1.Describe salient features of robot in different fields of applications. .

There are many jobs in industries like manufacturing, agriculture, entertainment, etc.
which require boring monotonous work that also requires a lot of precision. In such
situations, robots are better suited than humans because they are precise, intelligent, and don’t
get bored like humans! There are also tasks like space and underwater exploration that are
very dangerous and unsafe for humans. Here also, robots are the best fit because they never
get tired and there is no chance of a robot getting killed! Because of these advantages, there
are many applications of robots in almost all the industries you can imagine. But let’s see the
top applications in these 10 industries now.
1. Security
Imagine if all the security guards are robots? Even thieves would be scared! That’s why
robots are being proposed as security agents as they can protect humans, and they wouldn’t
be in danger like human security guards would be. Currently, robotics companies are working
on pairing robot guards with human security consultants. A very famous company in this
field is Knightscope in the United States that has autonomous security robots capable of
assisting human security guards with real-time, actionable intelligence. These robots can help
with crimes such as armed robberies, burglaries, domestic violence, fraud, hit, and runs, etc.
2. Space Exploration
There are many things in space that are very dangerous for astronauts to do. Humans can’t
roam on Mars all day to collect soil samples or work on repairing a spaceship from the
outside while it’s in deep space! In these situations, robots are a great choice because there
are no chances for the loss of human life then. So space institutions like NASA frequently use
robots and autonomous vehicles to do things that humans can’t. For example, Mars Rover is
an autonomous robot that travels on Mars and takes pictures of Martian rock formations that
are interesting or important and then sends them back on Earth for the NASA scientists to
study.
3. Entertainment
Robots are also a big draw in the entertainment industry. While they cannot exactly become
actors and actresses, they can be used behind the sets in movies and serials to manage the
camera, provide special effects, etc. They can be used for boring repetitive tasks that are not
suitable for a human as cinema is, after all, a creative industry. Robots can also be used to do
stunt work that is very dangerous for humans but looks pretty cool in an action movie. Theme
parks like Disney World are also using autonomous robots to enhance the magical experience
of their customers.
4. Agriculture
Agriculture is the sector that is the basis of human civilization. However, agriculture is also a
seasonal sector that is dependent on ideal weather conditions optimal soil, etc. Moreover,
there are many repetitive tasks in agriculture that are just a waste of farmer’s time and can be
performed more suitable by robots. These include seeding, weed control, harvesting, etc.
Robots are usually used for harvesting the crops which allow farmers to be more efficient. An
example of a robot that is used to remove weeds in farms is the Ecorobotix. It is powered by
solar energy and can be used to target and spray weeds using a complex camera system.
5. Health Care
Robots have changed healthcare a lot. And all for the better! They can help doctors in
performing operations more precisely, be used as prosthetic limbs, provide therapy to
patients, etc. The possibilities are limitless. One example of this is the da Vinci robot that can
help surgeons in performing complex surgeries relating to the heart, head, neck, and other
sensitive areas. There are other robotic devices that are created like exoskeletons that can be
used to provide additional support for people undergoing rehabilitation after spinal injures,
strokes, etc.
6. Underwater Exploration
Robots are a great option for exploring places that humans cannot reach easily, like the
depths of the ocean! There is a lot of water pressure deep in the ocean which means humans
cannot go that down and machines such as submarines can only go to a certain depth as well.
A deep underwater is a mysterious place that can finally be explored using specially designed
robots. These robots are remote-controlled, and they can go into depths of the ocean to collect
data and images about the aquatic plant and animal life.
7. Food Preparation
Don’t want to cook? Don’t worry, there are robots that even can cook and create complete
meals for you! These robot chefs can create food using hundreds of different recipes. All
humans need to do is choose the recipe they want and provide the robot with pre-packaged
containers of all the ingredients that are needed for that recipe. The robot can then cook the
food on its own. Moley Robotics is one such robotics company that has created a robotic
kitchen with a robot that can cook like a master chef! So no worries if you can’t cook food.
Because now a robot can!
8. Manufacturing
There are many repetitive and common tasks in the manufacturing industry that don’t require
any usage of the mind like welding, assembly, packing, etc. These tasks can be easily done by
robots while leaving the mentally challenging and creative tasks to humans. These robots can
be trained to perform these repetitive and monotonous tasks with precision under the
guidance and supervision of a human. This option is also best for the manufacturing
processes that are dangerous and may be harmful to humans.
9. Military
Robots also have many applications in the military. They can be used as drones to keep
surveillance on the enemy, they can also be used as armed systems to attack the opposing
forces or as Medicare agents to help friendly forces. Some of the popular robots used in the
Military sector include MAARS (Modular Advanced Armed Robotic System) which looks
like a tank and contains tear gas and lasers to confuse enemies and even grenade launcher for
desperate situations. DOGO is also a tactical combat robot that has a camera for spying on
the activities of the enemy and a 9-millimeter pistol for emergency situations!

2. (i) List and explain the various generations of robots.

Robots can be classified into four generations based on their capabilities and feature.The four
generations of robots are:

First Generation: Simple mechanical arm without AI.

Second Generation: Some level of AI.

Third Generation: On-line computations and control, artificial vision, and active force/torque
interaction with the environment.

Fourth Generation: True android or an artificial biological robot or a super humanoid capable
of its own clones

State and derive Asimov’s laws of robotics. Also give its features and its limitations.
The Three Laws of Robotics Are:
1. A robot will not allow a human being to come to harm or may not injure a human being
through inaction.
2. A robot must and always will obey the orders given by humans unless the orders are in
conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot is entitled to protect its own existence unless its protection is not in conflict with
the First Law and Second Law.
He also added another rule later and called it the Zeroth Rule. According to this law of
Asimov robotics, ‘a robot will not harm humanity or through any inaction will allow
humanity to come to harm’. This law actually supersedes all the laws he mentioned in his
science fiction novel.

The artificial intelligence we have now is not that powerful to comprehend such a huge feat.
It is not too late that this type of AI will be developed. In fact, it can also happen that an AI
can design another AI itself!
We have machines with AI that are taking care of our house chores. A Roomba is vacuuming
our rooms. We have digital assistants such as Alexa and Siri that help us find answers to
many questions. There are limits that make a Roomba not harm anyone. The algorithms and
sensors protect us from such things.
Similarly, our virtual assistants will also not do stupid things such as turning on ovens or
other devices to cause harm. We also have self-driving cars with very few reported accidents.
Cars are driven using AI-powered platforms and will not harm the passengers.
To our surprise, this science fiction writer’s three laws are perfect and applicable to all the AI
machines we design. We can also ensure the development of powerful AI platforms by
instilling these laws and making the machines not harm us under any condition

3. Discuss about origin of robot and the Advantages & disadvantages of robot.

Etymologically, the term comes from the Czech word robota meaning ‘forced labor’. It was
used for the first time, 100 years ago now, in a play by the author of the same nationality,
Karel Capek.

This play entitled ‘RUR (Rossum’s Universal Robots)’ was premiered in 1921 and was a
great success all over the world, leaving without knowing it, a word that would last forever.

To talk about the origin of robotics, we must mention Aristotle and his ideas about
‘automated tools’, Henry Ford, Leonardo Da Vinci and his mechanical knight or Isaac
Asimov. Here we name the milestones that have brought real advances towards automation
and autonomous mobile robotics, already in the middle of the 20th century.

