MODULE COMPILATION - and manufacturing of products and

processes.
 MODULE 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID TYPES OF FLUID
MECHANICS
Mechanics
- the branch of science, divided
into statics, dynamics, and kinematics,
concerned with
the equilibrium or motion of bodies in
a particular frame of reference
- involves how bodies or parts of bodies
work together because of the forces
that are applied between them.
Fluid Mechanics
- is the study of fluid behavior (liquids,
gases, blood, and plasmas) at rest and
in motion. Fluid mechanics has a wide
range of applications in mechanical
and chemical engineering, in
biological systems, and in astrophysics
- is the study of fluids at rest and in
motion. A fluid is defined as a
material that continuously deforms
under a constant load. There are five
relationships that are most useful in
fluid mechanics problems: kinematic,
stress, conservation, regulating, and
constitutive. 
Hydraulics
- Hydraulics is the study of fluids
whether in motion or at
rest. Hydrodynamics is the study of
fluids in motion,
and hydrostatics considers the
properties of fluids in static
equilibrium (motionless)
- Hydraulics is mechanical function that
operates through the force of liquid
pressure. In hydraulics-based systems,
mechanical movement is produced by
contained, pumped liquid, typically
through cylinders moving pistons.
Hydraulics is a component
mechatronics, which
combines mechanical, electronics and
 - When the cohesive forces between
the liquid are less than the adhesive
forces between the liquid and the
container, the surface curves up. For
example, water in a glass container.
- When both adhesive and cohesive
forces are equal, the surface is
horizontal. For example, distilled
water in a silver vessel.

Capillary action
- Capillary action is the result of
cohesive and adhesive forces. When
a liquid flows through a narrow
space, the cohesive and adhesive
forces act together to lift it against
the natural force of gravity. Wetting
of a paper towel, water flowing up
FLUID PROPERTIES from the roots to the tip of a plant
are a few examples of capillary
- Cohesion is the property of like action.
molecules (of the same substance) to
stick to each other due to mutual
attraction. Adhesion is the property of
different molecules or surfaces to
cling to each other.

Surface Tension
- Surface tension is the result of
cohesive forces between adjacent
molecules. The molecules in the
bulk of a liquid are pulled equally in
all directions by the neighboring
molecules. But the surface
molecules do not have molecules on
all sides. Hence they are pulled
inwards causing the liquid to shrink
to form a surface with minimum
area, a sphere. Hence water droplets
are spherical.

Meniscus
The curved surface of a liquid inside a
container is the meniscus.

- When the cohesive forces between

the liquid molecules are greater than
the adhesive forces between the
liquid and the wall s of the
container, the surface of the liquid
is convex. For example, Mercury in
a container.
 Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a
fluid towards being deformed when under
shear stress. Hence, it is also known as

shear viscosity. It is caused by the attractive

forces between molecules in close contact,
and the friction between molecular chains.
Higher energy is required to deform a
highly viscous liquid, while lower energy is
needed when deforming a less viscous fluid.

 Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is the measurement of the

inherent resistance of a fluid to flow when no
external force is imparted except gravity. This
is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to its
 Viscosity density, i.e. a force independent quantity.
Kinematic viscosity can be computed by along the same horizontal plane are
dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid with equal). Label these points with the same
the fluid mass density. number.

4. Proceed from level to level, adding

(if going down) or subtracting (if going
up) pressure heads as the elevation
decreases or increases, respectively with
due regard for the specific gravity of the
fluids

HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON PLANE

SURFACES

 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

STEPS IN SOLVING MANOMETER

PROBLEMS

1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter,

of which the heads are to be expressed (
water is most advisable)

2. Starting from an end point, number in

order, the interface of different fluids.

