5) Anticipating the outcome as it executes the action
Anticipating the outcome of a possible action can refer to the actions of the robot itself or the

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actions of other agents (people and other robots)

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(6)Learning from the resultant interaction
Learning from actions means that future actions can be more effective or more efficient, often based

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on reasoning.Sometimes referred to as meta-cognition or meta-reasoning (the focus is on improving
the cognitive or reasoning process)
(7)Adapting to change
En
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Adaptation is also achieved through Learning.In this case, the result of learning is new action policy
rather than improved action policy.

e eri

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A key feature of cognitive robotics is the focus on prospection to augment immediate


environment and when interacting with people. net
sensory motor experience, both when navigating and manipulating objects in the robot’s

Cognitive robots are able to carry out tasks effectively by anticipating the effects of their
own actions as well as the actions of the people around them.
 Being able to view the world from another person’s perspective, a cognitive robot can
anticipate that person’s intended actions and needs and, consequently, it can interact safely
while performing tasks in everyday situations.
 This applies both during direct interaction (e.g. a robot assisting a customer in a
supermarket) and indirect interaction (e.g. a robot stacking shelves while customers are
shopping).

5.5 EVOLUTIONARY ROBOTS

Evolutionary robotics is a computer-simulated method of creating intelligent,

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autonomous robots with particular traits, based on the principles of Darwin's theory of
evolution. In evolutionary robotics, autonomous robots are treated as organisms that can
function and evolve independently of humans.

Evolutionary robotics is related to developmental robotics, but takes a different approach.

Evolutionary robotics involves populations of robots. Developmental robotics is concerned
with the increase in individual robots' intelligence as they acquire experience in their
environments.

The goal of the approach is to enable robots to operate in a self-contained manner without
relying on external entities for assessment of performance or additional computing power. To

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that end, the main components of the EA (evaluation, selection, and reproduction) are carried
out autonomously by the robots without any external supervision. The main advantage of

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online evolution is that if the environmental conditions or task requirements change, the robots
can modify their behavior to cope with the new circumstances.

asy
Evolutionary Robotics is a field of Autonomous Robotics where the controllers that implement

En
behaviours are obtained through some kind of Evolutionary Algorithm. The aim behind this

gin
technique is to obtain controllers minimizing human intervention. This is very interesting in
order to achieve complex behaviours without introducing a “human bias”. Sensors, body and

e eri
actuators are usually different for a human being and for a robot, so it is reasonable to think

ng.
that the best strategy obtained by the human designer is not necessarily the best one for the
robot. This article will briefly describe Evolutionary Robotics and its advantages over other
approaches to Autonomous Robotics as well as its problems and drawbacks.

Algorithms:
net
The basis of Evolutionary Robotics is to use evolutionary algorithms to automatically obtain
robot controllers. In order to do that, there are many decisions to be made. First of all, one
must decide what to evolve (controllers, morphology, both?). Then, whatever is to be evolved
has to be encoded in chromosomes. An evolutionary algorithm must be chosen. It has to be
decided where and how to evaluate each individual, etc. These issues will be addressed in the
following sections.

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Evolutionary Algorithm: Stochastic population based search algorithm inspired on natural

evolution. The problem is encoded in an n-dimensional search space where individuals
represent candidate solutions. Better individuals have higher reproduction probabilities
than worse individuals, thus allowing the fitness of the population to increase through the
generations

Macro Evolutionary Algorithm: Evolutionary algorithm using the concept of species

instead of individuals. Thus, low fitness species become extinct and new species appear to
fill their place. Its evolution is smoother, slower but less inclined to fall into local optima as

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compared to other evolutionary algorithms

Autonomous Robotics: The field of Robotics that tries to obtain controllers for robots so

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that they are tolerant and may adapt to changes in the environment.

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Knowledge Based Robotics: The field of Autonomous Robotics that tries to achieve
“intelligent” behaviours through the modelling of the environment and a process of

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planning over that model, that is, modelling the knowledge that generates the behaviour

gi
Behaviour Based Robotics: The field of Autonomous Robotics that proposes not to pay

nee
attention to the knowledge that leads to behaviours, but just to implement them somehow.
It also proposes a direct connection between effectors and actuators for every controller

rin
running in the robot, eliminating the typical sensor interpretation, world modelling and
planning stages
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field of Behaviour Based Robotics, that obtains the controllers using some kind of
evolutionary algorithm
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Evolutionary Robotics: The field of Autonomous Robotics, usually also considered as a

t
Artificial Neural Network: An interconnected group of artificial neurons, which are
elements that use a mathematical model that reproduce, through a great simplification, the
behaviour of a real neuron, used for distributed information processing. They are inspired
by nature in order to achieve some characteristics presented in the real neural networks,
such as error and noise tolerance, generalization capabilities, etc.