Autonomous mobile robotics is considered to be that which is capable of making decisions in

changing environments without the need for supervision by an operator. Some relevant
historical data would be the following:
• 50s, England. ELSIE (Electro-Light-Sensitive Internal-External) is the first mobile robot in
history. Its technical capabilities were still very limited. It was really a light-sensitive
electromechanical robot with internal and external stability. 60s, Standford Research
Institute. SHAKEY: robot that already incorporated tactile sensors and a vision camera. It
could move on the ground thanks to two computers (one on board and one remote) that were
connected by radio.
• 70s, MARS-ROVER: platform that integrated a mechanical arm, proximity sensors, a laser
telemetry device and stereo cameras. It was developed by NASA to explore hostile or
unknown terrain.
• 80’s, SRI’s CART: platform that modeled obstacles thanks to Cartesian coordinates on its
vertices.

Evolution of industrial robotics

Industrial robots are not usually humanoid in shape, although they are capable of reproducing
human movements and behaviors but with the strength, precision and speed of a machine.
The first industrial robots were developed by George Devol, American inventor and founder
of the first robotics company in history: Unimation.

In 1954, what is considered the first industrial robot was developed in the USA: a hydraulic
arm called Unimate, used to lift heavy loads, which was sold to General Motors. In the
following years they developed several versions of the same model of the company
Unimation that were introduced, little by little, in some factories mainly in the automotive
sector.

It was at the end of the 1960s and in the 1970s when considerably more advanced robotic
arms appeared in which cameras or sensors were already used. The Shakey robot, designed in
1966 by the Standford Research Institute, stands out as an important milestone for mobile
robotics. Shakey was the world’s first mobile robot, thanks to software and hardware that
allowed it to perceive and understand the environment, albeit in a limited way.

The first mobile industrial robots also appeared in parallel. In 1954, Barrett Electronics
Corporation brought out the first electric vehicle that did not require a human driver, what we
know as the first AGV (Autonomous Guided Vehicle). AGVs acquired more complex
behaviors in the 80s as technology advanced and already in the 90s we found AGVs with
much more precise sensors and lasers.

As explained in another post, an AGV is not an autonomous mobile robot. It is useful to

understand the differences between the two in order to make the right decision when
introducing them in a factory or company.

1980s and 1990s

Although the first industrial robots were created in the United States, in the 1980s and 1990s
they were already being developed in some European and Asian countries, mainly in Japan
and Sweden. You probably remember IBM’s Deep Blue beating world champion Garry
Kasparov in a game of chess.
 Nowadays, the development of Artificial Intelligence or other technologies such as those
mentioned at the beginning of the article are so powerful that the game against Kasparov
sounds obsolete. The applications that AI brings to robotics, and thus to the industrial sector,
are infinitely more valuable and more profitable than winning chess games. Some of the
advantages that AI brings to industrial robotics are:
• Increased accuracy
• Improved decision making (especially in the face of obstacles).
• Predictive maintenance

Automation is a field in constant change, so sometimes it is difficult for some companies to

start the path to a smart factory. For this reason, Robotnik always facilitates, accompanies
and adapts mobile robotics to the specific needs of the company, whatever its size.
Automation and robotics go hand in hand.

Service robotics

Collaborative robotics is, by definition, service robotics. This is the sector in which Robotnik
has been developing its activity for 20 years and which has allowed it to become a worldwide
reference company.

A service robot for professional use is defined as a robot that operates partially or totally
autonomously in the service of human welfare and equipment, excluding manufacturing
operations (ISO TC 184/SC2 definition).

We found several cases of service robotics in which Robotnik is currently involved. A clear
example of this has been reflected in the time of pandemic by Covid-19, where service
robotics has been key in different fields.

Currently, Robotnik develops its robots and mobile manipulators for very diverse
sectors: logistics, inspection and maintenance, defense, agriculture or security, among others.

Industrial Robotics: present and future

Although for years industrial robotics has been reserved for large companies, Robotnik now
also offers mobile robotics solutions for SMEs. These companies must bet on innovation and
technology if they want to remain competitive. In this sense, the cost of investing in mobile
robotics is an investment.

Currently, there is already talk of the birth of the fourth industrial revolution, where
autonomous mobile robotics plays a leading role. Intelligent robots are playing a crucial role
in the digitization of the entire industry worldwide.

Flexibility, collaboration between machines and people and diversification into new sectors
and business models are setting the pace for robotics in 2021, according to the conclusions
published by the International Federation of Robotics (IFR). We must not lose sight,
therefore, of the keys that will help companies continue to grow in the best possible way.

4. Summarize the advantages of four common robot configuration and deduce

their simple sketches.

Robot joint is similar to a joint in the human body. It allows for relative movement between
two body parts. Industrial robots typically have five or six linear or rotating joints.
Robots are mostly divided into four major configurations based on their appearances, sizes,
etc., including cylindrical configuration, polar configuration, jointed arm configuration, and
cartesian coordinate configuration.

1. Cylindrical Configuration

The cylindrical configuration has two perpendicular prismatic joints and a revolute joint. A
vertical column and a slide that moves up and down the column are used in this setup. The
robot arm is connected to the slide and can move radially around the column. By rotating the
column, the robot can achieve a workspace that approximates a cylinder. The cylindrical
configuration offers good mechanical stiffness.

Advantages
• Increased rigidity, and
• Capacity to carry high payloads.
Disadvantages
• Floor space required is more, and
• Less work volume.
• Accuracy decreases as the horizontal stroke increases.
2. Polar Configuration

A prismatic joint can be raised or lowered about a horizontal revolute joint in the polar
configuration. A rotating base supports the two links. These various joints can move the arm
endpoint within a partial spherical space. It is also called a spherical co-ordinate‖
configuration, which allows manipulation of objects on the floor.

Advantages
• Long reach capability in the horizontal position.
Disadvantages
• Vertical reach is low
• Low mechanical stiffness
• Complex construction
• Accuracy decreases with the increasing radial stroke.

3. Jointed Arm Configuration

Widely-used jointed arm configuration is similar to that of a human arm. It comprises two
straight links representing the human forearm and upper arm and two rotary joints
representing the elbow and shoulder joints, which are mounted on a vertical rotary table
corresponding to the human waist joint. As a result, it can be controlled at any adjustments in
the workspace. These types of robots perform several operations like spray painting, spot
welding, arc welding, and more.
Advantages
• Increased flexibility,
• Huge work volume, and
• Quick operation.
Disadvantages
• Very expensive,
• Difficult operating procedures, and
• Plenty of components.

4. Cartesian Co-Ordinate Configuration

Cartesian or rectangular coordinate configuration is constructed by three perpendicular slides,

giving only linear motions along the three principal axes. It consists of three prismatic joints.
The endpoints of the arm are capable of operating in a cuboidal space. The cartesian arm
gives high precision and is easy to program.
These robots are also called XYZ robots because they are equipped with three rotary joints to
assemble XYZ axes. The robots will process in a rectangular workspace using these three
joints movement. It can carry high payloads with the help of its rigid structure. It is mainly
integrated with pick and place, material handling, loading, unloading, etc.
Advantages
• Highly accurate & speed,
• Fewer costs,
• Simple operating procedures, and
• High payloads.
Disadvantages
• Less work envelope, Reduced flexibility.
• Low dexterity (not able to move quickly and easily)
• Limited manipulability

4. With necessary diagrams explain the different types of robots.

Robot joint is similar to a joint in the human body. It allows for relative movement
between two body parts. Industrial robots typically have five or six linear or rotating joints.
Robots are mostly divided into four major configurations based on their appearances, sizes,
etc., including cylindrical configuration, polar configuration, jointed arm configuration, and
cartesian coordinate configuration.
1. Cylindrical Configuration

The cylindrical configuration has two perpendicular prismatic joints and a revolute joint. A
vertical column and a slide that moves up and down the column are used in this setup. The
robot arm is connected to the slide and can move radially around the column. By rotating the
column, the robot can achieve a workspace that approximates a cylinder. The cylindrical
configuration offers good mechanical stiffness.

