Modelmaking - A Basic Guide
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Harley PhamModelmaking - A Basic Guide
Uploaded by
Harley PhamMartha Sutherland
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A BASIC GUIDE
W·W· NORTON' C OMPANY NEW YORK L ON DON
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A BASIC GUIDE
MARTHA SUTHERLAND
Library of Congress
Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sutherland, Martha, date.
Copyright © 1999 by Martha Sutherland Modelmaking: a basic guide / Martha Sutherland.
p. em.
All rights rese rved Includes index.
Printed in the United States of Am erica ISBN 0-393-73042-5
First edition 1. Architectural models-Design and construc-
tion. I. Title.
For information abou t permission to reproduce NA2790.S87 1999
selections from this book, write to 720'.22'8- dc21 99-25280
Permissions, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., CIP
500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110
The text of this book is composed in Monotype
Walbaum with th e display set in Graphite.
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. , 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110
www.wwnorton.com
Composition by Ken Gross
W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 WelJs Street, London WI T 3QT
Manufacturi ng by Courier Westford
Book design by Antonina Krass 098 7 6 5 4 3
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Credits 8
Introduction 9
1. Getting Started 12 3. Paper Models 22 4. Illustration Board Mode ls 53
Important Equipment 12 Boxes 23 Straight Cuts 53
Materials 15 Pitched Roofs 25 Corners 54
G uid elines and Tips 16 Hip Roofs 26 Walls 56
Simple Bases 16 Chimneys 30 Windows and Doors 57
Gables 3 1 Cylin ders 58
2. Chipboard and Cardboard Models 19 Dormer Windows 32 Domes 62
Geom etric and Nontraditional Shapes 34 Vau lts 65
Chipboard Models 19
Fa~ades 52 Stairways 66
Cardboard Models 20
Classic Detai ls 68 7. Balsa and Basswood Models 86 9. Entourage 100
Other Details 73
Trusses 88 Trees 101
Space Frames 89 Shru bbery 107
5. Contour Bases 74
Texture 108
Level Sites 74 8. Tents 92 Figures 108
Simp le Contours 75
Materials 94
Complex Contou rs 76
Center-Supported Tents 94
Adding the :vIodel to the Base 82 Conclusion 111
Sadd le-Shaped Tents 96
Index 11 2
Arch-Supported Tents 96
6. Foamcore Models 83
Additional Sh apes 97
External-Skeleton Tents 99
====~====
I ... like models because they are so realistic. You can light them and photograph
them and take them to bed and pretend that they are built. -Emilio Ambasz
3.44 Frank Gehry, Guggenheim Museum, 6.1 Pei Cobb Freed & Partners, Rock and Roll
Bilbao, Spain Hall of Fame, Cleveland
Credits 3.53 ROTO Architects, Warehouse C, Nagasaki, 7.1 Hammel Green & Abrah amson, Wom en of
Japan the West Museum, Boulder, Colorado
3.54 Philip Johnson, Chapel at University of St. 7.2 Cyrus A. Sutherland , historic restoration,
With th e exce ption of several grids, all of th e Thomas, Houston Boxley Valley, Arkansas
illustrations have been drawn free hand. The fol - 3.55 Antoine Predock, Rosenthal House, 7.10 Pierre Thibault, Queen of Hearts Theater,
lowing list credits the sources for drawings California Upton, Quebec
labeled " in the spirit of"or identifi ed in the text 3.56 SITE, Inc. Architects, Peeling Showroom , 8.1 C. W. Fentress, J. H. Bradburn and
as based on an actu al project. Richmond, Virginia Associates, Denver Intern ational Airport
3.57 Le Corbusier, Chapel at Roncharnps, 8.2 Samyn & Partners, M & G Research
2.3 Anthony J. Lumsden & Associates, Yong France Laboratory Venafro, Pozzilli, Italy
Dong Area Intern ation al Airport, South 4.13 Kohn Pederson Fox Associates, Wave 8.3 Studio Tensoforma, Camp de Mart,
Korea Tower, Bankok, Thailand Tarragona, Spain
3.2 Ri chanl :Vleier, Getty Center, Los Angeles 4.43 Frank Lloyd Wright, c.v. Morris Store, 8.6 Matthew Nowicki , Dorton Arena, North
3. 19 Mario Botta, San [francisco Museum of San Francisco Carolina
Morl ern Art 4.49 Hans Hollein , Kohlmarkt, Vi en na, Austria 9.1 Hardy Holzman Pfeiffer Associates, San
3.32 .Ioern Utzon, Sydney Opera House, 4.50 Issiki Architects & Partners, Marvel Star Angelo Museum of [fine Arts
Australia Iohno Golf Club, Nasu, Japan 9.7 Pei Cobb Freed & Partn ers, U. S. Air [force
3.42 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Air Force 4.51 Steven Holl , Kaisma Museum of Memori al, Arlington, Virgin ia
Acarlemy Chapel, Boulder, Colorado Contemporary Art, Helsinki , Finland
Architectural models may be small, large, simple, Creating viable spaces is the most cogent rea- normal level. In th e studio a cardboard carton
fancy, professional, or nonprofessional, but all fit son for building a study model, but such a model can be used to prop up the model for considera-
into one of two genres: the study model or the is also a place to play with modifications- the tion. If there is tack -board space, a piece of
presentation mod el. The study model's job is to shape of a roof, for example. Half a dozen mock- foam core supported by a couple of triangular
clarify spaces. Made more quickly and with inex- ups could be popped into place for study and brackets will make a lightweight shelf.
pensive materials, it is the architect and land - approval. Or, study models can be assembled in The presentation model is th e one shown to a
scape architect's best too l for working out spatial modules so that switching whole wings around is jury or client. It may be simple or elaborate but is
problems, visua li zing the interaction of volumes, a simple matter. always meticulously constructed. Adopted for the
and considering a building in relation to its site. Models are typically seen below eye level. pragmatic reason that all the world loves a mini-
It is a creative tool for the designer--a leap toward Unfortunately, it is an artificial viewpoint, one ature, the presentation model is a psychological
reality and away from th e orthographic flatness from which a building is almost never seen. The ploy. Any skillfully crafted object inspires delight,
of plan and elevation. Working out the geome- designer must remember, particularly in the but when the object is also small in scale it has
tries of space in three dimensions rather than in study-model stage, to hold up the model fre - the universal appeal of a puppy, a bird's egg, a
two can save you from serious misjudgments. quently, rotating it and observing it on a more dollhouse, or a jewel. Models sell ideas because
::::::::~::::::::
they romanticize the object. The large made tainly you would not create the same building for Modelmaking is intended as a primer for stu-
small endears itself effortlessly to the observer. a summer house as for a city hall. dents in architecture, landscape architecture,
Many models are demountable. The roof and Choose your materials with your audience in interior design, and related fields. Others who
each floor can be removed to show the space mind. For classroom study, most models are made want to make models-theater students, histori-
within. Sections must be made to fit properly and from plain illustration board. But a presentation ans, and archeologists, for example-will also
be sturdy enough to stand up to the inevitable to a city council, a hospital building committee, find it useful. The book considers the study
handling that will result when the word gets or a business magnate might be an opportunity to model, but it is primarily intended to help a neo-
around that hey look, it comes apart! use materials in inventive ways-to delight or phyte produce a creditable presentation model.
Models obviously cannot be real buildings dazzle. A cautionary note: it is easy to be carried Professional models, which employ the latest
made small. They are symbols of real buildings away with the fun of making an exciting model, advances in high technology, computer imaging,
and real sites, and they utilize a symbol vocabu- but the material must not be allowed to outshine and expensive equipment, are not discussed.
lary in which varying degrees of realism relate to the design concept. Students will discover that in most moderate-
varying scale. If the scale is small enough, say in The classroom is not the model's only destina- sized offices, models are built in-house, and that
a landscape architect's model of a large park, the tion or reason for being. Private residence designs being a good modelmaker is an advantage in the
buildings might simply be small, rectangular should be accompanied by a model, since few lay job market.
blocks of wood. More detail must be incorporated people are comfortable with architectural draw-
with larger models. At W' (1:100) scale window ings. Commercial buildings need models, as do
frames may not be necessary. At 1/ 2 " (1:20) scale additions to existing buildings, restorations, and
they are probably essential. Color mayor may not historic reconstructions. Models are made for
indicate a material: a white or gray model may commercial interiors---showcases, display walls,
represent painted wood or red brick. Your model and stairways. And let's not forget the amateurs
should radiate the message you wish to convey. out there who just like to build miniatures of
Banks, for example, usually project an aura of favorite places-cabins, treehouses, Indian kivas,
solidity, conservatism, and opulence. Quite cer- dollhouses.
