Vacuum Technologies 1

Lecture 3

Yu Jing
[email protected]

1 1
Lecture recap
1. Establish structure-property relationships & use
them to predict thermal and mechanical
behaviors of polymers using these relationships

2. Describe 4 common manufacturing processes for

polymers

3. Suggest appropriate manufacturing processes for

plastic products (based on
shape/dimensions/polymer type etc)

2
Lecture recap
• Factors to consider when selecting polymer
processes

• Various processing techniques:

1. Extrusion
2. Injection molding
3. Compression molding
4. Thermoforming

3
 Vacuum Technologies:
Overview
Vacuum

source
Chamber

Thin film

substrate

Vacuum
pump

exhaust

4
 Outline
• Fundamentals of vacuum physics

• Types of pumps

• Wafer preparation

5
FUNDAMENTALS of
Vacuum physics

6
 Definitions of vacuum
1 atm = 1.013x105 Pa = 1.01325bar = 760 Torr = 14.69595 psi

Pressure
(mbar)

Rough vacuum
1000 – 1
(RV)
Medium vacuum
1 – 10–3
(MV)
High vacuum
10–3 – 10–7
(HV)
Ultrahigh
10–7 – 10–14
vacuum (UHV)

7
 Mean free path (MFP)
• Allows us to know how gas flows in a vacuum

• MFP: the average distance traveled by a particle between

collisions:
a+b+c +d +e
e λ=
d
5
c Vacuum tube

b
out
in
a

For more information about mean free path: http://hyperphysics.phy- 8

astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/menfre.html
 Mean free path
We can express λ in the general form d

kT where
λ= k is the Boltzmann constant,
2Pd π
2
d is the collision diameter.

↑ Pressure (↑ particle density) = ↓ mean free path

For an ideal gas, PV = NkT where P = nkT

n: # of molecules/volume

1
Substituting, λ=
n 2d π
2

9
Viscous/Continuum flow (Low vacuum)

Molecular flow (High/Ultra-high Vacuum)

10
 Knudsen number (Kn)
• Knudsen number is used to quantify gas flow

• Ratio of the molecular mean free path length, λ to

diameter of the pipeline, d (or L)

λ
Kn =
d
Used for determining what kind of flow
Kn << 1 = Viscous/continuum flow (i.e., <0.01)
Kn ≈ 1 = Knudsen/transitional flow
Kn >>1 = Molecular flow (i.e., > 100)
11
 Impingement rate
z = impingement rate in z-direction
= # particles per unit area per unit time striking the
interior surface of a gas container (flux)
impingement

z = n vz (m-2.s-1)
rate, z

n = # particles per unit volume

vz = average velocity in z direction
= (kT / 2πm)½

Using ideal gas law, n = P / kT and Vz = (kT/2πm)1/2

z = P / ( 2πmkT)½
12
 Monolayer Coverage Time
Time required to cover a surface with one atomic layer (monolayer)

t = Ns / z
impingement
For example: rate, z

Ns= surface atom density ~ 1015 cm-2

for Si surface

z = 3.8 x 1014 cm-2s-1

1015
⇒ 𝑡𝑡 = = 2.6 𝑠𝑠
3.8 ×1014
13
 Definitions of vacuum
1 atm = 1.013x105 Pa = 1.01325bar = 760 Torr = 14.69595 psi

Mean Impingement
Pressure Type of
free path rate
(mbar) gas flow
(cm) (cm-2.s-1)
Rough vacuum
1000 – 1 < 10-2 1023 - 1020 Viscous
(RV)
Medium vacuum 10-2 - 10 1020 - 1017 Viscous/
1– 10–3
(MV) Knudsen
High vacuum 1017 - 1013 Knudsen/
10–3 – 10–7 10 - 105
(HV) Molecular
Ultrahigh
10–7 – 10–14 > 105 <1013 Molecular
vacuum (UHV)