Advantages
• Increased rigidity, and
• Capacity to carry high payloads.
Disadvantages
• Floor space required is more, and
• Less work volume.
• Accuracy decreases as the horizontal stroke increases.

2. Polar Configuration
A prismatic joint can be raised or lowered about a horizontal revolute joint in the polar
configuration. A rotating base supports the two links. These various joints can move the arm
endpoint within a partial spherical space. It is also called a spherical co-ordinate‖
configuration, which allows manipulation of objects on the floor.

Advantages
• Long reach capability in the horizontal position.
Disadvantages
• Vertical reach is low
• Low mechanical stiffness
• Complex construction
• Accuracy decreases with the increasing radial stroke.

3. Jointed Arm Configuration

Widely-used jointed arm configuration is similar to that of a human arm. It comprises two
straight links representing the human forearm and upper arm and two rotary joints
representing the elbow and shoulder joints, which are mounted on a vertical rotary table
corresponding to the human waist joint. As a result, it can be controlled at any adjustments in
the workspace. These types of robots perform several operations like spray painting, spot
welding, arc welding, and more.
Advantages
• Increased flexibility,
• Huge work volume, and
• Quick operation.
Disadvantages
• Very expensive,
• Difficult operating procedures, and
• Plenty of components.
4. Cartesian Co-Ordinate Configuration

Cartesian or rectangular coordinate configuration is constructed by three perpendicular slides,

giving only linear motions along the three principal axes. It consists of three prismatic joints.
The endpoints of the arm are capable of operating in a cuboidal space. The cartesian arm
gives high precision and is easy to program.
These robots are also called XYZ robots because they are equipped with three rotary joints to
assemble XYZ axes. The robots will process in a rectangular workspace using these three
joints movement. It can carry high payloads with the help of its rigid structure. It is mainly
integrated with pick and place, material handling, loading, unloading, etc.
Advantages
• Highly accurate & speed,
• Fewer costs,
• Simple operating procedures, and
• High payloads.
Disadvantages
• Less work envelope, Reduced flexibility.
• Low dexterity (not able to move quickly and easily)
• Limited manipulability

5. (i) Discuss about robot machine interface with neat diagram.

An HMI could be used to replace physical inputs (such as buttons or switches)

with virtual buttons on a user interface (UI). This can offer greater functionality
and flexibility than a fixed control panel. The term human-robot collaboration is
mainly used for industrial applications, where human and robot share the same
workspace. Several definitions exist for these kinds of applications. it as a smooth
transition from isolation towards collaboration of human and robot . In terms of
industrial applications, the robots used are mainly articulated robots with up to seven
axes and integrated sensors, such as the lightweight robot .According to the definitions
described above, the purpose of industrial robots is automation and of service robots
to perform useful tasks for humans. As the robot in a collaboration still performs tasks
automatically, but also supports the human, robots used in an industrial human-robot
collaboration could be defined as both. Deuse et al., for example, name this
phenomenon “service robotics” However, in the case of coexistence, the robot
automatically performs a task, and therefore the definition would be industrial robot.
 Therefore, this article includes human-robot collaboration within the definition of
industrial robots.The development and research regarding the human-machine
interfaces in this context often focuses on interfaces for the programming of the
robots. For this usage, the common user interface is a touch display. Another
possibility is using haptics when guiding a robot for programming purposesHuman-
robot collaboration itself can be applied with stationary robots, but also with mobile
robots. Within a collaboration of human and robot, the importance of the interface
increases with the stage of collaboration and the autonomy of the robot. A close
collaboration between human and robot requires interfaces not only for programming
but also for the information exchange in order to confirm actions.

(ii) With neat sketch describe the multiple robot coordination in manufacturing.

Multi-robot coordination is the process of managing multiple robots to work together efficiently
and effectively to achieve a common goal. This involves communication, cooperation, and
synchronization among the robots, which can be a complex task due to the dynamic nature of their
interactions and the need for real-time decision-making.

One of the main challenges in multi-robot coordination is developing algorithms that can handle
the complexities of coordinating multiple robots in real-world scenarios. This requires considering
factors such as communication constraints, dynamic environments, and the need for adaptability.
Additionally, the robots must be able to learn from their experiences and improve their
performance over time.

Practical applications of multi-robot coordination can be found in various domains, such as:

1. Search and rescue operations: Coordinated teams of robots can cover large areas more
efficiently, increasing the chances of finding survivors in disaster-stricken areas.
2. Manufacturing and logistics: Multi-robot systems can work together to assemble products,
transport goods, and manage inventory in warehouses, improving productivity and reducing human
labor costs.
3. Environmental monitoring: Coordinated teams of robots can collect data from different locations
simultaneously, providing a more comprehensive understanding of environmental conditions and
changes.

6. (i) What is robot software? List the advantage and disadvantages of off- line.
(ii) Enumerate the issues related to robot design and control.
7.(i) Evaluate the joint notation scheme that is used in robot design configuration.

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 8. With neat sketches explain the classification of robot based on

(i) Configuration
A robot joint is similar to a joint in the human body. It allows for relative movement between
two body parts. Industrial robots typically have five or six linear or rotating joints.Robots are
mostly divided into four major configurations based on their appearances, sizes, etc.,
including cylindrical configuration, polar configuration, jointed arm configuration, and
cartesian coordinate configuration

(ii) Degrees of Freedom

A rigid body in three-dimensional space has six degrees of freedom (DOFs). Three of them are
for the position: motion along the x, motion along the y, and motion along the z, and three are
for orientation: rotation around x or roll, rotation around y or pitch, and rotation around z or
yaw: With the same analogy, we can say that the rigid body on a 2D plane has three degrees
of freedom. Two linear DOFs and one rotational DOF: The two-degrees-of-freedom planar
robot consists of two links, but each link has one DOF and not three DOFs.

(iii) Work volume

Work volume or work envelope refers to the space within which the robot can manipulate
its wrist end.  For defining the work volume, the wrist end convention is adopted to avoid
the complication of different sizes of end effectors that might be attached to the robot’s wrist

(iv) Controls
Robotic control is the system that contributes to the movement of robots1. It involves the
mechanical aspects and programmable systems that make it possible to control robots1. In a
broad sense, robot controller is a combination of hardware and software to program and
control a single or multiple robots

UNIT-II

1.Evaluate the need for the speed and direction control circuitry in the robot.

Motor speed and direction control is one of the two main divisions in the photodetector robot, the
other one is the photodetector or light detector division. While the photodetector division focuses
on the robot's vision, the motor speed and direction control division focuses on the robot's
movement. The motor speed and direction control processes data given from the photodetector
division and gives a physical output in the form of motor movement.