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A BASIC GUIDE
1
Getting Started
The construction methods described in this book
are basic. These methods are not only essential to
getting started, but also vital as the complexity of
your models increases. Beginning students need
to learn the techniques shown, but it is patience,
desire for excellence, and attention to detail that
are the criteria for success. The modelmaker's
skill determines the quality of the model-your
second model will be demonstrably better than
your first.
IMPORTANT EQUIPMENT
It is assumed that you have a drawing board with
a T square or parallel bar. Don't forget to keep a
paper towel or something nearby on which to
wipe your hands. A clean model is a must. Your
tools and materia ls may change depending upon
the type of model you are making, but the fol -
lowing equipment is almost always necessary.
• Utility knife (figure 1.1). A heavy-duty knife
with a comfortable, sturdy holder. Metal hold-
ers are better than plastic because they will
last forever. This kind of knife has blades with
two usable ends. Extra blades are stored in the
handle.
• Craft knife (figure 1.2). A lightweight knife for
cutting paper or lightweight materials. Ideal for
cutting curves and small details. Caution: Throw
away knife blades carefully- it's not nice to
injure janitors. Stick the blade into a scrap of
foam core or fo ld drafting tape over the edge.
• Retractable blade knife (figure 1.3). These
knives have scored blades that can be snapped
off wh en they become dull. Be sure to find the
kind that locks the blade in place. This knife
has a heft and feel similar to the craft knife
but is not as sturdy. Its advantage is its easily
replaced blade.
• Hand-held board cutter and beveler (figure
1. 4). A small, efficient mat cutter that can
make clean, 45-degree-angle cuts. Using two
blades at once, it can also cut strips or make
::::::T~::::::::
scores. (A score is a cut made partway through
the material, allowing it to fold easily without
breaking apart.)
• Dividers (figure 1.5). For hard-to-make mea-
surements and units that are out of true.
• Metal ruler.
• Triangle. Both 30 0-by-600 and 45°-by-45° tri-
angles are used.
Other handy but not necessarily essential tools
include: an architect's scale, engineer's scale,
heavy needle (a candlewicking needle, number
20 tapestry needle, or cotton darner needle will
do), circle template, protractor, and self-healing
cutting board (this is expensive, but it saves sur-
faces, knife blades, and tempers). Also helpful
(though costly) is a device called a model -scope.
It is a pencil-sized, inverted periscope that can be
inserted into the model and swiveled in any
direction, providing a "walk through " view that
is great fun as well as being informative. It is
even possible to attach a camera to the model-
scope and take photos of the model's interior.
:::T4-::::
MATERIALS • Poster (bristol) board. Thinner and cheaper Adhesives are essential to modelmaking. These
than illustration board. Its surface is smooth are the basic types:
Beyond the basics- paper, illustration board, or and shiny on both sides. • White glue (PVA). Sobo and Elmer's are the
some heavy card-the range of materials used in most common. White glues are water soluble
• Chipboard (pulpboard). Inexpensive, usually
modelmaking is almost endless. Do not be afraid until they dry. Tacky Glue is a white glue that
gray, cardboard-type material with uniform
to experiment with different materials or to use is already partially set up.
sides. Available in several weights.
them in inventive new ways. You will learn their
• Rubber cement (latex-based glue). Use for
properties and may make interesting discoveries. • Museum board. A heavy paper with a very soft
paper. Rubber cement is not archival quality; it
Take no chances with your model, though. If surface.
will discolor paper over a period of years.
paint is involved, try it out first to check the color
• Foamcore (foam board). A foam plastic filling • Spray adhesive. Suitable for paper and card.
and to ensure that it doesn't adversely affect your
sandwiched between two sheets of slick paper. Spray both sides. There is no room for error--
material. Some sprays have been known to eat
Very lightweight. once the two sides meet, the join is irrevocable.
Styrofoam, for instance. If you are covering the
In a studio environment the drift from spray-
board with paper, your glue job needs to be wrin- • Canson paper. A toothy drawing paper avail-
ing may pervade the entire air space. It also
kle-free, so experiment first. Below is a list of able in a wide variety of colors.
enters the ventilation system and is conducted
materials that you will need sooner or later if you
• Balsa wood and basswood. Soft, lightweight to other areas of the building. The fallout leaves
continue modelmaking.
woods good for modelmaking. a perceptible residue on surfaces and breathing
• Illustration board. A heavy cardboard with fumes is bad for your health. Moral: Do all
Respect the physical properties of the materi-
one side having a smooth, evenly textured spraying out of doors or in a spray booth.
als you use. Paper shouldn't be asked to support
surface suitable for drawing on. Available in
weight; illustration board doesn't like to bend; • Balsa wood cement, Duco, or "magic" glues.
hot or cold press, hot press being the
foamcore will warp; museum board fights era- These dry quickly and are good for wood and
smoothest.
sure. When you pick the right material for the plastic.
job it will oblige you by behaving well. • Sticky tape
:::T!::::
Other materials mentioned in this book are • Begin your model by making careful by using a piece of illustration board as a
useful but less frequently used. They include: dry orthographic drawings-that is, plans and squeegee.
mount (tissue adhesive applied with heat), corru- elevations. Measurements are taken from the
• Make a habit of using the heavy-duty utility
gated cardboard, plywood, particle board (wood plans and elevations, and m eticulous attention
knife for straight cuts. It gives straighter, surer
shavings pressed into a thick board), wire (steel to both the drawings and the measurements cuts than the skinny craft knife, whi ch is prone
and copper), electrical wire, monofilament (clear taken from them is essential. to veer. Craft knifes are good for details,
plastic string), clear plastic sheets, plastic screen,
• Use new kn ife blades and change them often. curves, and very small cuts.
steel straight pins, corsage pins, nylon stocking
As blades get dull they tear the material • Always cut against a metal straight edge,
material, cotton knit fabric, wooden dowels,
instead of cutting it. Dull blades also cause because cutting against plastic (T square, par-
wooden skewers, round toothpicks, plastic straws,
wear and tear on arms and hands. Wear and allel bar, or triangle) is guaranteed to ruin your
Styrofoam balls, wooden beads, loofah sponge,
tear should not be in the form of blood and equipment.
natural sponge, steel wool, cotton wool, dried
tears, either--new blades are extremely sharp,
sedum (a plant with an umbrella-like seed head), • Stand when you cut to exert maximum pres-
so be careful.
sandpaper, spray paint. sure on the straight edge and the knife.
• Always place cardboard or some sort of cutting
GUIDEl.INES AND TIPS board underneath what you are cutting. This
not only saves the surface of the table but also SIMpl.E BASES
From the scale draw ings to the last tree, take preserves your knife blades.
pains to be precise, neat, and careful. To make Study models do not necessarily require bases
• Use the least amount of glue possible.
the mode lmaking process smoother: on which to sit, but a presentation model needs
• White glue can be spread evenly on a surface to have a base in order to be portable. Bases are
generally made before construction of the model
begins. Simple bases are easiest to make.
Contoured bases, which are more complicated,
are discussed in chapter 5.
A single sheet of V2" (12 mm) plywood or par-
ticle board can be used for a small- to medium-
sized simple base, up to 20" by 30" (51 x 76 cm),
for example. Single sheets of illustration board,
chipboard, or foamcore are not suitable because
they will warp. Two sheets of V8" (3 mm) chip-
board glued together make a firm support.
Weight it with a pile of books. After it is dry, the
chipboard can be cut with a saber or band saw
and the lamination will be almost invisible.
A lighter-weight base can be made like a box
(figure 1.6). Illustration board, '/8" (3 mm) chip-
board, and foamcore make good box bases. Cut a
bottom piece, top piece, and four sides. For butted
corners, remember to cut two of the strips short-
er by two times the thickness of the board. One
to two inches (2.5 to 5 cm) of depth for the box is
sufficient. You can place the top and bottom
pieces on the top and bottom of the perimeter
wall, or you can enclose the top and bottom
pieces within the perimeter wall. Reinforce the
interior of the base with strips of board that are
cut to the proper depth and glued in. Angles
across each corner or a series of parallel strips
provide additional reinforcement (figure 1.7).
Foamcore makes a good box base because it is
lightweight. Construct a hollow box with rein-
forcements and, using rubber cement or spray
adhesive, cover it with a neutral-toned drawing
paper.
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2
Chipboard and
Cardboard Models
Chipboard (pulpboard), cardboard, and other
cheap materials like paper, posterboard (instead
of illustration board), tape, glue, and paper clips
are ideal for making study models, because wor-
rying about expense is inhibiting rather than lib-
erating. Experimentation often produces interest-
ing new directions and solutions. The study
model, which may be an end in itself or the pref-
ace to a presentation model, is an ideal place to
work out problems of volume and scale.
CHIP80ARD MODELS
Chipboard is a cardboard-like material that is
cheap, easy to cut, and comes in two common
thicknesses: 1/ 16" (1.4 mm) and 1/8" (3 mm).