3. Identify points of equal pressure RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM OF

(taking into account that for a LIQUIDS
homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressure
 Relative equilibrium of liquid is a
condition where the whole mass of
liquid including the vessel in which the
liquid is contained, is moving at
uniform accelerated motion with respect
to the earth, but every particle of liquid
have no relative motion between each
other. There are two cases of relative
equilibrium that will be discussed in this
section: linear translation and rotation.
 - C
L
O
S
ED CYLINDRICAL VESSELS

- HOOP TENSION

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

-OPEN CYLINDRICAL VESSELS

  LECTURE 2.1
- Archimedes’ principle, physical
law of buoyancy, discovered by the
ancient Greek mathematician and
inventor Archimedes, stating that
any body completely or partially
submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid)
at rest is acted upon by an upward,
or buoyant, force, the magnitude of
which is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body. The
volume of displaced fluid is
equivalent to the volume of an
object fully immersed in a fluid or
to that fraction of the volume below
the surface for an object partially
submerged in a liquid. The weight
of the displaced portion of the fluid
is equivalent to the magnitude of
the buoyant force. The buoyant
force on a body floating in a liquid
or gas is also equivalent in
magnitude to the weight of the
floating object and is opposite in
direction; the object neither rises
nor sinks. For example, a ship that
is launched sinks into the ocean
until the weight of the water it
displaces is just equal to its own
weight. As the ship is loaded, it
sinks deeper, displacing more
water, and so the magnitude of the
buoyant force continuously matches
the weight of the ship and its cargo.

MODULE 2
 LECTURE 2.2 6. GRAVITY DAM
- DAMS 7. HYDROPOWER DAM
- A dam is a structure built across a 8. INDUSTRIAL WASTE DAM
river or stream to hold back water. 9. MASONRY DAM
People have used different materials to 10. OVERFLOW DAM
build dams over the centuries. Ancient 11. REGULATING (AFTER BAY)
dam builders used natural materials 12. SADDLE OR DIKE DAM
such as rocks or clay. Modern-day
dam builders often use concrete.
- Manmade dams create artificial lakes
called reservoirs. Reservoirs can be
used to store water for farming,
industry, and household use. They also
can be used for fishing, boating, and
other leisure activities. People have
used dams for many centuries to help
prevent flooding. 


TYPES
OF

DAM
1. ARCH DAM
2. BUTTRESS DAM
3. COFFER DAM
4. DIVERSION DAM
5. EMBANKMENT DAM
 LECTURE 2.3 the body is said to be just stable which
- FLOATATION/STABILITY OF simply means critical. The value of
FLOATING BODIES righting moment or overturning moment
is given by
Any floating body is subjected by  RM or OM=Wx=W(MGsinθ)
two opposing vertical forces. One is the
body's weight W which is downward, The distance MG is called metacentric
and the other is the buoyant height.
force BF which is upward. The weight
is acting at the center of gravity G and Metacentric height, MG=MBO±GBO
the buoyant force is acting at the center
of buoyancy BO. W and BF are always Use (-) if G is above BO and (+) if G is
equal and if these forces are collinear, below BO. Note that M is always
the body will be in upright position as above BO.
shown below.  

Value of MBO
Assume that the body is rectangular at
the top view and measures B by L at the
waterline when in upright position. The
moment due to the shifting of the
buoyant force is equal to the moment
due to shifting of wedge.
 

The body may tilt from many causes

like wind or wave action causing the
center of buoyancy to shift to a new
position BO' as shown below.

Point M is the intersection of the axis of

the body and the line of action of the
buoyant force, it is called metacenter.
If M is above G, BF and W will produce
a righting moment RM which causes the
body to return to its neutral position,
thus the body is stable. If M is below G,
the body becomes unstable because of
the overturning moment OM made
by W and BF. If M coincides with G,
  LECTURE 2.4
- HYDRAULICS
- A branch of science concerned with
Where
W = weight of the body
BF = buoyant force
M = metacenter
G = center of gravity of the body
BO = center of buoyancy in upright position
BO' = center of buoyancy in tilted position
MG = metacentric height or the distance
from M to G
MBO = distance from M to BO
GO = distance from G to BO the practical applications of fluids,
v = volume of the wedge either immersion or
emersion
s = horizontal distance between the center of
gravity of the wedges
θ = angle of tilting
I = moment of inertia of the waterline section
of the body
RM = righting moment
OM = overturning moment
 