The purpose of this division is to control the speed and direction of both the left and the right motor
of the light seeking robot. To decide these values, you will need the size and the position of the light
that had been captured by the camera and processed by thresholding. You will also need the
measured speed on each of the motors. From these inputs, you will be able to output the PWM
(Pulse-Width Modulation) value for each of the motors.

2. Explain with neat sketch about following:

(i) AC servomotors.
"AC servo motor" refers to a particular kind of servo motor that employs AC electrical input
to generate mechanical output in the form of accurate angular velocity. With certain
exceptions in terms of engineering features, AC servomotors are essentially two-phase
induction motors.
The output power of an ac servo motor might be anything from a few watts to several hundred
watts. In contrast, the usable frequency range is 50 to 400 Hz. As above, the usage of a certain
sort of encoder delivers input about speed and position, it offers closed-loop control to the
feedback system.
Construction of an AC Servo Motor
An ac servo motor is considered as a two-phase induction motor, as we just stated at the
beginning. However, ac servomotors have some unique design elements that are absent in
standard induction motors; as a result, it is believed that the two are built substantially
differently.
OOPs Concepts in Java

The stator and rotor are its two key structural components.
Stator: To begin, look at the following illustration of an ac servomotor's stator:

Two distinct windings that are evenly spaced apart and at 90° angles make up the stator of an
ac servo motor. The term "main" or "fixed" winding refers to one of the two windings, while
the term "control" refers to the other.
The primary winding of the stator receives an input that is a continuous ac signal. although
the control winding receives variable control voltage, as the name indicates. The servo
amplifier is used to produce this changing control voltage.
It should be noted that the voltage provided to the control winding must be 90 degrees out of
phase with the input ac voltage in order to create a revolving magnetic field.
Rotor: There are typically two sorts of rotors; one is a drag cup type and the other is a
squirrel cage type.

(ii) DC servomotors.
A servomotor that uses DC electrical input to produce mechanical output like position, velocity,
or acceleration is called a DC servomotor Generally, these types of motors are used as prime
movers within numerically controlled machines, computers, and many more wherever starts &
stops are made precisely & very quickly.
The motor used in this is a typical DC motor including its field winding which is excited
separately. So depending on the excitation nature, further can be categorized as armature-
controlled & field-controlled servo motors.
The load used in this is a simple fan or industrial load which is simply connected to the motor’s
mechanical shaft.
The gearbox in this construction works like a mechanical transducer to change the motor’s
output like acceleration, position, or velocity depending on the application.
A position sensor’s main function is to get the feedback signal equivalent to the current position
of the load. Generally, this is a potentiometer used to provide a voltage that is proportional to
the motor shaft’s absolute angle through the gear mechanism.
The comparator function is to compare the o/p of a position sensor & a reference point to
produce the error signal and gives it to the amplifier. If the DC motor works with precise
control, then there is no error. The position sensor, gearbox & comparator will make the system
a closed loop.
The amplifier function is to amplify the error from the comparator & feed it to the DC motor.
So, it performs like a proportional controller wherever the gain is strengthened for zero steady-
state error.

3.Explain working principle and salient features of stepper motor and its
control in robot.
 Or

Discuss about the features of the various hydraulic drive systems for an Industrial robot.

The term used for a mechanism that drives a Robot arm is actuator. These actuators may be electric motors
of some type or hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders. Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are generally suited
to driving prismatic joints since they produce linear motion directly. They are often referred to as linear
actuators. Electric motors which produce rotation are more suited to driving revolute joints. However
various gear mechanisms may be used to convert linear to rotary motion and vice versa. hydraulic
Actuators

A common example of a hydraulic device is the braking system of a modern car, here only moderate force
applied to the brake pedal produces a large enough force at the brake pads to stop the car. The underlying
principle of all hydraulic systems is Pascal's Law, which states:-

If external pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the pressure is transferred without loss to all surfaces in
contact with the fluid.

Figure 1 shows how Pascal's law is put to use in a simple hydraulic drive mechanism.

Applying Pascal's law :-

A liquid is confined in a cylinder between the two pistons A and B. If a force of 3kg is applied to B which
has a surface area of 1 sq. cm. There will be a pressure in the liquid of 3 kg per sq. cm or 300 KPa.
According to Pascal's law there is also a pressure on the surface of piston A. Piston A has a surface area
of 20 sq. cm the force on piston A would therefore be 60 kg. It appears we have multiplied the input force
20 times. Now because the liquid is incompressible, then if piston B is moved through 20 cm then piston
A will only move through 1 cm, therefore this can be summed up with the equation :-

Force x Distance moved at input = Force x Distance moved at output

Returning to the example of the car breaking system, it can now be easily explained. When the break pedal
is pressed it travels a few centimetres, but the pistons which operate the brakes in the wheels move only
one or two millimetres i.e. a small force applied to the brake pedal is used to produce a much larger force
at the brakes.

The Double Acting Cylinder

Here, movement of the piston in both directions can be controlled by pumping liquid into the cylinder.
Selecting port B as the inlet ( A closed and D open ) will move the piston outwards. Selecting C as the
inlet ( D closed and A open ) will move the piston inwards.

The hydraulic transfer valve

A practical arrangement of the double acting cylinder, allowing very precise control, is shown below. The
complete system consists of a high pressure pump, a reservoir, an electrically operated spool valve and
the hydraulic piston and cylinder.
With the spool valve in the position shown in the diagram, the piston would be unable to move, since no
fluid can enter or leave the cylinder. If the valve is moved to the left as shown in diagram a) both ports A
and B become fully open. High pressure fluid from the pump would then enter the cylinder through A,
forcing the piston outwards. Fluid behind the piston would be expelled through B and returned to the
reservoir. Similarly if the valve were moved to the right as in b), fluid would enter through B and leave
through A and the piston would move inwards. By moving the valve so that ports A and B are only partly
open, it is possible to produce very fine movements in the position of the piston. The valve movements
are usually controlled by a low current solenoid operated via a computer.

5.Explain vacuum grippers, with reference to the principle and applications.

Vacuum Grippers

Due to its high suppleness level, the vacuum robot gripper has been the standard end -of-arm
tooling in manufacturing. Vacuum grippers usually use polyurethane or a rubber suction cup to
pick up objects. However, some vacuum grippers use a closed-cell layer made from rubber instead
of the suction cups to complete their application.

Pros of Vacuum Grippers

Vacuum grippers can handle various types of objects regardless of their positions, whether perfect
or imperfect.

Vacuum grippers cost less as compared to other types of grippers.

Cons of Vacuum Grippers

Vacuum grippers are highly sensitive to dusty conditions.

Applications

Due to their use of vacuum pumps and power compressed air, vacuum grippers tend to use vast
amounts of electricity, resulting in added costs. Vacuum Grippers can handle a wide range of
applications and are ideal for picking up uneven and even workpieces made of different materials,
such as cardboard, glass, sheet metal (dry) and plastic. Because of the customizable bracket and
unique air nodes, Robotiq Vacuum Grippers provide manufacturers full control over their Gripper
to make sure it’s a perfect fit for their applications.

(ii) Explain the robot and end effector interface functions.