Actually, the single-ply board is Ih4" (1 mm) and
::::::)::9::::::::
the two-ply is 1/12" (2-3 mm), but they are usually
referred to as 1/16" and I/S". The most useful is
1/16" because it is easiest to cut. Generally chip-
board is a soft gray or sometimes a neutral tan,
the same on both sides, with a matching core.
Though usually employed for study models, chip-
board can be handsome when it is assembled and
detailed with taste and discrimination.
CARDBOARD MODELS
Corrugated cardboard is easy to find and usually
free (e.g., grocery cartons, packing boxes). Heavy-
and lightweight corrugated cardboards are practi-
cal for study models. Used for medium- to large-
sized models, cardboard is easily cut, glued, taped,
and pinned. Volumes, positive and negative, can
be roughed out quickly and changes can be made
without losing much time.
Trying to refine cardboard is usually more
trouble than it is worth. However, there are some
specialty uses that merit attention. Thin card-
board, 1/16 " (1-1.4 mm) for example, is very good
===2::~===
for representing a tile roof at 1/4" (1 :50) scale
(figure 2.1). Peel the paper layer from one side of
the board. Use a knife to twitch off the paper
where it sticks. The remaining bits of residue
give the impression of an old, lichen-covered
roof.
Thin corrugated cardboard also can be peeled
and cut to produce reasonable train tracks (figure
2.2). Glue down narrow balsa-wood rods for the
rails.
When thin corrugated is used for land con-
tours, its exposed edges give a pleasing degree of
texture to the model base (figure 2.1).
Stripped of its cover, corrugated cardboard
curves beautifully (figure 2.3), making cylinders,
sinuous retaining walls, Japanese bamboo fences,
and undulating roofs, not to mention a one-brick-
thick serpentine wall like that of Thomas
Jefferson at the University of Virginia. If desired,
UNDULATING ROOFS IN THE SPIRIT O F
corrugated cardboard may be covered with an ANTHONY J. L.UMSDEN ! ASSOCIATES
appropriate paper.
3
Paper Models
With a foot in both the study- and presentation-
model camps, paper models are becoming
increasingly useful as architecture becomes ever
more plastic and sculptural. The computer has
made it possible to produce working drawings for
structures that swoop and soar, penetrate and
extrude, defying all the tenets of classicism. In
many respects, a material like modeling clay is
the best answer for three-dimensional "quick-
sketches," despite its drawbacks of weight and
oiliness. But paper comes in handy for initial vol-
ume studies of non orthographic shapes. It is
bendable, foldable, and pleatable, and it can be
cut with scissors and secured with rubber cement,
hot wax, paper clips, tape, spit, etc.
The basics of paper models are relatively sim-
ple. Many kinds of paper are suitable. Regular
bond typewriter or copier paper works well for
cylinders and curving surfaces, index card stock is
:::~~:::
excellent for small models, and museum board
has a pleasing surface. Museum board is general-
ly classified as a heavy-weight paper, though it
comes in several weights. Two-ply is commend-
able for small models. If the paper is thin or the
piece is so small that taping on the inside is not
practical, flaps can be added to the pattern for
sticking the pieces together. Rubber cement and
stick glue work well. No water-based adhesives
please, because the paper will buckle. If it can be
hidden from view, sticky tape is frequently the
quickest and easiest solution.
A tiny model about the size of your hand is
made successfully with index card, cover stock, or
single-ply museum board (figure 3.1). Obviously,
only the basic framework-walls, overhangs, and
sloping planes-;::an be shown at this scale.
BOX SHAPeS
IN THE SPIRIT OF
BOXES RICHARD MEIER
The simple box form is the foundation of most
traditional buildings and also of many modern
buildings (figure 3.2). A plain box can be made
from one piece of paper (figure 3.3). The top,
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sides, and bottom are drawn in a row, while the
two ends are drawn on either side of the bottom
piece.
PITCHED ROOFS
Pitched roofs (figure 3.4) are made with a single
fold. Use at least cover-stock or museum-board
weight. Take the pitch and height of the roof
from the side elevation drawing. Take the length
of the roof from the front elevation drawing (fig-
ure 3.5). Score the ridgeline lightly and fold (fig-
ure 3.6). Scoring helps to produce a clean, accu-
rate fold. If the material is the weight of illustra-
tion board, the score can be made with a knife.
Make a light cut following the fold line on the FRONT ELEVATION SIDE ELEVATION
front or the back depending on the direction of
the fold. It goes without saying that great care
must be taken not to cut too deeply. Score paper
against a straight edge with the back of a scissors
blade, the edge of an erasing shield, or with your
fingernail.
===~3::===
HIP ROOFS
The only true lines we have in the hip roof ele-
vations are the length of the ridgeline and the
length and width of the eave line (figure 3.7).
True measurements of the roof slope cannot be
taken from the elevations because they slope in
A,.....-_ _ ___"'\. two different directions. Bear in mind that in the
8
side elevation drawing, point B can also be point
E or point A and that point D can also be point C
el
C D D 4-----~ G
orF.
Draw a horizontal line that is the measured
__.__ _________L..._ length of the ridgeline AB (figure 3.8). Drop a
perpendicular line from the center point E to F,
FRONT ELEVATION SIDE ELEVATION which will be the length of BD in the side eleva-
tion drawing. Through F draw a horizontal line
CD, which is the measured length of the roof at
the eave line. Repeat this figure as if it were
flipped up on line AB.
Construct a triangle on line BG in which BG
and BH are the same length as BD and line GH
is the measured width of the roof at the eave line
(figure 3.9). Add flaps if necessary, fold, and glue
(figure 3.10).
:::!Z:~:::
,------G
c ----'---- \ o
_ _-j--\-____ TTWE LENGTH OF
RIDGE UNEA8
TTWE LENGTH OF
ROOF AT EAVE LINE CD
::::::::::2:~::::
A hip roof can also be made as a solid. Taking
FRONT El.EVATION SIDE El.EVATION
1 -
TRUE LENGTH
OF RIDGE
_I Q
~
the measurements from your front and side ele-
vation drawings (figure 3.11), draw a rectangle to
F
l '~c
scale that is the length and width of the roof,
TRUE GEDC (figure 3.12). Inside the rectangle, center
HEIGHT the ridgeline AB. Connect A to G and C. Connect
c-
1_ TRUE LENGTH OF ROOF AT EAVE --I
D
1_ TRUE WIDTH -I
E 1 B to E and D. Drop perpendiculars from A and B,
so that HK and JL are the true height of the roof.
OF ROOF AT Repeat this figure as if it were flipped up on line
EAVE
AB.
Extend A to M and B to F so that MN and OF
1- TRUE LENGTH OF ROOF AT EAVE -I are the true height of the roof (figure 3.13). Add
flaps if necessary, cut out, and glue (figure 3.14).
G E
B TRUE
t
WIDTH
C~~~----~+------~J--~D
TRUE
1
HEIGHT
l.
:::::::2£:::
M ~ _ _ _ _"",--_-+A-,--_ _ _ _ _ _ _8~_--=-r-_ _ _~ F
::::::~!i[::::::
GABLE RIDGE LINE
8
CHIMNEYS
o
F Fr-'--r Take the height and length of the chimney from
the front elevation and the depth of the chimney
E G
G from the side elevation (figure 3.15). Take the
o o o o angle of the roof pitch from the side elevation.
Make the chimney in one piece, folding along
the dotted lines (figure 3.16).
FRONT ELEVATION SlOE ELEVATION
A
.--------+----r------~
•I
I
•I
J
c 0
:::3::~:::
H
GABL.ES
Measure the lengths of the two pitches of the
gable--EF and FG-and draw them, to scale, as K
J
a straight line (figure 3.17). Draw a perpendicu- D-
EL.------* G
lar from F to H that is the measured length of
the ridgeline of the gable. Draw perpendiculars
from E and G to represent the distance the gable
extends forward from the eave of the roof, GJ
and EK on the illustration. Connect HK and HJ.
E
On line FG draw the triangle EFG that is, in fact,
the measured elevation of the gable. Fold on the
dotted lines and glue, using a flap if necessary.
::: ::3~[:::
DORMER WINDOWS
Draw to scale the front elevation of the dormer
ensemble (ABCDE) (figure 3.18). On side BC,
draw rectangle BCGF, which is equivalent to rec-
tangle BCGF on the side elevation. Extend line
BF to H and connect H to G. Line BH is the to -
scale measurement of the ridgeline. Extend line
o
FRONT ELEVATION
o BC to J, making CJ the same length as CD.
Connect J to G. Duplicate the figure (BHGJ) on
the other side of line BH.