14
TYPES OF PUMPS

15
 Quantitative measures of gas flow
Throughput, Q:
Quantity of gas that passes a plane in a given time

d(PV )
Q= Units = Pa m3/s or J/s
dt
⇒ Q = Seff Pend

where
Seff = effective pump speed
Pend = End pressure

16
 Classification of pumps
Type Mechanical Non-mechanical
Gas transfer Rotary Sorption
Turbomolecular Oil Diffusion
Entrapment Cryo Ion/Sputter ion
Sublimation*

Gas transfer pumps remove gas permanently from

the chamber; entrapment traps gas within the
pump

* Please note that the sublimation pump will be covered in the tutorials

17
 (1) Rotary Pump

Revolving door

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFHogF-9eGA
 (1) Rotary Pump
• Liquid between the pumping elements
and a stationary casing.

• Used in a wide range of applications -

chemical-processing; liquid delivery;
marine; food processing;
pharmaceutical; as well as food, dairy,
and beverage processing.

Advantages: low maintenance, high Q

Disadvantages: subject to wear, not UHV compatible, do not

pump condensable gases (e.g. H2O) well, cause vibrations
19
(2) Sorption Pump

Valve

Porous
molecular
sieve

Liquid N2

20
 (2) Sorption Pump
1. Sorption: pump is used to create a
vacuum
Valve  pump body is cooled by LN2 to low
temperatures

 gases condense or adsorbed onto

Porous large surface area of molecular sieve
molecular
sieve 2. Desorption: pump is warmed up to
room temperature
 gas escape through the relief
pressure valve
Liquid N2
3. Regeneration: pump is heated up
to ~ 300 °C to drive off water vapor
 (2) Sorption Pump
• Creates vacuum by
adsorbing gas molecules on
a very porous molecular
sieve (e.g., zeolite X13)
cooled by a cryogen (liquid
N2)

Advantages: Very low maintenance, no vibrations, clean

Disadvantages: Q depends strongly on P, must be recharged

each time, not capable of reaching UHV (max 10-2 mbar),
cannot pump gases with lower condensation temperature
than nitrogen, non-continuous operation
22
 (3) Cryopump
• Traps gases by condensation onto
cold surface.
T ≈ 77 K : H2O and CO2
T ≈ 10 K : all gases except He and Ne
T ≈ 4.2 K : all gases except helium. Gas from
chamber
• Cryopumps are commonly cooled by
compressed helium.
N He N
• Requires a mechanical pump to
achieve a minimum of 10-3 torr first
before cryopump can be turned on.

Advantages: Clean,100% UHV compatible

Disadvantages: Must recharge frequently, requires additional

stage, causes vibration, can be high maintenance 23
(4) Oil Diffusion Pump

Chamber

24
 (4) Oil Diffusion Pump

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KNsM1pbbvOo
25
 (4) Oil Diffusion Pump
• High-speed jet of fluid to
direct gas molecules in the
pump throat, down to the
bottom of the pump and out
the exhaust (foreline)

• Molecular flow regime

Advantages: wide range of Q, no vibrations, pump light gases

well, durable, can reach UHV (10-2 – 10-10 mbar)

Disadvantages: Not compatible with sensitive analytical

instruments due to backstream oil - must use liquid N2 trap,
requires additional stage, high operation cost
26
(5) Turbomolecular Pump

27
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f1SErZyhMe4 28
 (5) Turbomolecular Pump
• Rapidly spinning (e.g. 30-60K RPM)
turbine rotor hits gas molecules from the
inlet of pump towards exhaust to create
or maintain vacuum.