End effector is a device the robot uses to perform its proposed task. Often the end effector is a type of
gripper that is used to manipulate parts. For example, palletizing robots use end effectors to pick up and
move boxes. These end effectors are commonly either mechanical/pneumatic grippers or suction cup
systems. But not all applications require the robot to manipulate parts. In welding applications, robots
have welding torches mounted to the end of their arm. The proper end effector allows this robot to perform
its welding task.
End effectors are required for every robotic solution. Without end effectors, robots would be quite useless!
End effectors are critical for the robot to perform its task properly. Some common applications for end
effectors include:
Grippers and suction cups
Material handling
Pick and place
Assembly
Sorting
Weld torches and lasers
Welding
The specific solution will have the biggest influence on which end effector you should select. For example,
imagine you are considering a robotic solution for your part sorting application. You’ve already selected
a delta robot since it is a high-speed low-payload application. How can you separate ferrous from non-
ferrous parts? You can certainly use a mechanical gripper if the parts have edges that allow them to be
picked up. But a better solution might be an electromagnetic gripper. These are the types of considerations
required when selecting the right end-effector.
6.Justify whether the following statement is true or false. Degrees of freedom depend upon the number of
actuators used in a robot. Discuss in detail about the various types of sensors used in robotics.
(13) CO2
Degrees of freedom depend upon the number of actuators used in a robot is true.
Proximity sensors enable robots to detect objects at a distance without the need of physical contact, acting
as the eyes of the robot.

They consist of two parts; transmitter and receiver.

The transmitter first transmits a signal, this signal is reflected off an object and returns back to the receiver
alerting the robot of an object nearby. Depending on the complexity of the proximity sensor, it can
calculate the exact distance of the object.

The two most commonly used proximity sensors in robotics include;

• Infrared Sensor (IR) – uses an infrared beam which is transmitted by the transmitter (it cannot
calculate exact distance)

• Ultrasonic Sensor – ultrasonic sound waves are emitted by the transmitter (this type of sensor can
calculate the exact distance of an object within a specified range)

emperature sensors can have many uses in robotics and can be used internally in the robot, or for external
purposes.

When used internally, temperature sensors are used to ensure the temperature of the robotic system is
within the safe working limits.

Robots will employ a lot of electronics and motors that can get hot very fast. Temperature sensors are
used to alert the control system when things get too heated.

When used externally, temperature sensors in robotics are used to measure the ambient air temperature,
temperature of objects or of a liquid.

For example, a robot might be used to travel to depths of the ocean where measuring and recording
temperature information would be vital for scientists or researchers.

Common temperature sensors used in robotics include;

• Thermocouples

• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

• Thermistors

• Semiconductor based IC sensors

Sound sensors

Sound sensors are typically microphones which are the ears of the robot allowing it to perceive sound.

They sense sound from the surroundings and convert it into a voltage which is then sent to the control
system for further processing.
A great application of sound sensors is voice recognition. This would come in handy in scenarios where
you might need to control a robot but your hands are tied up.

One great example of this is in the surgery room, where a robot can assist a surgeon with an operation.
The surgeon might have both hands full, but could still communicate with the robot using his or her
voice.

Sound sensors can also be used in robotics as a means of vibration detection

Force (or pressure) sensor is a sensor with exact ability that is needed by a robotic arm (which is to
calculate the amount or force it is subject to).

The resistance of a force sensor varies depending on the amount of force applied to it (which is why they
are also referred to as Force Sensitive Resistors)

An Accelerometer is a type of sensor that measures the acceleration of a body that it is used within. The
accelerometer measures the force caused by sudden motion (acceleration).

Light sensors

Light sensors, as the name might suggest, have the ability to detect varying levels of light.

The most common type of light sensor is the Photoresistor. The resistance of the sensor varies with
varying light levels.

The more light the less resistance, and lower light levels increase its resistance.

Other common types of light sensor include;

• Photovoltaic cells

• Photo-diodes

• Photo-transistors

Magnetic sensors

Last up of commonly used sensors in robotics are Magnetic Sensors.

This type of sensor is used to detect the presence of magnetic fields, as well as ferromagnetic and
conducting objects.

Again, there are many variations of the magnetic sensor, each having a different construction or working
principle. But, the overall aim of each of them is the same, which is to be able to detect magnetic fields.

Common magnetic sensors include;

• Hall-effect sensor

• Reed sensors
7. Compare the servo motor with stepper motor, choose suitable drive system for industrial robot
along with your justification.

1. Feedback System

Stepper motor is an open-loop system:

Open loop system of stepper motor of block diagram

Stepper Motor is an open-loop system that means it has no inbuilt encoder feedback from the motor to
drive.

Programmable logic controller (PLC) generates PWM/PTO pulses and commands to stepper drive along
with direction signal then stepper drive gives the supply to motor and motor starts rotating on steps.

ased on your number of pulses motor turns in steps. The motor does not give any feedback to the stepper
drive.

Servo motor is closed loop system:

Closed loop system of servo motor of block diagram

Servo Motor has an inbuilt encoder and it gives current position feedback to the servo drive that’s why
it’s a closed-loop system.
PLC generates PWM/PTO pulses and commands to servo drive along with direction signal then servo
drive gives the supply to motor and motor starts rotating.

Motor gives running feedback to servo drive with the encoder cable and we can take this feedback in
PLC through control cables.

Read more: Open-loop control system vs closed-loop control system

2. Speed and Torque

Speed and torque of stepper motor:

• Stepper motor has less speed than servo motor, the normal stepper motor has a maximum speed of
1500 RPM.

• As Motor speed increases motor torque reduces.

• It gives excellent torque in low-speed applications.

• Stepper Motor is not useful in the torque control applications.

Speed and torque of servo motor:

• Servo motor has a higher speed than a stepper motor, however, in the market, you will get different
speed drive up to 5000 RPM.

• We get high torque at a higher speed.

• It gives excellent torque in high-speed applications.

• Servo Motor can be used in the torque control applications. (Ex. Nut tighten tool)

3. Electric Current

Current in Stepper Motor:

• DC Current is used to energize the stepper motor magnetic coil.

• Torque can be increased by increasing current.

• It consumes less power.

Current in Servo motor:

• Three Phase AC Current is used to energize the servo motor magnetic coil.

• Torque can be increased by increasing current.

• It consumes more power than a stepper motor.

4. Cost difference of stepper and servo motors

Servo motor and servo drive are more expensive than stepper motor and stepper drive. So for low budget
application stepper motor is more preferable.

5. How to select motor for applications?

Select the stepper motor, if your requirement as per below,

• Your application should not require position feedback.

• For low-speed applications.

• You can use stepper motor only in position control applications.

• For simple machine applications.

• If your application is for holding torque.

Select the servo motor, if your requirement as per below,

• If you want position feedback.

• For high-speed applications.

• Speed control applications.

• Torque control applications.

• For complex machinery systems.

• For more precise and fast equipment.

6. Industrial examples of stepper and servo motors

Examples of stepper motor applications:

What is a stepper motor used for?

Ball screw movement (spray painting or paper cutting machines)

Precise up/down movement (welding machine)

3D printers

Small robots

Textile machines

Medical equipments
 For the above applications, you should consider the stepper motor as your first preference.