:::: :: 3:~ :::: ::
B_ _-.-F7
H
o D
.SIDE ELEVATION
::::::3:3:::::::
GEOMETRIC ANO
NONTRAOITIONAL.
SHAPES
Portions of geometric shapes are popular in con-
temporary architecture (figure 3.19). Prisms, sec-
tions of cones, truncated cylinders, amputations
of the Platonic solids, sections of spheres---wildly
exotic shapes fill the pages of architecture maga-
zines.
Truncated Cylinder with
Sloping Top
Draw a side elevation of the proposed cylinder to
the proper scale and show the desired slope of
the top (figure 3.20). Now measure the height of
the tallest part of the cylinder and of the lowest
edge of the sloping top. Transfer this drawing to
a grid (figure 3.21). Calculate the circumference
of the cylinder by multiplying the diameter by 1t
(3.1416). Draw a new grid (figure 3.22) using the
TRUNCATEO CYL.INDER W1TH circumference of the cylinder as the length.
SL.OPlNG TOP IN THE SPIRIT OF Mark the high and low points of the top of the
MARIO BOTTA
cylinder, with one or the other at the center of
::::::l£A:::::::
HIGH POINT OF
SLOPING TOP ~
LOW POINT OF :---....
SLOPING TOP .............
r---..
\ ............ ......
,/"
I "'" \
DW1ETEROF
CYLINDER
T
V- - ,
....
/ " ", ....
/ --r.;:-
V ",
',. "
--- V ..... ~
---
......- - - - - - - - - CIRCUMFERENCE ---------~~I
:::3:3::::
the line. Connect the points with a straight line
that curves gently into another straight line at
the position of the high point and the low point.
Cut out and tape together (figure 3.23).
For the cylinder's top draw an ellipse with the
short direction equal to the cylinder's diameter
and the long direction equal to the length of the
top's slope. To draw an ellipse: Enclose the area of
the ellipse in a rectangle (figure 3.24). Find the
center by crossing the diagonals. Bisect the figure
lengthwise and widthwise. Fit a curve into each
quadrant, touching the outside lines at each
bisection. It is best to draw one smooth curve and
then trace it to the other three sides. (This is a
shortcut to ellipse drawing but is generally good
enough to pass muster.)
Cut out the ellipse and tape it to the cylinder
at the highest point first. The top will now fold
down like a lid (figure 3.25). You may want to
add a final step: cut out a paper circle the diame-
ter of the cylinder and tape it inside the cylinder
at the bottom to keep the shape properly circular.
::::::3:~:::::
Truncated Cone with
Sloping Top
Cones with sloping tops (conic sections)
(figure 3.26) begin with a circular collar
and some trial and error. First, cut out a
doughnut shape (figure 3.27). Cut the
doughnut in half (or less than half)
(figure 3.28) and experiment with curl-
ing the collar into a cone. Squeeze the
half-doughnut sides together and cut the cen-
ter hole down farther on one side in a gentle
curve (figure 3.29). The pattern for the cone will
look like figure 3.30.
To make the top, invert the cone and trace
around the hole onto a piece of paper. Tape to the
high point of the cone first, then bend the top
down like a lid and tape again (figure 3.31).
Sails
Modern sail shapes can be made with bond-
weight paper (figure 3.32). Since measurements
aren't readily adaptable to fluid shapes, patterns
are used instead. Patterns can easily be varied in
:::::::3:~::::::
height and width and roundness of curves to fit
SAILS IN THE S~RIT the desired space. The pattern in figure 3.33
OF JOEI<N UTZON
should be folded at B and taped together along
the curving edges of BD (figure 3.34).
Figure 3.35 forms a hooded shape to be placed
over figure 3.33. Fold at B and tape together the
curving edges of BD. Fold under the flaps and
tape them to whatever you are using as a base
(figure 3.36).
Figure 3.37 is the fan-like pattern for a flange
that lies on the back edge of the hood. Notice the
angled bottoms to the three strips. This is to
allow the flange to rest level on the base even
though the flange itself tips in several directions
(figure 3.38). Glue or tape the flange to the hood
8 (figure 3.39).
A ~ 8 ____________
____________- : ~~
Cut the shapes so that as many segments as
possible remain joined at one end. It makes the
gluing or taping of curving pieces much easier.
Only trial and error will produce the results
c
that you want, but during that effort some unex-
A pected solutions may present themselves.
D D
D
::::::::ra::::::::
Pyramids
Many contemporary architects exploit geometric
solid forms. The pyramid is a popular one.
Usually called three-sided or four-sided, pyramids
have either an equilateral triangle (three-sided)
or a square (four-sided) as a base.
A triangle appears to be a rigid figure because
the implied thrust of each side is absorbed by its
adjacent side. When a regular triangle is translat-
ed into three dimensions it becomes a tetrahe-
dron-a three-sided pyramid-and is rigid, just
as each of its faces is rigid. Rigid forms are com-
forting in models as well as actual buildings
because their stresses are internalized and need
\', no supplementary buttressing.
\ '-', The most obvious pattern for a tetrahedron
\ '
\ " consists of four triangles arranged to form a large
\ "
\ ' triangle (figure 3.40). If the paper is thin, flaps
\
\ are necessary for gluing. The apex of a regular
\
\ pyramid is over the center of the regular-sided
\
base. Pyramids having an apex not over the cen-
ter of the base are called oblique.
The pattern for four-sided pyramids~ome
times called half octahedrons-has sides joined
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- -
FOU!<.-SIDED I"'T'AAMIDS IN THE
SPIRIT
OF SKIDMORE. OW ING S' MER
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- -
RlU-
in a row, with the bottom attached
to the first
side (figure 3.41). Architects love to
modify the
basic shape by cutti ng parts away or
distorting
lengths or widths (figure 3.42). To
mak e joined,
attenuated half-octahedrons, follow
the patte rn in
figure 3.43 . It can be modified to mak
e taller,
shorter, skinnier, or fatter modules.
:::A~C::::
Amorphous Shapes
As those who commission public buildings (par-
AMORPHOUS SHAPES
IN THE SPIRIT OF ticularly museums) are discovering, the envelope
~KC;EHRY can be as great an attraction as its contents.
Flamboyant pieces of architecture-as-sculpture
are becoming common in avant-garde studios
(figure 3.44).
Nothing heavier than bond paper will bend
easily enough to model small-scale amorphous
shapes. Decide on the shape of the bottom of the
structure and draw it. The sides will be by guess
and by golly. If the bottom edge of a side piece is
straight it can be cut in one piece with the base
(figure 3.45).
Tape or dot with instant glue the curving side
of piece 4 to one side after another, matching A
to A, B to B, C to C, and D to D, before closing
and taping the top and bottom (figure 3.46). You
may have to draw many study models before you
come up with an accurate pattern.
Large models can be made with single-ply
museum board and can be glued instead of taped.
:::~nc::
Spheres and Parts of Spheres
Real spheres are not practical to construct, and
Styrofoam balls are obviously limited in many
ways. But you can approximate a sphere by con-
structing a figure out of facets. Tpe more facets
there are to a given surface, the rounder the
object will appear. Two kinds of facets are simple
to cut out: pentagons and regular triangles.
Twelve pentagons make a reasonable shape
that looks like a soccer ball. It is called a dodeca-
hedron (figure 3.47). To draw a pentagon using a
protractor: Divide 360 (the number of degrees in
a circle) by five. Draw a circle. Lay the straight
edge of the protractor on the diameter of the cir-
cle and mark off 72 degrees five times. If you
A have no protractor, draw a circle and bisect it hor-
izontally and vertically (figure 3.48). Divide line
AC in half to make point B. Draw an arc from B
whose radius is BD; the arc will cross the diame-
ter line at E. Then draw an arc from D whose
radius is DE; the arc will cross the circle at F. The
line DF is the length of one side of the pentagon.
A pentagon can also be drawn by using
dividers. By trial and error, step off an approxi -
mate distance on the perimeter of the circle until
you secure five equal divisions.
To build a sphere, draw two large pentagons,
each one made up of six small pentagons (figure
3.49). Each large pentagon will be half of the
sphere, or a dome (figure 3.50). Use the straight
edge and compass carefully--small inaccuracies
become large errors when they are multiplied
(figure 3.51).
Called geodesic domes or spheres, structures
like this were developed by engineer-architect R.
Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983). In principle,
such domes (half a sphere) distribute the stresses
within the structure itself, as in a truss.
More refined pseudospheres are made with
regular triangles. Twenty regular triangles make
the pattern for an icosahedron (figure 3.52). Add
flaps for gluing if it is necessary. For more about
domes, see page 62.
Sliced-off or "broken" spheres produce inter-
esting spaces and forms (figure 3.53).