primarily liquids, in motion. It is
related to fluid mechanics, which in
large part provides its theoretical
foundation. Hydraulics deals with
such matters as the flow of liquids in
pipes, rivers, and channels and their
confinement by dams and tanks. Some
SAMPLE PROBLEMS: of its principles apply also to gases,
usually in cases in which variations in
density are relatively small.
Consequently, the scope of hydraulics
extends to such mechanical devices as
fans and gas turbines and to pneumatic
control systems.
 - FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID turbulent motion are neither parallel nor fixed
FLOW
but it aggregates to forward motion of the
Discharge (also called flow rate)
entire stream. Reynolds’ number greater than
The amount of fluid passing a section of a
stream in unit time is called the discharge. 2100 normally defines turbulent flow but in
If v is the mean velocity and A is the cross highly controlled environment such as
sectional area, the discharge Q is defined laboratories, laminar flow can be maintained
by Q = Av which is known as volume flow
rate. Discharge is also expressed as mass up to values of Re as high as 50,000. However,
flow rate and weight flow rate. it is very unlikely that such condition can
Volume flow rate, Q=AvQ=Av occur in the practice.
Mass flow rate, M=ρQM=ρQ  
Weight flow rate, W=Γq Steady Flow
Steady flow occurs if the discharge Q passing
Where: a given cross section of a stream is constant
Q = discharge in m3/sec or ft3/sec with time, otherwise the flow is unsteady.
A = cross-sectional area of flow in m2 or ft2  
v = mean velocity of flow in m/sec or ft/sec Uniform Flow
ρ = mass density of fluid in kg/m3 or slugs/ft3 The flow is said to be uniform if, with steady
γ = unit weight of fluid in N/m3 or lb/ft3 flow for a given length, or reach, of a stream,
  the average velocity at every cross-section is
Laminar Flow the same. Uniform flow usually occurs to
Flow is said to be laminar when the paths of incompressible fluids flowing in a stream of
the individual particles do not cross or constant cross section. In streams where
intersect. By many careful experiments to velocity and cross section changes, the flow is
commercial pipes of circular cross section, the said to be non-uniform.
flow is laminar when the Reynolds’  
number Re is less than 2100. Continuous Flow
  By the principle of conservation of mass,
Turbulent Flow continuous flow occurs when at any time, the
The discharge Q at every section of the stream is
flow the same.
is
said
to be

turbulent when its path lines are irregular

curves and continuously cross each other. The
paths of particles of a stream flowing with
Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy Pressure Energy and Pressure Head
A mass of fluid acquires pressure energy when
Energy is defined as ability to do work. Both
it is in contact with other masses having some
energy and work are measured in Newton-
form of energy. Pressure energy therefore is an
meter (or pounds-foot in English). Kinetic
energy transmitted to the fluid by another mass
energy and potential energy are the two
that possesses some energy.
commonly recognized forms of energy. In a
flowing fluid, potential energy may in turn be Pressure energy=WpγPressure energy=Wpγ
subdivided into energy due to position or
Pressure head=Pressure energyW=pγPressure
elevation above a given datum, and energy due
head=Pressure energyW=pγ
to pressure in the fluid. Head is the amount of
energy per Newton (or per pound) of fluid.  
  Total Energy of Flow
Kinetic Energy and Velocity Head
Kinetic energy is the ability of a mass to do The total energy or head in a fluid is the sum

work by virtue of its velocity. The kinetic of kinetic and potential energies. Recall that

energy of a mass m having a velocity v is potential energies are pressure energy and

½mv2. Since m = W/g, elevation energy.