• Vanes changes the direction of travel of

gas molecules

• Requires a rotary pump to achieve 10-3

Torr first before it can be turned on

Advantages: Wide range of P & Q, 100% UHV compatible

Disadvantages: pump light gases poorly, requires additional

stage, causes vibration
29
 (6) Ion pump/Sputter ion pump

cathode cathode

anode

A – gas ion is buried in the cathode

B – ion impacts cathode and causes sputtering of Ti atoms
C – primary electron ionizes the gas atom to produce gas ions 30
 (6) Ion pump/Sputter ion pump

31
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_snzYepQTjI
 (6) Ion pump/Sputter ion pump
• Electrons are trapped in a strong
magnetic field. Gas molecules
encountered the electrons and ionizes.

• Gas ions are accelerated towards the

cathode by the E field, resulting in:
 embedding of gas ions in the wall
 sputtering of Ti cathode wall for
sputter ion pump

• Sputtered Ti ions recombine with gas

ions to remove them

Advantages: Wide range of Q & P, no vibrations

Disadvantages: Requires magnetic field, high voltage

32
(7) Sublimation pump

1. High current passes through Ti

filament.

2. Ti sublimes and surrounding

chamber is coated with a layer
of Ti.

3. Reactive Ti reacts with

colliding gas molecules to form
stable product.

33
 SUMMARY:
OPERATING RANGE OF PUMPS
Type P range (Torr)

Rotary 1000 – 0.001

Sorption 1000 - 10-2
Cryo 10-3 - UHV
Turbo 10-3 - UHV
Diffusion 10-5 - UHV
Ion/Sputter ion 10-6 - UHV

Sublimation 10-7 - UHV

34
 Classification of pumps
Type Mechanical Non-mechanical
Gas transfer Rotary Sorption
Turbomolecular Oil Diffusion
Entrapment Cryo Ion/Sputter ion
Sublimation*

Gas transfer pumps remove gas permanently from

the chamber; entrapment traps gas within the
pump

35
Wafer preparation

36
Wafer preparation
Sand is reduced to very pure silicon and shaped into
wafers:

1. Production of electronic grade silicon (EGS : ultra

high purity silicon “nine-9”, 99.9999999%)

2. Crystal growing

3. Shaping of Si into wafers

1. Production of EGS
Raw material is quartzite (pure SiO2) which is reduced in three steps:

Step 1: Production of metallurgical grade silicon (MGS), about 98%

This is carried out in a submerged electrode arc furnace. Coal,
coke, wood chips are added as reducing agents:
SiO2 + 2C  Si + 2CO

Step 2 : MGS is grounded and reacted with anhydrous HCl to form

trichlorosilane (SiHCl3)
Si + 3HCl(g)  SiHCl3(g) + H2 (g)

Step 3: Reduction of purified trichlorosilane by hydrogen gas to

produce electronic grade silicon (EGS)
SiHCl3(g) + H2 (g)  Si + 3HCl(g)

>99.99999% Si
2. Crystal growth
• Before EGS can be used as a substrate for
microelectronic chips,
 It must be made of a single crystal whose unit cell
is oriented in a certain direction

 The substrate wafers must be cut in a direction

that achieves the desired planar orientation.

• EGS must be grown into a single crystal

• Most widely used method: Czochralski process (CZ)

Czochralski process

• A seed crystal is dipped into a Si melt and then is pulled out

slow while being rotated.

• The resultant of the CZ process is a cylindrical single crystal

ingot, typically 150 to 300 mm in diameter and over 1 m in
length.
3. Wafer machining and finishing

(a) The ends of the (b) Cylindrical grinding

ingot are cut off to shape the ingot into
a more perfect cylinder
encrusted blade
3. Wafer machining and finishing

(c) One or more flats are (d) Ingot is sliced into

ground along the length of individual wafers by using an
the ingot inner diameter diamond
 3. Wafer machining and finishing
(e) Wafers are then ground along (f) Wafer is finally polished and
its edges with a diamond wheel cleaned to remove surface
to give the wafer a round profile damage caused by sawing
that is more resistant to chipping processing using a chemical
mechanical polishing
Summary of wafer preparation steps

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LWfCqpJzJYM