-----
GEOD~C-S~ER£--------
___________ THE
SPIRIT OF ROTi~~HrrcCTS
IN
-----
:::j.::S::::
Planes
Contemporary architects enjoy exploiting the
sculptural possibilities of walls. In other words,
walls are used as large planar surfaces that can be
modeled to enhance their dramatic effect (figures
3.54, 3.55, 3.56).
Thick walls with punched windows have a dra-
matic design impact, particularly when the win-
dows are angled or have sloping sills. Le
Corbusier set the standard (figure 3.57).
To make punched windows, cut the window
holes in the front wall and the back wall, using
measurements from your elevation drawings.
Glue the front and back walls to a bottom piece
of the proper width, and add a brace to hold
things together during assembly of the window
(figure 3.58). Taking measurements from the
front elevation and from a cross section of the
wall, cut out the bottom, top, and sides of the A SF'L.IT IN THE WAU. ENTR'T'WAY
window reveal. Assemble by first gluing in the IN THE SPiM OF PHIWP JOHNSON
bottom of the window, then the sides, then the
top (figure 3.59).
:::~C1.::::
L: ] LlJETI
D1
WAU.. ~E AS A SCREEN
IN THE SPIRIT OF
ANTOINE Pl<EDOCK
===A:2f===
D
FA~DE AS A PEEL OF LAUGHTER IN THE
SPIRIT OF SITE, INC. ARCHITECTS
C8J
-~-------
\ -
0
--o- l
o . lZJ I
D ~I [[] ~rm I
I~
DEEPLY PUNCHED W INDOWS IN A BATTERED WALL
IN THE SPIRIT OF LE CORBUSIER
::::::5:~::::::
The window also call be mad e as a unit- like
an open-end ed box- and then glued in place
(figure 3.60). Construction is th e sam e if the wall
is battered, that is, wider at th e bottom than at
the top. The pattern for a one-piece open-ended
box begins with a cross section of th e wall show-
ing the position and size of the window openings.
Score and fold th e piece and glue into place.
.... .. ... ....
, '. SIDE SECTION OF
: ~ BATTERED WALL
SIDE
TOP
~, ELEVATION OF
_ _ _ _ _ _ ' " .,'.' ': _ _ BACK WINDOW
",
SIDE "
ELEVATION OF _ _
FRONT WINDOW
. .. . ... . . ...... . . ..... .. .. .!.
FA~ADES
Some models depict every detail- fenestration,
moldings, bricks, architectural tile, etc.-particu-
larly models of historic buildings, cityscapes, or
monuments. Fortunately, a photocopy machine
: ......
1 can do the hard part. Photocopy an elevation of
the desired fa ~ad e to the proper scale. Mount the
I photocopy on the face of the model before assem-
bling the parts. Dry mount is particularly good
for small jobs like this, but rubber cement, spray
~. ".
.. """
.' adhesive, or white glue will do (figure 3.61) .
. '
If the fa~ad e incorporates deeply recessed win-
." :,.,,
dows and doors, photocopy two copies of the
.': ..:: fa~ade. Mount one on the piece of illustratio~
board that will be the front of the building and
cut out the areas to be recessed. Mount the other
copy on a similar piece of board. Glue the first
" .
.. . ;; ' . ....... . sheet on top of the second sheet.
:::3:~:::
4
Illustration Board
Models
Illustration board, with its cold- or hot-press
finish, makes a handsome model. The texture is
fine grained and hard, and the white surface is
flawless. The back side is a neutral tone, frequent-
------_. __._._--_._---------_ ._-----------
ly greenish, and the core is gray, necessitating the
covering of joins. Usually (1- 1.4 mm) thick,
.~
1/ 16"
..
illustration board is one of the most desirable
surfaces for presentation models.
STRAIGHT CUTS
~: .....
...... .....
~
Illustration board, which is the material of choice Ib:::===================" ........\
for most models, is fairly difficult to cut. It usual-
ly takes several strokes to cut through and with
each stroke there is the possibility of deviation.
You should use the heavy-duty utility knife
because it is less likely to veer than the lighter-
weight craft knife. With it use a metal straight-
edge. Most metal rulers have a cork backing that corner to make but it does leave an exposed edge.
keeps them from slipping and raises them a little, In a fine model the edge would be covered or
which prevents ink from running beneath the another type of corner would be used.
ruler. Unfortunately, it also allows space for the
knife blade to veer from the vertical. Using the
13 eve led Cor n e r:; (fi g u r e 4.3)
ruler metal side down prevents this, but you need Beveling is called for when the core of the board
to put extra pressure on it to keep it in place. is a different color than the surface. First, learn to
Hold the utility knife vertically and at a very use the board cutter with its beveler. For good
low angle, which helps to keep it straight. Try to results, adjust the length of the blade so that it
cut through the board in one pass (figure 4.1). just cuts through the board. Cutting deeper than
is needed makes the cut more difficult and dulls
COl<NEI<5 the blade. The cutter has a flat guide to keep the
blade at the proper angle, and another flat guide
Accurate, clean corners are the most important to run along the edge of the straigh t edge. If pos-
aspect of a good model. There are several ways of sible, start the cut 1//' (I em) before the cut line
making corners when building with 1/ 16" to I/R" to allow the cutter to become steady.
(1.4 mm- 3 mm) thick chipboard or illustration
Bent Corners (figure 4.4)
board: butting, beveling, bending, and excising.
All techniques produce good results; beveling is Because bending leaves corners with a bite taken
the most sophisticated. out of them, it is genera lly reserved for structures
that meander, like a garden wall, or for angles
Butted Corners (figure 4.2) that are not square (figure 4.4).
In a butted corner, the end of one piece of board To make a rectangle out of one strip, measure
meets the side of the other piece. It is an easy each side and subtract tw ice the width of the
board . At the join, bead the gl ue just on the edge
of the join. Do not butt.
E x cised Corners (fi gure 4.5)
Cut a V-shaped slice out of the backside of the
fold . It is not as hard as it sounds. Use a metal
rul er and allow the knife to angle under the edge
at approximately a 45-degree angle, being care-
fu l, of course, not to cut all the way through.
Turn the board around and make another cut at
the same angle. Pick out the fuzz from the cut
before folding. This method produces a beautiful
corner, with the good paper remaining on th e
front, although it has a soft edge instead of a
razor-sharp one.
Gluing Corners
Cleanliness is next to godliness when you are
using illustration board. Keep glue to a minimum
and have a paper towel handy to wipe your hands.
When using white glue such as Elmer's or
Sobo, drop a blob of glue on a nonabsorptive
surface and allow it to begin setting up while you
proceed with other steps. You may want to use
:::::::s::s:::::::
Tacky Glue, which is already partially set up.
Apply glue to the edges and corners by taking
some on your finger and drawing it along the
ODD
backside edge of the board so that it leaves a thin
bead along the edge. Use the least amount of
glue possible.
WAL.L.S
-- - --- - --- - --- -- --- - --- - --- - ---- - ---
DOD Using the measurements from your orthographic
drawings, draw the north and south walls of your
building on the right side of the illustration
board. Your drawings should already be the prop-
er scale. A scale of ';8"=1' (1 :100) works well for
000 small models. Use the utility knife to cut lines as
straight as possible.
Draw the other two parallel walls to the proper
height. If you are using butted corners, subtract
I~ " (3 mm), which is twice the thickness of the
..... . illustration board, from the lengthwise dimension
.... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'O .. ..
. .. . .. . . .. .
of the walls .
. .:.~::::;.:.:.~.:. :::;::~::::ct:::.·.:::::::::E.·~~;:Y.·............
'
........... .. ..... ........
Before you assemble the walls, doors and win-
dows must be cut (see following section). To
assemble the walls, cut off a corner piece (or use
your 45°-by-45° triangle to cut a right angle) of
spare board to use as a template. Glue your walls
together two at a time, holding them in place
against the triangle while the glue dries. This
will ensure accurate corners. When the four walls
are firmly joined together, cut a corner piece of
spare board and glue it to an inside corner of the
box to give it some strength (figure 4.6).