Total energy = Kinetic energy + Pressure
energy + Elevation energy
Total head = Velocity head + Pressure head +
Elevation head

In symbol, the total head energy is

E=v22g+pγ+zE=v22g+pγ+z
Where:
v = mean velocity of flow (m/sec in SI and
ft/sec in English)
p = fluid pressure (N/m2 or Pa in SI and
lb/ft2 or psf in English)
Elevation Energy and Elevation Head
z = position of fluid above or below the datum
In connection to the action of gravity,
plane (m in SI and ft in English)
elevation energy is manifested in a fluid by
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/sec2 in
virtue of its position or elevation with respect
SI and 32.2 ft/sec2 in English)
to a horizontal datum plane.
Elevation energy=WzElevation energy=Wz γ = Unit weight of fluid (N/m3 in SI and
Elevation head=Elevation lb/ft3 in English)
energyW=zElevation head=Elevation  
energyW=z

 
Power and Efficiency

Power is the rate of doing work per unit of

time. For a fluid of unit weight γ (N/m3)
flowing at the rate of Q (m3/sec) with a total
energy of E (m), the power (Watt) is
Power=QγEPower=QγE
Energy Equation with Pump
Efficiency=OutputInput×100%Efficiency=Out In most cases, pump is used to raise water
from lower elevation to higher elevation. In a
putInput×100%
more technical term, the use of pump is
Note: basically to increase the energy of flow. The
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts pump consumes electrical energy (Pinput) and
1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec delivers flow energy (Poutput).

1 Watt = 1 N-m/sec = 1 Joule/sec

 

Bernoulli's Energy Equations

Energy Equation Neglecting Head Loss
Without head losses, the total energy at point
(1) is equal to the total energy at point (2). No
head lost is an ideal condition leading
to theoretical values in the results.

 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Energy Equation Considering Head Loss

The actual values can be found by

considering head losses in the computation
of flow energy.
  MODULE 3 the ratio of the actual velocity of the jet at vena
- FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT contracta (v) to the theoretical velocity.

1. ORIFICE
- An orifice is an opening, of any size or 3. Coefficient of discharge (Cd). It is defined
shape, in a pipe or at the bottom or as the ratio of the actual discharge through the
side wall of a container (water tank, orifice (Q) to the theoretical discharge (Qth).
reservoir, etc.), through which fluid is The coefficient of discharge is equal to the
discharged. product of Cc and Cv.

4. Coefficient of resistance (Cr). It is defined

as the ratio of loss of head in the orifice to the
head of water available at the exit of the
orifice.

Note: The coefficient of velocity is determined

experimentally by using
the following relation, i.e.

where

x = Horizontal distance,

y = Vertical distance, and

H = Constant water head.

Hydraulic Coefficients include

Coefficient of contraction, Coefficient of
velocity, Coefficient of discharge and
Coefficient of resistance. The following are
the hydraulic coefficients:

1. Coefficient of contraction (Cc). It is

defined as the ratio of area of jet at *vena
contracta (ac) to the area of orifice (a).

The point at which the streamlines first 2. VENTURI METER

become parallel is called vena contracta. The - Venturi Meter is a device in which
cross-sectional area of the jet at vena contrata pressure energy is converted into
is less than that of the orifice. The theoretical kinetic energy and it is used for
velocity of jet at vena contracta is given by measuring the rate of flow of liquid
through pipes. It is invented by
American Engineer Clemans Herchel
This expression is called Torricelli's theorem. and named by the Italian physicist
Giovanni Venturi. It works on the
2. Coefficient of velocity (Cv). It is defined as
 basic principle of Bernoulli’s
Equation.

4. NOZZLE
- a narrow piece attached to the end of
a tube so that the liquid or air that
comes out can be directed in
a particular.
- A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of
varying cross sectional area, and it can
be used to direct or modify the flow of
a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are
frequently used to control the rate of
flow, speed, direction, mass, shape,
and/or the pressure of the stream that
emerges from them. In a nozzle, the
3. PITOT TUBE velocity of fluid increases at the
-pitot tube, instrument for measuring expense of its pressure energy.
the velocity (speed) of a flowing fluid.
Invented by Henri Pitot (1695–1771),
it consists of a tube with a short right-
angled bend, which is placed vertically
in a moving fluid with the mouth of
the bent part directed upstream;
the pressure, measured with an
attached device, depends on the fluid
flow and can be used to calculate the
velocity. Pitot tubes are used
in anemometers to measure airspeed
in wind tunnels and aboard aircraft in
flight; they are also used to measure
the flow of liquids.