Examples of servo motor applications:

Robots

Packaging machinery

Camera auto-focus

CNC machines

Cutting machines

Shearing and forming machines

Proportional valve control

Printing machinery

8. Define end effector. Draw the different mechanism used in the gripper and describe any two
mechanism in detail.

End effectors are the piece of the robot that interacts with the parts or components in the environment.
Sometimes they are referred to as “end-of-arm tooling” or “manipulator.” End effectors are found at the
end of the robot’s arm. There are many types of end-effectors for different types of applications. Some
examples of end effectors include:

• Mechanical grippers

• Pneumatic grippers

• Suction cups

• Weld torches

• Magnetic gripper

Various types of Gripper mechanisms

Pivoting or Swinging Gripper Mechanisms:

This is the most popular mechanical gripper for industrial robots. It can be designed for limited shapes
of an object, especially cylindrical work piece.

If actuators that produce linear movement are used, like pneumatic piston-cylinders, the device contains
a pair of slider-crank mechanisms.

When the piston 1 is pushed by pneumatic pressure to the right, the elements in the cranks 2 and 3, rotate
counter clockwise with the fulcrum F and clockwise with the fulcrum F respectively, when B < 1800.
These rotations make the grasping action at the extended end of the crank elements 2 and 3.

The releasing action can be obtained by moving the piston to the left. An angle B ranging from 160° to
is commonly used.

This is the swing block mechanism. The sliding rod 1, actuated by the pneumatic piston transmits motion
by way of the two symmetrically arranged swing-block linkages 1--2--3--4 and 1—2—3‘—4‘ to grasp
or release the object by means of the subsequent swinging motions of links 4 and 4' at their pivots F.
A gripper using a rotary actuator in which the actuator is placed at the cross point of the two fingers.
Each finger is connected to the rotor and the housing of the actuator, respectively. The actuator movement
directly produces grasping and releasing actions.

The cam actuated gripper includes a variety of possible designs, one of which is shown.

A cam and follower arrangement, often using a spring-loaded follower, can provide the opening and
closing action of the gripper. The advantage of this arrangement is that the spring action would
accommodate different sized objects.

The screw is turned by a motor, usually accompanied by a speed reduction mechanism. Due to the
rotation of the screw, the threaded block moves, causing the opening and dosing of the fingers depending
on the direction of rotation of the screw.
 PART C

1.Explain the case study on mobile robot research platform and industrial

serial arm manipulator.

Mobile research Platform

Nowadays, mobile robotics is one of the fastest expanding fields of scientific research. Due to their
abilities, mobile robots can substitute humans in many fields. Applications include surveillance, planetary
exploration, patrolling, emergency rescue operations, reconnaissance, petrochemical applications,
industrial automation, construction, entertainment, museum guides, personal services, intervention in
extreme environments, transportation, medical care, and so on, as well as many other industrial and
nonindustrial applications. Most of these are already available on the market.

Mobile robots can move autonomously (in an industrial plant, laboratory, planetary surface, etc.), that is,
without assistance from external human operators. A robot is autonomous when the robot itself has the
ability to determine the actions to be taken to perform a task, using a perception system that helps it. It
also needs a cognition unit or a control system to coordinate all the subsystems that comprise the robot.

The basics of mobile robotics consist of the fields of locomotion, perception, cognition, and navigation. 1

Locomotion problems are solved by understanding the mechanism and kinematics, dynamics, and control
theory.

Perception involves the areas of signal analysis and specialized fields such as computer vision and sensor
technologies.

Cognition is responsible for analyzing the input data from sensors and taking the corresponding actions
to achieve the objectives of the mobile robot. It is in charge of the control system scheme.

Navigation requires knowledge of planning algorithms, information theory, and artificial intelligence.

How a mobile robot can move in a real world to fulfill its objectives without human interaction. To
understand the basis, it must be noted that in a mobile robot, several technological areas and fields must
be observed and integrated for the correct operation of the robot: the locomotion system and kinematics,
perception system (sensors), localization system, and navigation system. All these systems have to be
integrated by a control unit, so that the work or mission of the mobile robot is carried out in a coherent
way. There are many academic institutions worldwide and many researches dedicated to mobile robot
research. In this overview, we cannot name all of them, so we apologize for this shortcoming. However,
we would like to point out the work carried out in earlier studies because they offer a journey through the
world of mobile robots (underwater robots, flying octopus, earth exploration robots, etc.), with historical
overviews, recent developments, and technical approaches to mechanical design and control decisions
together with interactive dynamics.
Locomotion
The first issue affecting mobile robots is locomotion. Although their motion usually takes place in known,
controlled environments like a factory, department stores, and so on, on other occasions they have to move
in dangerous, inhospitable, and extreme environments (e.g. the Sojourner robot used in the Mars
Pathfinder mission to explore Mars in 1997,6 Spirit and Opportunity in 2004,7 and Curiosity in 2012.

The mobile robot can also move in other different environments. A small underwater robot for ocean
observation, which is suitable for fixed point or small range and underwater slit and gully areas of ocean
observation, is described in the study by Lingshuai et al.10 Another example of an underwater robot can
be found in Khatib et al.11 They can also move in the air, such as unmanned aerial vehicles. 12 A latest
trend such as driverless autonomous vehicles relies not only on the control but also on the locomotion
system.

The robot’s locomotion system is an important aspect of the mobile robot design and it depends not only
on the medium in which the robot moves (on the Earth’s surface, under water, in the air, etc.) but also on
technical criteria such as maneuverability, controllability, terrain conditions, efficiency, stability, and so
on.

Depending on it, robots can mainly walk, roll, jump, run, slide, skate, swim, and fly. According to their
locomotion system, mobile robots can be classified into the following major categories:

1.Stationary (arm/manipulator)

2.Land-based

a.Wheeled mobile robot (WMR)

b.Walking (or legged) mobile robot

c.Tracked slip/skid locomotion

d.Hybrid

3.Air-based

4.Water-based

5.Other

Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Stationary robot (arm/manipulator)

Manipulators and industrial robots are examples of this type. The robot’s base is fixed and they consist of
an open kinematic chain, mainly with an end-effector with specials tools which not only handle objects
but can also perform tasks such as welding, painting, assembling, machining, and so on. Robots of this
type include Abb, Kuka, Fanuc, Staubli, Kawasaki, Comau, Wittman, and so on.
Other important stationary robotic systems are grasping devices. Grasping is an important part of handling
and from the beginning grasping devices were conceived mainly to help humans with handling tasks,
providing solutions that can be classified into two categories: tools and prostheses. 13 Over time, grasping
devices have come to be used in many sectors, such as industry; agriculture, and so on, and a variety of
robotic hand and finger mechanics have been developed. A broad overview can be found in Carlos et al.14

Land-based robots
These can be classified as follows:

Wheeled mobile robots

Wheels are one of the most important systems for robot locomotion, and autonomous intelligent vehicles
(AIVs) are part of a challenging research field in mobile robotics, which relies on principles such as pattern
recognition and signal–image processing. They will play an important role in transport, logistics, and
distribution.

The use of wheels is simpler than using treads or legs and is easier to design, build, and program when
the robot is moving on flat, nonrugged terrain. They also tend to be much cheaper than their legged
counterparts. Wheel control is less complex and they cause less wear and tear on the surface where they
move in comparison with other solutions. Another advantage is that they do not present any great difficulty
in terms of balance issues, since the robot is usually in contact with a surface.

The main disadvantage of wheels is that they are not very good at navigating over obstacles, such as rocky
terrain, sharp surfaces, or areas with low friction.