ODD
DOD
WINDOWS AND DOORS
All buildings depend on walls; they are the
inescapable primary unit of structure. Into the
walls go doors and windows, which are, on the
outside, mainly aesthetic. In a small model, doors
and windows may simply be holes cut in the board
(figure 4.7) or they may be drawn on the wall and
not cut out at all. Door and window frames may be
cut out of a piece of card and glued to the wall,
giving it a more three-dimensional look (figure
4.8). Window holes are sometimes enhanced by
backing with black paper or, if a greater degree of
realism is desired, with thin plastic. Another good
effect is obtained by taping a toned paper behind
:::![~:::
the holes. A neutral shade slightly different than scores closer together than '/8" will begin to split
the wall color is pleasing. Window mullions (the and delaminate.
strips that hold the glass panes in place) can be To make a cylinder, find the circumference of
drawn directly on the board or can be cut out of the base by multiplying the diameter by 1t
paper or board for a larger-scale model. (3.1416). Cut the illustration board '/4" (6 mm)
Cut windows and doors in your walls. You longer than your measured circumference; the
should already have decided upon a window tech- spare '/4" (6 mm) will be the flap joining the two
nique: cut out entirely; cut out and backed with edges. Next, practice scoring a scrap of board so
black paper, thin plastic, or the same board; or you know how deeply to cut. Then, measure,
drawn on the board. Point the craft knife straight mark, and score the lines. Peel the flap's layers of
down at the entry spot, then cut. Turn the board paper away until only the back skin remains (fig-
and cut the second corner. Touch up the cuts gen- ure 4.10). Now, bead th e flap sparingly with glue
tly with sandpaper or a nail file. If the window and attach it to the other side of the cylinder. An
openings are large, cut them before you cut out alternative to using a flap is to use a strip of
the wall. If you are backing doors and windows board (figure 4.11). Cut the board to the exact
with paper, glue it on now. height of the cylinder. G lue the strip of board
inside the cylinder to cover the join. If your
CYl.INDERS cylinder fits one of the circles in your circle tem-
plate, use it to hold your cylinder while the glue
Cylinders and other tight curves are made from dries (figure 4.12).
chipboard or illustration board by scoring and Museum board, which matches white illustra-
bending the board (figure 4.9). Scoring produces tion board quite well in terms of color and texture,
a pleasing texture. The more scores, the more can be rolled or bent to some extent. To secure a
elegant and smoother the curve, to a point- cylinder, glue in a strip of paper the length of the
::::::s::a:::::::
===s.:g:::::::
(
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---------------------- - ---- I I I ! I I I I
WAVE TOWEl< I I I I 1 I II I I
I I I I I I I I
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HALF-CYUNDEI<5 IN THE SPlF<JT OF 1 I I I I I I I J
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KOHN PEDEI<5EN FOX ASSOCIATES
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inside of the joint. Push the cylinder halfway
through the hole of your circle template to dry.
There is always the desire to use prefabricated
cylinders, such as toilet paper rolls or paper-towel
cores, to save time and effort. They must be cov-
ered because they are gray or buff and don't look
good. Heavy paper does well; rubber cement or
spray adhesive will secure the paper. Don't spray
paint the tube-the surface is too absorbent and
uneven and the results are unacceptable.
As modern architecture has demonstrated,
cylinders (and other geometric solids) can be
altered in creative and intriguing ways. One
example is the wave tower (figure 4.13). To make
a wave tower, cut two pieces of illustration board
in the shape of the patterns provided and score
them vertically every quarter-inch (figure 4.14).
Bend the two pieces and glue them together,
holding them with clips until dry (figure 4.15).
Trace the inside of the bottom of the cylinder
onto a piece of board, cut it out, and glue it in
the top (figure 4.16). This model is visually effec-
tive if the backside of the board with its contrast-
ing color is used for one of the half-cylinders.
:::]5I:::
DOMES
Domes are difficult to make. A Styrofoam sphere
cut in half may be yo ur best option if using a dif-
ferent material will not spoil the looks of the
model. Papier mache is another possibility.
More often you will opt for a pseudo-dome.
Stacking sequentially smaller circles of illustra-
tion board is one way to build a pseudo-dome,
though small circles are mean to cut (figure
4.1 7). Cut them out slightly large and then trim
them down.
The peta l system also produces a pseudo-dome.
You need to use sturdy paper, since illustration
board is too heavy to bend . Find the circumfer-
ence of the base and divide it into eq ual seg-
ments. Mark the proper number of segments in a
straight line. Make a pattern for a cu rvin g petal
and trace it onto the segments (figure 4.18). If
you leave the bottoms of the petals attached it
wi ll be much easier to glue or tape them. The
curve of the dome does not start un til t.he petal
curves (figure 4.19). Tape th e segments together
on the inside. Most domes sit on a drum(figure
4.20). Starting th e curve slightly above the bot-
tom line produces a drum that ca n then be cov-
ered with heavy paper.
Details can greatly enh ance the dome. Cut a
narrow strip of lightweight card or cover stock . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . a • •
'~~;:':~;j~:;;>:<:(:.:~~~:~>\))
for each joint (figure 4.21). Make them long
enough to touch each other at the top. Cut out a
collar to encircle th e base of the dome, covering
the bottom of the strips and the drum (figure
4.22). Add a narrow strip to the collar for more
detail (figure 4.23). Make a small collar or drum ~
. , " ' . : •• .t' •••••• : I ' •• •• , .......... •••• , .. ..••••••• \
for a cupol a to com plete the top. Cut a disk to
cover the top of the cupola and finish it off with
a wooden bead (figure 4.24).
A ribbed dome is more dependable than the
petal form beca use it has interior support. Draw
two circles, cut them in half, and make a notch in
each piece. Two halves shou ld be notched at the
top and two notched at the bottom (figure 4.25).
Assemble the pieces and bend two of the wings
into position (figure 4.26). Cut another disk of
the same diameter for the dom e's base. Glue the
ribs to the base, kee ping them evenly spaced. The
ri bs may be covered wi th three -sided petals that
=::::~:3:::::::
are straight on the bottom and curved on the
sides (figure 4.27). Cut a strip of heavy paper to
form a collar enclosing the base and the bottom
of the petals. The ribs may be left uncovered
because they both imply a dome and are exceed-
ingly decorative. More flanges can be used if
desired.
A low ersatz dome can be made by cutting a
circle out of museum board or sturdy paper (fig-
ure 4.28). Cut a radius. Overlap the ends or cut
away the overlap. Tape it on the inside.
::'::'::'~A:::::'
VAUL.T5
A barrel vault is a half-cylinder. Its span will be
twice its height. Take the measurements of the
vault from your drawings. A vault made from one
piece of ill ustration board needs to be attached to
walls to keep its shape. A vault with thickness-
usually in large-scale models-is made from two
half-cylinders and can be freestanding (figure
4.29). Space the two half-cylinders with parallel
ribs.
A cross vault is two intersecting barrel vaults
(figure 4.30). The intersection of the two vaults
creates a complex curve, the construction of
which calls for fancy mathematical footwork. An
adequate result can be achieved by following the
basic shape of the pattern shown (figure 4.31).
:::: ::~ :!{::::
STAIF<WAYS
In a study model, a stairway can simply be a slo-
ping ramp. Draw lines on the ramp to indicate
stairs. Presentation models, however, must incor-
porate treads and risers. Check the drawings to
determine the overall height of the stairway. As a
rule of thumb, stairs have a 7" (18 em) rise and
12" (30-cm) deep treads, but variations that don't
exceed the building code are allowed. Divide the
height of the floors by seven to figure out how
many stairs to make. Draw the stairway in plan,
as though it has been flattened out. Show both
the treads and the risers and add one additional
riser to be glued to the second-floor plane (figure
4.32). Cut the stairs in one piece out of illustra-
tion board, scoring each step alternately on the
front or back.
Depending on their length, stairs need one or
two stringers for support. Stringers are the frame -
work that support the stairs (figure 4.33). One in
the middle wi ll do if the staircase is short. One on
either end is needed for wide stairs or for a higher
:::::: ~]:i:::: ::
RISER 8
::::::n~::::::
degree of finish. The measurements for the string-
ers are the same as for the stairs (figure 4.34).
Better-looking stairs can be made by using a
material that is the proper scale for your model.
Chipboard that is 1,116" (1 mm) thick will simulate
stairs with a riser of 6" (15 cm) in a W' (1 :100)
scale model. Laminating two pieces will suit a
1/4" (1:50) scale model. Cut out each stair sepa-
rately, doubling its depth to allow it to be glued
to the next stair. Glue the final stair under the
floor plane of the second floor (figure 4.35).
CI.ASSIC DETAII.S
PEDIMENT Simplified versions of classic details can easily be
}- CORNICE
cut out of illustration board. Roman temple
~ FRIEZE
~ ARCHITl1AVE fa<,;ades, much in vogue even now for banks and
.. CAPITAL
other public buildings, comprise several distinc-
tive features: a pediment, cornice, frieze, archi-
trave, porch, and columns, which can be further
.. SHAFT
broken down into the capital, shaft, base, and sty-
lobate (figure 4.36). The steps, columns, pedi-
ment, and the space behind to the wall of the
~ BASE
- STYLOBATE building make up the porch.
::::::~:a:::::::
In a model you can simplify the porch by
excluding the capitals and bases and by combin-
ing the frieze and the architrave. Columns pre-
@
T1<IGL'l'PH AND METOPE
sent the biggest problem, because they should be
smaller at the top than the bottom and, even
more troublesome, should swell in the middle.
