A QUICK REVIEW

OHM’S LAW
“Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current i flowing through the resistor, at
constant temperature.”
v∝i
Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be
the resistance, R.
v = iR
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
• Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the
current and potential difference (commonly known as voltage)
in the lumped element model of electrical circuits
• Applicable for both for DC circuits, and for AC circuits
 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
• Also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule,
or Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule)
• At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum
of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of
currents flowing out of that node,
(Or)
• The algebraic sum of currents in a network of
conductors meeting at a point is zero.

• Based on principle of conservation of electric charge

The current entering any junction is

equal to the current leaving that
junction. i1 + i4 =i2 + i3
 KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW
• Also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule, and Kirchhoff's second rule
• The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed network is
zero.
(Or)
• The sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equal to the sum of the potential drops in that loop.
(Or)
• The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the currents in them in
a closed loop is equal to the total emf available in that loop.

• Based on the conservation of energy whereby voltage is defined as the energy per unit charge.
 KIRCHHOFF’S voltage law
• The sum of all the voltages around the loop is equal to zero. -
v1 - v2 - v3 + v4 = 0
 Limitations of Kirchhoff's laws
• Applicable only to lumped network models
• KCL is valid only if the total electric charge, Q , remains
constant in the region being considered
• KVL is based on the assumption that there is no fluctuating
magnetic field linking the closed loop.
• KCL and KVL only apply to circuits with steady currents
(DC). However, for AC circuits having dimensions much
smaller than a wavelength, KCL, KVL are also approximately
applicable.
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE
• Series circuit – Voltage divider
• Same current flows.
• Voltage drops proportional to value of resistors/impedance;
Different voltage from single source; So called voltage divider.
 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
• Parallel circuit- Current divider rule.
• Current from source divides in all branches of parallel
circuit; Hence it is called current divider rule.
 NETWORK THEOREMS
• Important fundamental theorems of network analysis. They are
the
– Superposition theorem
– Thévenin’s theorem
– Norton’s theorem
– Maximum power transfer theorem
– Millman’s theorem
– Reciprocity theorem
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
For DC Circuits
• Any two-terminal, linear, bilateral, active dc network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of an equivalent voltage source(Thévenin’s
Voltage Source) and an equivalent series resistor (Thévenin’s Resistance)
For AC Circuits
• Any two-terminal, linear, bilateral, active ac network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of an equivalent voltage source(Thévenin’s
Voltage Source) and an equivalent series impedance (Thévenin’s
Impedance)
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM …continued

• DC Circuits • AC Circuits
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM …continued

• Thevenin’s theorem can be used to:

– Analyze networks with sources that are not in series or
parallel.
– Reduce the number of components required to establish the
same characteristics at the output terminals.
– Investigate the effect of changing a particular component
on the behaviour of a network without having to analyze
the entire network after each change.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM …continued

Procedure to determine the proper values of RTh and Eth

1. Disconnect the load resistance.
2. Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by short
circuits, and current sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance
between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current
sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sources are set to zero.)
3. Calculate ETh by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the open-
circuit voltage between the marked terminals.
4. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed
replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
• Dual of Thevenin's theorem
For DC Networks
• Any two-terminal, linear, bilateral, active dc network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of an equivalent current source(Norton’s
Current Source) and an equivalent parallel resistor (Norton’s Conductance)
For AC Circuits
• Any two-terminal, linear, bilateral, active ac network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of an equivalent current source(Norton’s
Current Source) and an equivalent shunt admittance (Norton’s Admittance)
 NORTON’S THEOREM …continued

• DC Circuits • AC Circuits
 NORTON’S THEOREM …continued
Procedure to determine the proper values of RN and IN
1. Disconnect the load resistance.
2. Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with short
circuits, and current sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance
between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current
sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sources are set to zero.)
Since RN = RTh , the procedure and value obtained using the approach described for
Thevenin’s theorem will determine the same value as RN.
3.Calculate IN by first returning all the sources to their original position and then finding the
short-circuit current between the marked terminals
4. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed
replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
Thévenin – NORTON EQUIVALENT
• Possible to find Norton equivalent circuit from
Thévenin equivalent circuit
– Use source transformation method
• ZN = ZTh
• IN = ETh/ZTh
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
• The current through, or voltage across, an element in a linear
bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents
or voltages produced independently by each source.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM… continued

• Used to find the solution to networks with two or more sources that are not in
series or parallel.
• The current through, or voltage across, an element in a network is equal to the
algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each
source.
• Since the effect of each source will be determined independently, the number
of networks to be analyzed will equal the number of sources.
• Superposition theorem is applicable to linear and homogeneous networks.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM… continued

• For a two-source network, if the current produced by one

source is in one direction, while that produced by the other is
in the opposite direction through the same resistor, the
resulting current is the difference of the two and has the
direction of the larger
• If the individual currents are in the same direction, the
resulting current is the sum of two in the direction of either
current
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM… continued

• Superposition theorem can be applied only to voltage and current

• It cannot be used to solve for total power dissipated by an element
• Power is not a linear quantity
– Follows a square-law relationship
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM… continued

For applying Superposition theorem:-

• Replace all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby
eliminating difference of potential. i.e. V=0, internal impedance of ideal voltage
source is ZERO (short circuit)).
• Replace all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby
eliminating current. i.e. I=0, internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite
(open circuit).
• When this theorem is applied to an ac circuit, it has to be remembered that the
voltage and current sources are in the phasor form and the passive elements are
impedances.
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEORM

• DC Circuits
A load will receive maximum power from a linear bilateral dc network when its
load resistive value is exactly equal to the Thevenin’s resistance.
RL = RTh

• AC Circuits
A load will receive maximum power from a linear bilateral ac network
when its load impedance is complex conjugate of the Thevenin’s
impedance
ZL = ZTh*
 MAXIMUM Power transfer theorem
Resistance
network which
contains
dependent and
independent
sources

2 2
VTh RL VTh
pmax = =
2RL 2
4R L
 Reciprocity theorem
• In a linear bilateral single source network, the ratio of response to excitation
remains the same even when the positions of response and excitation are
interchanged.

– The location of the voltage source and the resulting current may be
interchanged without a change in current.
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