There are four basic wheel types:15,16

I.Fixed standard wheel: These are conventional wheels with one degree of freedom (DOF), rotation
around the contact point.

II.Castor wheel: It has two DOF and turning around an offset steering joint.

III.Swedish wheel: It has three DOF, revolving around the driven wheel axle, around the contact point
and the rollers.

IV.Ball or spherical wheel: Its implementation is technically complex.

It is very important to know the number and type of wheels in the robot to model the kinematics and
dynamics.

In general, wheeled robot research tends to focus on the problems of traction and stability,
maneuverability, and control. Stability is not usually a great problem in wheeled robot, because they are
almost always designed so that all wheels are in contact with the ground at all times. Thus, three wheels
are sufficient to guarantee stable balance, although two-wheeled robots can also be stable. If more than
three wheels are used, a suspension system is needed. Its mission is to enable all wheels to maintain contact
with the ground particularly when the robot maneuver around rough terrain. There are many wheel
configurations for rolling robots, as seen in Campion and Chung, although there is no perfect drive
configuration that simultaneously optimizes stability. Stability is more problematic in biped robots.
There are other variants of wheels, as in Laney and Hong. In addition, the arrangement of the wheels and
the configuration of the mobile robot are also very important.

WMRs can also be classified according to the drive system:

I.Differential drive WMRs

II.Car-type WMRs

III.Omnidirectional WMRs

IV.Synchro drive WMRs

No perfect drive system exists that simultaneously optimizes maneuverability, controllability, and
stability. Each mobile robot application faces unique restraints on the robot design procedure. The problem
is reduced to select the most convenient drive configuration taken into account all the compromises.

The actuators attached to the wheels, in a differential drive mobile robot, must be driven along the same
velocity profile, which can be endangered considering variations among wheels, actuator, and
environmental working conditions.

Omnidirectional robots are capable to heading for any direction.25,26 They can be made of spherical,
Swedish, or castor wheels. The humanoid robot Pepper is an omnidirectional wheeled humanoid robot
which can analyze expressions and voice tones. It has most of the more sophisticated sensors on the market
(HD camera,·depth sensor, gyroscope, touch sensor, sonar, and laser). 27 The synchro drive configuration
is an appropriated configuration because, although there are three or more driven and steered wheels, only
two actuators motors are utilized. One of them sets the speed of all three wheels together. The other spins
all the wheels about each of their own vertical steering axes. It is very important when modeling any robot
to know the number and types of wheels. According to the number of wheels, the robots can be classified
as follows:

Single-wheeled robots
Unicycle robots have only one fixed or conventional wheel. The unicycle system is an inherently unstable
system. Both longitudinal and lateral stability controls are needed simultaneously to maintain the
unicycle’s posture.

Two-wheeled robots
These have two alike parallel, conventional wheels (linked to both sides of the robot), which are controlled
by two independent actuators. It is also considered that every wheel is perpendicular to the ground and the
contact between the wheels and the ground is nonslipping and pure rolling.The Roomba vacuum cleaner
is a two-wheeled robot which is a good exponent of mobile robotics in recent household applications. It
utilizes a contact sensor at the front and an infrared sensor on top. Segways can also be considered a self-
balancing, two-wheeled robot. In the Ghost Rider robot, the wheel alignment is front and back, so that it
is harder to balance when it turns.
Three-wheeled robots
Two types of three-wheeled robots can be distinguished: firstly, differentially steered (two driven wheels
with an additional free turning wheel to maintain the vehicle in balance) and secondly, two wheels driven
by a single actuator and a driven steering for the third wheel.30

Four-wheeled robots
These robots are more stable than the three-wheeled counterpart, because the center of gravity (COG) is
located inside the rectangle formed by the four wheels rather than a triangle. The wheels can be
differentially steered (like rovers), two-by-two powered wheels (like a tank motion), or can have car-like
steering. Car-like mobile robots are very important.Google’s self-driving car, AIVs, and the Hybtor Robot
belong to this type. They are acquiring a great importance in transports, logistics, food industry, and food
processing.

Five-wheeled robots
Five-wheeled robots are designed to move through outdoor rough terrains since they improve the contact
and stability. Xu et al. first proposed an innovative asymmetrical prototype of a five-wheeled robot
(WMR) with reconfiguration features which can over-cross the obstacles and climb on slope. In another
study, the slip on that five-WMR when moving on an uneven terrain is presented, and conclusion about
the relationship between the contact patch of wheel and terrain, obstacle height, and hence contact angle
and the wheel rotation angle are reached.

Six-wheeled robots
When more powered wheels are used, the design becomes much more complex. The Sojourner robot from
the Mars Pathfinder mission in 1997,6 Spirit and Opportunity in 20047 and Curiosity in 20128 are good
examples of six-wheeled robots. They have a suspension system which keeps all six wheels in contact
with the surface and helps them go over slopes and sandy terrain. Good control is needed to avoid slipping.

Industrial Serial Arm

.

2. Write short notes in application of robot in various fields in emerging technology.

1. Security

Imagine if all the security guards are robots? Even thieves would be scared! That’s why robots are being
proposed as security agents as they can protect humans, and they wouldn’t be in danger like human
security guards would be. Currently, robotics companies are working on pairing robot guards with human
security consultants. A very famous company in this field is Knightscope in the United States that has
autonomous security robots capable of assisting human security guards with real-time, actionable
intelligence. These robots can help with crimes such as armed robberies, burglaries, domestic violence,
fraud, hit, and runs, etc.

2. Space Exploration

There are many things in space that are very dangerous for astronauts to do. Humans can’t roam on Mars
all day to collect soil samples or work on repairing a spaceship from the outside while it’s in deep space!
In these situations, robots are a great choice because there are no chances for the loss of human life then.
So space institutions like NASA frequently use robots and autonomous vehicles to do things that humans
can’t. For example, Mars Rover is an autonomous robot that travels on Mars and takes pictures of Martian
rock formations that are interesting or important and then sends them back on Earth for the NASA
scientists to study.

3. Entertainment

Robots are also a big draw in the entertainment industry. While they cannot exactly become actors and
actresses, they can be used behind the sets in movies and serials to manage the camera, provide special
effects, etc. They can be used for boring repetitive tasks that are not suitable for a human as cinema is,
after all, a creative industry. Robots can also be used to do stunt work that is very dangerous for humans
but looks pretty cool in an action movie. Theme parks like Disney World are also using autonomous
robots to enhance the magical experience of their customers.

4. Agriculture

Agriculture is the sector that is the basis of human civilization. However, agriculture is also a seasonal
sector that is dependent on ideal weather conditions optimal soil, etc. Moreover, there are many repetitive
tasks in agriculture that are just a waste of farmer’s time and can be performed more suitable by robots.
These include seeding, weed control, harvesting, etc. Robots are usually used for harvesting the crops
which allow farmers to be more efficient. An example of a robot that is used to remove weeds in farms
is the Ecorobotix. It is powered by solar energy and can be used to target and spray weeds using a
complex camera system.

5. Health Care

Robots have changed healthcare a lot. And all for the better! They can help doctors in performing
operations more precisely, be used as prosthetic limbs, provide therapy to patients, etc. The possibilities
are limitless. One example of this is the da Vinci robot that can help surgeons in performing complex
surgeries relating to the heart, head, neck, and other sensitive areas. There are other robotic devices that
are created like exoskeletons that can be used to provide additional support for people undergoing
rehabilitation after spinal injures, strokes, etc.