5. GATE
- in hydraulic engineering, movable
barrier for controlling the passage of
fluid through a channel or sluice.
River and canal locks have a pair of
gates at each end. When closed, the
gates meet at an obtuse angle that
points upstream in order to resist the
water pressure. When opened, they
swing into recesses in the walls of the
lock. Gates also regulate the outflow
of water from storage reservoirs and
through, around, or over dams. Leaf
gates, planes perpendicular to the
 direction of fluid flow, open either by
swinging about one hinged side or by

a more general definition in

sliding upward. Radial gates are engineering to apply to any hydraulic
segments of cylinders that lift entirely control structure that allows water to
clear of the water. The rolling gate, flow over its top, often called its crest.
often used on the crest of a dam, is
raised by rolling it up the inclined face
of a pier.

6. WEIR
- A weir is a small dam built across a
river to control the upstream water
level. Weirs have been used for ages
to control the flow of water in streams,
rivers, and other water bodies. Unlike
large dams which create reservoirs, the
goal of building a weir across a river
isn’t to create storage, but only to gain
some control over the water level.
Over time, the term weir has taken on
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
 Depending on the type of flow, the analysis
method varies in fluid mechanics

1. Steady and Unsteady Flow

- A flow is defined steady

when its fluid characteristics
like velocity, density, and
pressure at a point do not
change with time. A steady
flow can be mathematically
expressed as:

Where, V is the velocity of the fluid,

‘p’ is the pressure and ‘J’ is the density.

A flow is defined unsteady, when the

fluid characteristics velocity, pressure and

density at a point changes with respect to time.

This can be mathematically expressed as:

 MODULE 4
- FLUID FLOW IN PIPES
PIPES are closed conduits through which
fluids or gases flows.

Conduits may flow full or partially full.

Pipes are referred to as conduits (usually
circular) which flow full.

Conduits flowing partially full are called

open channels
2. Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow
The fluids can be classified into different
types based on the variation of the fluid Uniform flow is the type of
characteristics like velocity, density etc.
fluid flow in which the velocity of the
flow at any given time does not 3. Laminar and Turbulent Flow
change with respect to space [Along - Laminar and Turbulent flow
the length of direction of flow]. in a pipe flow is characterised
based on Reynold number

A uniform flow can be mathematically - Laminar flow is defined as a

expressed as: type of flow in which the fluid

∂V particles move along a well-

( ) is a constant=0
∂t t
defined streamline or paths,

such that all the streamlines

A non-uniform flow is a type
are straight and parallel to
of fluid flow in which the velocity of
each other. In a laminar flow,
the flow at any given time changes
fluid particles move in
with respect to space. Mathematically,
laminas. The layers in laminar
a non-uniform flow can be expressed
flow glide smoothly over the
as:
adjacent layer. The flow is
∂V
( ) is a constant ≠ 0 laminar when the Reynolds
∂t t
number is more than 4000.

- Turbulent flow is a type of

flow in which the fluid

particles move in a zig-zag

manner. The movement in

zig-zag manner results in high

turbulence and eddies are

formed. This results in high

energy loss. The flow is

turbulent when the Reynolds

number is greater than 4000.

 another. Liquids are
- A fluid flow in a pipe, that has generally incompressible and
a Reynolds number between gases are compressible. J =
constant
2000 and 4000 is said to be in

transition state.

SAMPLE

PROBLEM:

4. Compressible and Incompressible

Flows
- A compressible flow is that
type of flow in which the
density of the fluid changes
from one point to another
point. This means the density
is not constant. J not
Constant

- Incompressible flow is that

type of flow in which the
density of the fluid is
constant from one point to
  MODULE 5
- OPEN CHANNEL
- An open channel is a
waterway, canal or conduit in
which a liquid flows with a
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
free surface
- Open channel flowmeters
measure the flow of liquids in
open channels and are
particularly relevant to
measuring the flow of water in
rivers as part of environmental
management schemes. The
normal procedure is to build a
weir or flume of constant
width across the flow and
measure the velocity of flow
and the height of liquid
immediately before the weir
or flume with an ultrasonic or
radar level sensor. 
-
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
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