The issues arised in ER are:

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(1) the reality gap which occurs when controllers evolved in simulation become
ineffectiveonce transferred to the physical robot,

(2) the prohibitively long time necessary to evolve controllers directly on real robots

A number of approaches have been introduced to cross the reality gap. There are three
complementary approaches:
(1) using samples from the real robots’ sensors,

(2) introducing a conservative form of noise in simulated sensors and actuators, and

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(3) Continuing evolution for a few generations in real hardware if a decrease in

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performance is observed when controllers are transferred.

Using samples from real sensors increases the accuracy of simulations by using a more

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realistic sensor model, which in turn can decrease the difference between the sensory input
experienced in simulation and in reality.

En
Noise can be applied to promote the evolution of robust controllers that can better tolerate

gi
variations in the sensory inputs during task execution. Finally, if the performance of the

nee
controller decreases after transfer, continuing evolution on real hardware can potentially
enable the synthesis of a well-adapted controller in a timely manner.
rin
Table 1: Summary of approaches introduced to cross the reality gap.
g.n
e t

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(4) bootstrap problem when solutions to complex tasks are sought.

(5) deception
(6) the design of genomic encodings and of the genotype-phenotype mappings that
enable the evolution of complex behaviours and

(7) the absence of standard research practices in the field

Importantly, while issues such as the bootstrap problem and deception are inherent to the
evolutionary computation approach, other issues such as the reality gap and the time-

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consuming nature of evolving controllers on real robots are specific to ER. In addition, the
differences between ER and more traditional domains mean that there is currently a lack of

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theory and formal methods that can be applied to ER.

5.6 Humanoid robots asy

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Humanoid robots have been assisting humankind in various capacities. They have been broadly

gi
used in the field of Healthcare, Education, and Entertainment. A humanoid robot is a robot that

nee
not only resembles the human's physical attributes, especially one head, a torso, and two arms,
but also can communicate with humans, take orders from its user, and perform limited activities.

rin
Most humanoid robots are equipped with sensors, actuators, cameras, and speakers. These robots
are typically preprogrammed for specific actions or have the flexibility to be programmed
according to the user requirement.
g.n
Generally, humanoid robots are designed according to their intended application.
e
Based on applications, humanoid robots can be broadly categorized into Healthcare, Educational
t
and Social humanoid robot.

Healthcare humanoid robots are designed and used by individuals at home or healthcare centres
to treat and improve their medical conditions. These robots either require a human controller or
are preprogrammed to assist patients.

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Educational humanoid robots are primarily designed and equipped for students and are used in
education centres or home to improve education quality and increase involvement in studies.
These robots are typically but not always manually controlled robots.

Social humanoid robots are used by individuals or organizations to help and assist people in their
daily life activities. These robots are commonly preprogrammed to perform mundane tasks and
are also known as assistive robots.
History and Overview
There is a long history of mechanical systems with human form that perform human-like

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movements. For example, Al-Jazari designed a humanoid automaton in the 13th century ,

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Leonardo da Vinci designed a humanoid automaton in the late 15th century and in Japan there is
a tradition of creating mechanical dolls called Karakuri ningyo that dates back to at least the 18th

asy
century In the 20th century, animatronics became an attraction at theme parks. For example, in
1967 Disneyland opened its Pirate’s of the Caribbean ride which featured animatronic pirates

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that play back human-like movements synchronized with audio. Although programmable, these

environment. gi
humanoid animatronic systems moved in a fixed open-loop fashion without sensing their

nee
In the second half of the 20th century, advances in digital computing enabled researchers to

rin
incorporate significant computation into their robots for sensing, control, and actuation. Many

g.n
roboticists developed isolated systems for sensing, locomotion, and manipulation that were
inspired by human capabilities. However, the first humanoid robot to integrate all of these

Waseda University in Japan in 1973 . e

functions and capture widespread attention wasWABOT-1, developed by Ichiro Kato et al. at

t
The WABOT robots integrated functions that have been under constant elaboration since: visual
object recognition, speech generation, speech recognition, bimanual object manipulation, and
bipedal walking.
WABOT-2’s ability to play a piano, publicized at the Tsukuba Science Expo in 1985, stimulated
significant public interest. In 1986,Honda began a confidential project to create humanoid biped.