Since this is well nigh impossible to duplicate in
a model, use instead simple cylinders or dowels.
Draw vertical lines on the shaft to represent
flutes.
To give the frieze a more finished look, add
triglyphs and metopes, which are a sequence of
three narrow rectangles separated by a space (fig-
ure 4.37). Similar to the triglyph and metope is
the frieze of dentils, a very simple pattern of
alternating rectangles and spaces (figure 4.38).
@
EGG AND DART
Other common details are the so-called egg-
and-dart motif (figure 4.39) and the Greek-key
design (figure 4.40). The Greek-key is easily con-
structed on a 9-by -10 square grid. In Renaissance
architecture, Greek-key and egg-and-dart designs
are usually a strip of detail under the cornice and
above the frieze, but in revival styles, they can be
8
GREEK KEY
used almost anywhere that enhancement is desired.
::::::~l{::::::
Renaissance and Baroque designers were pio-
neers in squashing the porch flat against the
front of the building. This makes the modelmak-
er's job much easier since the various elements,
columns included, can be cut out and glued to the
wall. When columns are attached to a wall they
are called "engaged." A small, simple, American
Colonial doorway (figure 4.41) is an example.
Pediment, columns (flat, not rounded), and the
ROMANESQUE
AMERICAN COLONIAL- PORTAL AND single step can be cut from one piece of board.
STYLE DOOR WINDOW First, establish the number and the order of the
---"------- ----..~-, layers that you want. If desired, some of the
details can be drawn on the board instead of cut
out. Notice that in pedimented units the pedi-
ment and columns-either freestanding or
engaged-protrude farthest and that in all units
the door itself is the most recessed part.
In a large Romanesque doorway the porch
front (i.e., the square top, its arch, and the con-
necting columns and the lowest step) can be cut
from one piece of board. The inner arches and
steps can be drawn on the board for a recessed
DOOR IN THE SPIRIT OF look (figure 4.42). These examples clearly show
FAANK LLOYD WRIGHT the skeletal remains of the classic fa<,;ade.
The Frank Lloyd Wright storefront (figure
....-:: ::-...
4.43), with its Romanesque roots, is made by ~
drawing the four outer arches and the section of
DO
wa ll they intersect on one piece of board, and
setting back the round-topped door as deeply as
possible.
Aside from sca le, windows and doors are simi-
00
DO
DO
§§
DO
lar in Romanesq ue, Renaissance, and Baroque 1
designs (figures 4.42, 4.44, 4.45). Tops of the ves-
tigial porch can be pediments, arcs, or arches
(figure 4.45). In doors that marked honorific
entran ces, architects of the period threw caution
to the wind and elaborated richly on the tradi-
tional Rom an style. The English version is out-
standing (figure 4.46); the Italian more con-
trolled (figu re 4.44).
o 0
ITALIAN ENGLISH
RENAISSANCE RENAISSANCE
::::::::'L):::::: ::
TREFOIL LANCET OGEE
ISLAMIC PORTAL
OTHER DETAIl.S
Many other common details can be applied to
~DD~
your model to establish an architectural period. DODD
Gothic window frames-the lancet, the trefoil,
and the ogee (figure 4.47)-are easily cut out. In
Islamic design, an enormous rectangular frame
o~ 0
[l
dwarfs a smaller arched doorway (figure 4.48).
Japan's mystical relationship with the circle is
often evidenced in their architecture (figure 4.50).
JAI'ANESE-STYl..E DOOR IN THE SI'IRIT
In the twentieth century no styles are sacro-
DO OF ISSIKI ARCHITECTS
sanct. Postmodernism has mixed and matched DO
details ranging from the ancient world to the DO
future. Arches, arcs, pediments, columns, dorm- DO
ers, domes--all are combined without regard to
consistency or provenance. Hans Hollein's door
I I
(he has made his reputation on inspired
MODERN DOOR IN THE SI'IRIT
entrances) incorporates bits of Eastern culture OF HANS HOl..l..EIN
(figure 4.49), as does Issiki's reference to an
ancient Japanese moongate (figure 4.50). Steven
Holl's carefully placed and varied rectangles of
0
0 DO
glass recall the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian (fig-
ure 4.51). There is room for everything in eclecti- MODERIN DOOR IN THE SI'IRIT OF
STEVEN HOl..l..
clsm.
:::::::::~:a::::::::::::
5
Conto ur Bases
LEVEL SITES
An architectural model may simply describe and
define a building or it may include the site. The
word site implies measured areas of differing
topographies. If the site is level, the model will
sit on a flat piece of board, reinforced if neces-
sary to keep it from warping. To give a slight
three-dimensional effect, two layers of card can
be used. First, cover the whole base with a piece
of card of the chosen color. Glue it down and
weight it until it is dry. This surface represents
the street and driveway level. Next, cut sidewalks,
lawns, and planting beds out of another sheet of
card and glue them onto your base. This provides
just enough difference in elevation to clarify the
land use without distracting from the architec-
ture (figure 5. 1). Architects prefer neutral tones
or white for the entire model ensemble-build-
ings, site, entourage, and planting. Landscape
architects, on the other hand, endeavor to put a
more realistic face on mod els. They often color
coordinate the layers, using, for example, a green-
3
RHtttmJ
ish board for lawn areas, gray or white for drive-
2
ways and streets, and brown for undeveloped land. HEIGHT
IN FEET
SIMPl.E CONTOURS 0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
@ 1/4" = 1'-0" DISTANCE IN FEET
If the site has a simple sloping contour, the slope
can be incorporated in to the base. Slope is identi-
fied by rise (height in feet or meters) and run
(horizontal distance in feet or meters). A one-in-
ten slope would be a rise of one foot over a dis-
tance of ten feet. It would be drawn on a grid,
with the rising line defining th e contour (figure
5.2). Rise divided by run equals the percentage of
slope. A 1OO-percent slope results from a rise that
is equal to the run. On a grid this would be rep-
resented by a 45-degree angle.
To create a base that incorporates slope (figure
5.3), draw at least three contours to scale and cut
them out of illustration board. Mount these on
the bottom piece of your base. The two outside
contours should be even with the outside edges of
the base. Cut out strips to cover the high and low
ends of the base. Reinforce the contour strips by
gluing scored and folded pieces of illustration
board against them.
Any contour that does not curve too tightly for
the illustration board to bend and that proceeds
as a contour in only one direction can be made in
this fashion (figure 5.4).
COMPL.EX CONTOURS
Complex contours are built up In layers of illus-
tration board, chipboard, cardboard, or a material
that approximates the thickness, to scale, of the
rise in contour. For example, V8" chipboard is the
proper thickness for the contours of a 'Is"= l'
model. Each layer represents a rise in height
equal to one foot. The stepped effect of a con-
toured site has a pleasing design quality and is an
easy-to -understand shorthand for land forms.
Since contours represent a rise in ground level
over a certain horizontal distance, it follows that
the fewer the contours, the less the slope. Like-
wise, contours closer together translate as a steep-
er grade. Contours never cross each other. For
vertical bluffs, retaining walls, or foundations,
the contour lines will fall on top of each other.
Contour lines are usually labeled according to
their elevation in feet (or meters) above sea level
(figure 5.5). On an architectural plan the con- 54
tours are marked outside the site boundaries and
should be marked on both ends of each contour
line (figure 5.6).
54 . IL._--r 53
Architectural models and their sites are mea-
sured on an architect's scale, which is calibrated
in feet and inches: 112"=1', t;4"=I', 1/ 8"=1 ', etc. .52
53 " - - - -
(or, on a metric scale, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, etc.). The
scale has two calibrations on each of its three
edges, one starting at each end. Be careful to use
the correct set of numbers. Measurements begin ----+50
at zero, not at the end of the scale.
Landscape architects, who usually deal with
much larger sites, use an engineering scale cali- 50
brated in decimals, varying from ten to the inch
to sixty to the inch. A landscaper's plot plan
might be 1"=20' (1 :200), for example, while an
architect's site plan is scaled at t;8"=I' (1:100).
:::::::L"-=::::
The vital contour information comes to the model-
maker by way of a topographical map or the
results of a survey.
To make a contour base you will need at least
one copy (or two, to be on the safe side) of the
original contour drawing. One of them will be
54
cut up and used as a pattern. To make the copy
you can take the easy road to the photocopy
machine or you can use the "black the back"
54 technique. To black the back, use a very soft pen-
53
cil to cover the back side of the vellum with a
layer of carbon. Position the vellum, carbon side
52
53 down, on a sheet of paper and trace the contour
lines, transferring them to the paper underneath.
52
51
Solid-Core Contour Boses
50 With solid-core contour bases, each contour is cut
51
so that it covers the whole base behind the con-
toured edge. This arrangement gives maximum
50
strength, does not need a supplementary piece of
board underneath, and is very easy to make.
