Fluid Mechanics Lecture

Chapter-8
Steady incompressible flow in pressure conduits

Laminar flow: Laminar flow occurs

when fluid flows in parallel layers, with
no disruption between lateral mixing.
Turbulent flow: Turbulent flow is
characterized by the irregular movement
of particles in fluid where velocity varies
time to time, point to point.

To determine the flow type (weather laminar or turbulent), Reynolds

number (Re) is used in the honor of Osborne Reynolds (1882). Renolds
number is defined as the ratio of inertia force (FI) to viscus force (Fv).

𝑉 𝐿 𝐿4
𝑚𝑎 𝜌𝑉 𝑚 𝑇 𝜌𝐿3 𝜌 𝜌𝐿𝑉 𝐿𝑉 𝑉𝐷
𝑇2 𝑇2
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐿1 = 𝐿2
= = =
𝜏𝐴 𝜇𝑑𝑦 𝐴 𝜇𝑇 𝐿 𝐿2 𝜇 𝜇 𝜐 𝜐
𝑇

Where, μ is the dynamic viscosity, υ is the kinematic viscosity (m2/S), ρ is

the density of any fluid (kg/m3) and in case of water it is 1000 kg/m3 at 25oC.
We know, (V=L/T; υ=μ/ρ)
Laminar flow, if Re< 2000
Transitional flow, 2000≤Re≥4000
Turbulent flow>4000
Problem: An oil (S= 0.85, υ =1.8X10-5) flows in a 10cm diameter pipe at
0.50lps. Determine the type of flow.

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Fluid Mechanics Lecture

Ans:
𝑄 0.5𝑋1000 𝑐𝑚 0.0637𝑚
𝑉= = = 6.37 =
𝐴 𝛱𝑋102 𝑠 𝑠
4
𝑉𝐷 0.0637𝑋0.1
𝑅𝑒 = = = 354
𝜐 1.8𝑋10−5

The flow is laminar as Re< 2000.

Hydraulic Radius (Rh): Hydraulic radius is the ratio of the cross-sectional
area(A) of a pipe in which a fluid is flowing to the wetted perimeter of the
conduit (p).
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
𝑅ℎ = =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃
𝛱𝑟 2 𝑟 𝐷
For a circular pipe flowing fully, 𝑅ℎ = = =
2𝛱𝑟 2 4
(𝛱𝑟^2)/2 𝐷
For a circular pipe flowing half, 𝑅ℎ = 2𝛱𝑟 =𝑟=
4
2

Find the expression if the pipe is flowing one quarter.

General Equation for pipe friction

Consider steady flow in a conduit of uniform cross section A. The pressure at

each section 1 and 2 are P1 and P2 respectively. The distance between section
is L. For equilibrium in steady flow,

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Fluid Mechanics Lecture

∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0
P1 A- P2A-Wsinα- τavg (PL)=0
Z2−Z1 P 𝜏𝑜 𝑑𝑝
Here, W=γV=γAL, Sinα = and average shear stress, τavg = ∫0 . So
𝐿 𝑃
we can write,
(Z2−Z1)
P1 A- P2A- γAL - τavg (PL)=0
𝐿

𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃𝐿
− − 𝑍2 + 𝑍1 = 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
γ γ γA
Energy at any two points along the flow is equal when fluid is incompressible,
steady, irrotational and zero viscosity. A portion of the energy may lost along
the pathline due to resistance and fittings. Then it is called head loss. Based
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
on Bernoulli’s equation, head loss, hL = ( + 𝒁𝟏 ) − ( − 𝒁𝟐 )
𝛄 𝛄

𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 (1)
γ𝑅ℎ

This is a general equation of pipe friction which is applicable for any shape
of uniform cross section.
For a smooth walled conduit, where friction is neglected and the average
shear stress at the wall is assumed to be some function of V, ρ, and μ.
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐾𝑅ℎ𝑎 𝜌 𝑏 μ𝑐 𝑉 𝑛 (2)

By performing dimension analysis we get, FL-2 = K La (FL-4T2)b * (FL-2T)c

*(LT-1)n
For L: -2 = a-4b-2c+n
For T: 0 = 2b+c-n
For F: 1 = b+c
The solution of three simultaneous expression in terms of n
a = n-2