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In parallel with these developments, the decade long Cog project began in 1993 at the MIT
Artificial Intelligence laboratory in the USA with the intention
of creating a humanoid robot that would, learn to ‘think’ by building on its bodily experiences to
accomplish progressively more abstract tasks. This project gave rise to an upper-body humanoid
robot whose design was heavily inspired by the biological and cognitive sciences. Since the
inception of the Cog project, many humanoid robotics projects with similar objectives have been
initiated, and communities focused on developmental robotics, autonomous mental development
(AMD) and epigenetic robotics have emerged .
As of the early 21st century, many companies and academic researchers have become involved

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with humanoid robots, and there are numerous humanoid robots across the world with distinctive
features.

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Different Forms
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Today, humanoid robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes that emulate different aspects of

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human form and behaviour. As discussed, the motivations that have driven the development of

gi
humanoid robots vary widely. These diverse motivations have lead to a variety of humanoid

nee
robots that selectively emphasize some human characteristics, while deviating from others. One
of the most noticeable axes of variation in humanoid robots is the presence or absence of body

rin
parts. Some humanoid robots have focused solely on the head and face, others have a head with

g.n
two arms mounted to a stationary torso, or a torso with wheels), and still others have an articulate
and expressive face with arms, legs, and a torso. Clearly, this variation in form impacts the ways

activities, and human–robot interaction. e

in which the robot can be used, especially in terms of mobility, manipulation, whole-body

t
Different Degrees of Freedom

Humanoid robots also tend to emulate some degrees of freedom in the human body, while
ignoring others. Humanoid robots focusing on facial expressivity often incorporate actuated
degrees of freedom in the face to generate facial expressions akin to those that humans can
generate with their facial muscles. Likewise, the upper body of humanoid robots usually includes

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two arms, each with a one-degree-of-freedom (one-DOF) rotary joint at the elbow and a three-
DOF rotary joint for the shoulder, but rarely attempt to emulate the human
shoulder’s ability to translate or the flexibility of the human spine .

In general, humanoid robots tend to have a large number of degrees of freedom and a kinematic
structure that may not be amenable to closed-form analysis due to redundancy and the lack of a
closed-form inverse. This is in contrast to traditional industrial manipulators that are often
engineered to have minimal redundancy (six DOFs) and more easily analyzed kinematic
structures.

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Different Sensors

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Humanoid robots have made use of a variety of sensors including cameras, laser range finders,
microphone arrays, lavalier microphones, and pressure sensors.

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Some researchers choose to emulate human sensing by selecting sensors with clear human

gi
analogs and mounting these sensors on the humanoid robot in a manner that mimics the

nee
placement of human sensory organs. Two to four cameras are often mounted within the head of a
humanoid robot with a configuration similar to human eyes.

rin
The justifications for this bias towards human-like sensing include the impact of sensing

g.n
on natural human–robot interaction, the proven ability of the human senses to support human
behaviour, and aesthetics. For example, with respect to human–robot interaction, nonexperts can

e
sometimes interpret the functioning and implications of a human-like sensor, such as a camera,

t
more easily. Similarly, if a robot senses infrared or ultraviolet radiation, the robot will see a
different world than the human. With respect to behaviour, placement of sensors on the head of
the robot allows the robot to sense the world from a van tage point that is similar to that of a
human, which can be important for finding objects that are sitting on a desk or table.
Prominent humanoid robots have added additional sensors without human analogs. For
example, Kismet used a camera mounted in its forehead to augment the two cameras in its
servoed eyes, which simplified common tasks such as tracking faces. Similarly, versions of
Asimo have used a camera mounted on its lower torso that looks down at the floor in order to
simplify obstacle detection and navigation during locomotion.

EC8074 Robotics and Automation

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ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND TECHNOLOGY

Other Dimensions of Variation

Other significant forms of variation include the size of the robot, the method of actuation, the
extent to which the robot attempts to appear like a human, and the activities the robot performs.

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EC8074 Robotics and Automation

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