Using one of the photocopies of the contour
drawing, number each contour in order according
to the elevation. Cut off each contour and use it
as a pattern for the leading edge of its corre-
sponding layer. The rest of the layer will fit the
back and sides of the base. Glue and weight
them with books until dry. When the base is dry,
turn it on its side and trace the stair-step edge
onto a piece of illustration board. Cut it out and
use it to cover the laminated edge of the base
(figure 5.7). Do this for all four sides.
Hollow Contour Bases
The solid-core base is so simple, efficient, and
easy that other solutions sometimes seem super-
fluous. However, the compelling reasons for an
alternative are cost (the solid base takes a vast
amount of material) and weight (the solid base
can become leaden). The alternative is a hollow
base, in which the contours are like shelves sup-
ported by piers (figure 5.8).
Using one of the photocopies of the contour
drawing, label each contour from bottom to top
by the elevation number and cut them out (fig-
ure 5.9). Start with the lowest contour and trace
:::::::::J.: SC:::=
===~z:2:===
its outline on a sheet of illustration board. Add a
half-inch to an inch (1 to 2.5 cm) to the back
edge for overlap (indicated by the dashed line in
figure 5.8). Cut out the shape. Trace the outline
of the next contour on a piece of illustration
board and add a half-inch to an inch (1 to 2.5
cm) to the back edge. Cut out. Continue with
each contour.
To create piers, cut a strip about an inch (2.5
cm) wide out of the scrap illustration board.
Chop the strip into small squares, and then stack
and glue the squares. Start assembling the con-
tours from the lowest elevation. One at a time,
glue each contour and its piers and let dry (see
figure 5.8). A hollow model needs to be assem-
bled either on a base piece of illustration board
or on a previously prepared sub-base.
When the base is dry, turn it on its side and
trace the stair-step edge onto a piece of illustra-
tion board. Use it to cover the exposed side of the
base. Do this for all four sides.
:::::aT:::
ADDING THE MODEL TO
THE BASE
Cutting the footprint of a building out of the
contoured base is almost always easier than
attempting to build the model to conform to the
contours. Cutting the solid-core base presents no
problems. Trace the footprint directly on the
assembled contours and cut away (figure 5.10).
For a hollow base, trace the footprint on the
contour drawing before cutting out the pieces. As
you cut out each contour, you will be cutting the
shape of the footprint as well (figure 5.11).
::::::<S::!2:::::::
Foamcore Models
The angularity and unadorned robustness of
today's architecture are qualities that foam core
handles well (figure 6.1). It is too thick W16" and
\14" [3.5 mm and 5 mm] are common thicknesses)
for small-scale models and those with fine detail
or embellishments, but it is good for models that
demonstrate volumes and broad planes. Some
remnants of the brutalist style are still evident in
contemporary architecture- features like flat,
bare walls, no overhangs, frameless windows, and
punched openings. These characteristics are
cleanly modeled in foamcore (figure 6.2).
Foamcore has a slick, shiny paper surface,
which can be appealing, but it does not take pen- INTERSECTING VOLUMES
IN THE SPIRIT OF
cil well and is very difficult to erase. Another PEl COBB FREED! PARTNERS
drawback is that the exposed cut edges are some-
times unattractive. The sharpest of blades is
essential for cutti ng foamcore, as its fill material
balls up very easi ly. If this happens you will be
I ~
::::::a:A:::::
forced to cover the cut edges, and if you cover
one you need to cover all. Cut strips of white
paper and glue them on the edges. Beveled cor-
ners look very good in foamcore; use the board
cutter to make them. Curving surfaces need to be
made of an alternative material.
A complex model can be built in separate units
that fit together wing by wing or, in modern
architecture, units that intersect or overlap. Build
the model in distinct parts, with each intersect-
ing unit separate (figure 6.3). Then assemble
them (figure 6.4). Freestanding walls can be
pinned from the bottom, through the base. If the
design has already been formulated there will be
drawings from which to take measurements. If
the model is the design originator, begin by
exploring the possibilities with paper and tape.
You will eventually come up with a pattern that
can be traced onto the board.
7
Balsa and Basswood
Models
Balsa and basswood are similar soft, light-
weight woods. Basswood is slightly denser.
Balsa wood is often chosen as a presenta-
tion model material beca use it is
beautifully textured, lightweight,
honey colored, and easy to cut.
Since its edges never need to be
covered, it makes elegant land
contours, terraces, and baronial
flights of stairs (figure 7.1).
Square and round rods of balsa or
basswood are avai lable at crafts stores,
and flat sheets come in varying th icknesses.
Although thin sheets ca n be scored and bent
slightly, curves have to be made from multiple
A BALSA WOOD SWIRL OF AMPHITHEATRICAL
facets of wood glued together. Of course, another SEATING IN THE SPIRIT OF
option is to resort to different materials. HAMMEL GREEN! ABRAHAMSON
A wea lth of materials can enrich the looks of a
wooden model. Archi tects, who are otherwise
notoriously reluctant to make models look "real,"
en joy the judicious use of metals and plastics.
You can use clear plastic for skylights, windows,
water, etc. There are infinite choices for special
effects: wire, bent tin, thin copper, m etal grids,
plastic screening, and BE-shot are just a few pos-
sibil ities. Use other woods, too. Pine skewers and
dowels match balsa in both color and texture. In
a W' (1:100) scale model, 1/ 16" (1- 1.5 mm) square
balsa rods make reasonable columns for a country
cottage (figure 7.2). All rods and poles should be
recessed into the base.
VERNACULAR COTTAGE IN THE
SPIRIT OF C. A. SUTHERLAND
TRUSSES
The Encyclopedia Britannica defines a truss as a
"structural member usually fabricated from
straight pieces of metal or timber to form a series
of triangles lying in a single plane." Many little
pieces of wood are necessary to make trusses and
only using a soft material like balsa or basswood
keeps this from being a nightmarish task.
Trusses come in a variety of designs, the most
common being the Pratt and the Warren systems.
In the Pratt truss the sloping members are paral-
lel to each other on either side of the center (fig-
ure 7.3). In the Warren truss the sloping mem-
bers alternate directions along the length of the
truss (figure 7.4). Normally the joints are stabi-
lized with bolts, rivets or welds; for a model, glue
will do.
An inexpensive plastic mini-miter box makes
truss construction easier. It cuts angles of 90, 45,
and 30 degrees (figure 7.5). The razor saw that is
used with the box can cut wood, plastic, and soft
metals such as brass and copper.
:::::::::;s:;s::::::::::
SPACE F~AMES
According to Fuller Moore in Understanding
Structures, "space frames are three-dimensional
truss systems spanning two directions, whose
members are in tension or compression only."
Essentially, they are a series of openwork pyra-
mids with bases oriented alternately up and - . .-
down. As roofs, space frames can span large areas
economically and gracefully. A half-octahedron
module is ideal for covering rectangular spaces
because it has a square base.
I
The frame is made of chords and struts. The
chords form the right-angled grids that are the
base of the pyramids. The pyramids are made up
I
of struts.
Begin by drawing a square grid to the proper
scale on a piece of paper. Cut square or round
balsa wood rods to the right size and assemble
them on top of the grid, securing the intersec-
tions with a blob of glue (figure 7.6). Cut the
struts. Each strut should be the same length as
one side of one of the squares forming the grid.
::::::5:1[==::
:::::::[0:::::::
Construct the pyramids by gl uing two struts to
opposite corners of one of the squares. Lean
them together and blob with glue at the top (fig-
ure 7.7). Using two more struts, fo llow the same
procedure on the opposite corners (figure 7.8).
Repeat for every square. When the whole set of
pyramids has dried thorough ly, blob the apex of
each pyramid with glue and attach another set of
chords, forming another square grid (figure 7.9).
Don't worry if some of the apexes don't quite
meet the chords. The space frame should be sup-
ported at the four corners, with the small grid
facing down (figure 7.10).
A DELICATE BA LSA MODEL OF AN OUTDOOR
THEATER IN THE SPIRIT OF PIERRE THIBAULT
8
Tents
All structures are in a state of compression and/
or tension. Tensile buildings embrace the genus
tents and sails and rely on tension to carry their
loads. Tent forms consist of a frame over or under
which is stretched a membrane. Its structure is
the tent pole and its taut lines. The covering is
the fabric membrane.
Visually, the tent is the ultimate in airy roman-
ticism, and the variety of its design is dazzling.
The Denver airport is an example of the moun-
tain peak look (figure 8.1). The friendly armadil-
lo look can be seen in the Venafro Laboratory
(figure 8.2). The Camp de Mart sports the giant
insect look (figure 8.3). As more membranes
impervious to the elements are developed, the
field for tensile buildings will expand.
:::::::::1[:2::::::::::
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