6. Underwater Exploration

Robots are a great option for exploring places that humans cannot reach easily, like the depths of the
ocean! There is a lot of water pressure deep in the ocean which means humans cannot go that down and
machines such as submarines can only go to a certain depth as well. A deep underwater is a mysterious
place that can finally be explored using specially designed robots. These robots are remote-controlled,
and they can go into depths of the ocean to collect data and images about the aquatic plant and animal
life.

7. Food Preparation

Don’t want to cook? Don’t worry, there are robots that even can cook and create complete meals for you!
These robot chefs can create food using hundreds of different recipes. All humans need to do is choose
the recipe they want and provide the robot with pre-packaged containers of all the ingredients that are
needed for that recipe. The robot can then cook the food on its own. Moley Robotics is one such robotics
company that has created a robotic kitchen with a robot that can cook like a master chef! So no worries
if you can’t cook food. Because now a robot can!

8. Manufacturing

There are many repetitive and common tasks in the manufacturing industry that don’t require any usage
of the mind like welding, assembly, packing, etc. These tasks can be easily done by robots while leaving
the mentally challenging and creative tasks to humans. These robots can be trained to perform these
 repetitive and monotonous tasks with precision under the guidance and supervision of a human. This
option is also best for the manufacturing processes that are dangerous and may be harmful to humans.

9. Military

Robots also have many applications in the military. They can be used as drones to keep surveillance on
the enemy, they can also be used as armed systems to attack the opposing forces or as Medicare agents
to help friendly forces. Some of the popular robots used in the Military sector include MAARS (Modular
Advanced Armed Robotic System) which looks like a tank and contains tear gas and lasers to confuse
enemies and even grenade launcher for desperate situations. DOGO is also a tactical combat robot that
has a camera for spying on the activities of the enemy and a 9-millimeter pistol for emergency situations!

10. Customer Service

There are robots that are developed to look exactly like humans for cosmetic purposes. These robots are
primarily used in the field of customer service in high visibility areas to promote robotics. One such
example is Nadine, a humanoid robot in Singapore that can recognize people from previous visits, make
eye contact, shake hands, continue chatting based on previous meetings, etc. Another such customer
service robot is Junko Chihira in Japan, a humanoid robot working at the tourist information center in
Aqua City Odaiba, a shopping center on Tokyo’s waterfront

Describe the desirable features of sensors?What are the basic

classifications of sensors?

Proximity sensors enable robots to detect objects at a distance without the need of physical contact,
acting as the eyes of the robot.

They consist of two parts; transmitter and receiver.

The transmitter first transmits a signal, this signal is reflected off an object and returns back to the receiver
alerting the robot of an object nearby. Depending on the complexity of the proximity sensor, it can
calculate the exact distance of the object.

The two most commonly used proximity sensors in robotics include;

• Infrared Sensor (IR) – uses an infrared beam which is transmitted by the transmitter (it cannot
calculate exact distance)

• Ultrasonic Sensor – ultrasonic sound waves are emitted by the transmitter (this type of sensor can
calculate the exact distance of an object within a specified range)

emperature sensors can have many uses in robotics and can be used internally in the robot, or
for external purposes.

When used internally, temperature sensors are used to ensure the temperature of the robotic system is
within the safe working limits.
Robots will employ a lot of electronics and motors that can get hot very fast. Temperature sensors are
used to alert the control system when things get too heated.

When used externally, temperature sensors in robotics are used to measure the ambient air
temperature, temperature of objects or of a liquid.

For example, a robot might be used to travel to depths of the ocean where measuring and recording
temperature information would be vital for scientists or researchers.

Common temperature sensors used in robotics include;

• Thermocouples

• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

• Thermistors

• Semiconductor based IC sensors

Sound sensors
Sound sensors are typically microphones which are the ears of the robot allowing it to perceive sound.
They sense sound from the surroundings and convert it into a voltage which is then sent to the control
system for further processing.
A great application of sound sensors is voice recognition. This would come in handy in scenarios where
you might need to control a robot but your hands are tied up.
One great example of this is in the surgery room, where a robot can assist a surgeon with an operation.
The surgeon might have both hands full, but could still communicate with the robot using his or her voice.
Sound sensors can also be used in robotics as a means of vibration detection
Force (or pressure) sensor is a sensor with exact ability that is needed by a robotic arm (which is to
calculate the amount or force it is subject to).
The resistance of a force sensor varies depending on the amount of force applied to it (which is why they
are also referred to as Force Sensitive Resistors)
An Accelerometer is a type of sensor that measures the acceleration of a body that it is used within. The
accelerometer measures the force caused by sudden motion (acceleration).

Light sensors
Light sensors, as the name might suggest, have the ability to detect varying levels of light.
The most common type of light sensor is the Photoresistor. The resistance of the sensor varies with
varying light levels.
The more light the less resistance, and lower light levels increase its resistance.
Other common types of light sensor include;

• Photovoltaic cells

• Photo-diodes

• Photo-transistors
Magnetic sensors
Last up of commonly used sensors in robotics are Magnetic Sensors.
This type of sensor is used to detect the presence of magnetic fields, as well as ferromagnetic and
conducting objects.
Again, there are many variations of the magnetic sensor, each having a different construction or working
principle. But, the overall aim of each of them is the same, which is to be able to detect magnetic fields.
Common magnetic sensors include;

• Hall-effect sensor

Reed sensors

4.

(b) Analyze about the sensors and actuators in maze solving robot system.

Maze construction A 4×4 physical maze is constructed to verify the robot performance. An
simulate the flood fill algorithm.

An autonomous robot is a category of robot that can perform tasks intelligently depending o
themselves, without any human assistance .Maze Solving Robot is one of the most popul
autonomous robots. It is a small self-reliant robot that can solve a maze from a known startin
position to the center area of the maze in the shortest possible time. A maze solving robot mak
multiple runs in a maze, first it create a map of the maze layout and store it in its memory, the
run through a shortest path.

Problem
 To design a hardware for maze solving robot, construct a software with the combination of wa
following and flood fill algorithms then implement the software in the hardware of maze solvin
robot. At last make a maze 6×6 maze to verify the robot.

Sensors

An Ultrasonic sensor is a device that can measure the distance to an object by using sound wav
HC-SR04 is one of the common ultrasonic sensor. It has two part, one is transmitter another
receiver. A pulse is triggered in the trigger pin, then a sound wave send to the object, then th
reflected wave from the object is received by the receiver. The received signal go to the circuit f
measured the distance. In figure-3.7, a working diagram of sonar sensor is given. T

he formula of measuring distance using sonar sensor is given below: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛
× 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛/ 2

Features:

• Operating Voltage: 5V DC

• Operating Current: 15mA

• Measure Angle: 15°

• Ranging Distance: 2cm - 4m

L298 Motor driver

This dual bidirectional motor driver. Most popular L298 Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver Integrated Circuit
is used here.

Features [19]:

 Logic voltage- 5V

 Drive voltage- 5V to 35V

 Logic Current- 0mA-36mA

 Drive current- 2A (MAX each bridge)

 Maximum Power – 25W

Motors

Two DC gear motors have been used to drive this robot. This gear motor is ideal for robotic car or line-
tracing robot.

Features

 Operating voltage: 3V ~ 6V DC

 Speed without load: 800g.cm