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b=n-1
c=2-n
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐾𝑅ℎ𝑛−2𝜌 𝑛−1μ2−𝑛 𝑉 𝑛
𝑅ℎ 𝑉𝜌 n-2
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐾( ) * ρV2
μ

𝑅ℎ 𝑉𝜌 n-2 𝜌𝑉 2
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2𝐾( ) *
μ 2

𝜌𝑉 2
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2𝐾𝑅𝑒𝑛−2 ∗
2
𝐶𝑓 = 2𝐾𝑅𝑒𝑛−2
𝜌𝑉 2
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐶𝑓 (3)
2

By putting 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 value in general equation and γ=ρg

2
𝜌𝑉 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐶𝑓 ∗
2 ρg𝑅ℎ
𝑉2 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐶𝑓 ∗ (4)
2𝑔 𝑅ℎ

This is a equation of pipe friction which is applicable for any shape of smooth
walled cross section.
For circular cross section,
𝑉2 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐶𝑓 ∗
2𝑔 𝐷
4
𝑉2 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 4𝐶𝑓 ∗
2𝑔 𝐷
𝑉2 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 ∗ ∗ (5)
2𝑔 𝐷

𝑓 = 4𝐶𝑓 = 2𝐾𝑅𝑒𝑛−2 is a friction factor and also dimensionless. This equation

is known as pipe-friction equation is commonly referred as “Darcy-
Weisbatch” equation.

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Fluid Mechanics Lecture

For a circular pipe, equation 1 can be written as-

2𝜏0 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = (6)
γ𝑟0

Where the shear stress at the wall is equal to average shear stress and Rh=ro/2
(ro is the radius of pipe)
2𝜏𝐿
For a cylindrical body of fluids with A= Πr2 and P=2Πr, ℎ𝐿 = (7)
γr

Relating 6 and 7,
𝑟
𝜏 = 𝜏0 (8)
𝑟0

Laminar flow in circular conduit/Velocity distribution in pipes

𝑑𝑢
For laminar flow, 𝜏 = −𝜇 where u is the velocity at distance of y from
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 2𝜏𝐿
boundary. As y= ro-r, 𝜏 = −𝜇 . Substituting the value of τ into ℎ𝐿 =
𝑑𝑟 γr
equation.
𝑑𝑢 2𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = −𝜇 ∗
𝑑𝑟 γr

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γℎ𝐿
𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2𝜇𝐿
By integrating we get,

γℎ𝐿 𝑟
𝑑𝑢 = − ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2𝜇𝐿 𝑟𝑜
γℎ𝐿 (𝑟 2 −𝑟02 )
𝑈=− ∗ + 𝐶1 (1)
2𝜇𝐿 2

When r=0 (at centre), U=Umax

γℎ𝐿 (𝑟02)
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∗ + 𝐶1
2𝜇𝐿 2
γℎ𝐿 (𝑟02 )
𝐶1 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ∗ (2)
2𝜇𝐿 2

By putting the integrating constant into equation (1),

γℎ𝐿 (𝑟 2)
𝑈 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ∗
2𝜇𝐿 2
𝑈 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐾 ∗ 𝑟 2 (2)
Therefore, it can be concluded that velocity profile for laminar flow is
parabolic.
Again, When r=r0 (at the boundary) and U=0, we get from equation (2)
0 = 𝐶1
γℎ𝐿 (𝑟02 )
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∗ (3)
2𝜇𝐿 2

We can express equation (2) as-

γℎ𝐿 (𝑟02 ) γℎ𝐿 (𝑟 2) 𝑟02
𝑈= ∗ − ∗ ∗ 2
2𝜇𝐿 2 2𝜇𝐿 2 𝑟0

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2
γℎ𝐿 (𝑟0 ) 𝑟 2
𝑈 = 𝑉𝑐 − ∗ ∗ 2
2𝜇𝐿 2 𝑟0
𝑟2
𝑈 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑐 ∗ 2
𝑟0
𝑟2
𝑈 = 𝑉𝑐 (1 − ) (4)
𝑟02

This equation represents the velocity profile in pipe flow.

𝐷2
γℎ𝐿 ( )
4
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∗ [pipe radius, r0=D/2]
2𝜇𝐿 2

γℎ𝐿
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∗ 𝐷2
16𝜇𝐿
The mean velocity of parabola is one half of maximum height, V avg
γℎ𝐿
=𝑉𝑐 /2= ∗ 𝐷2
32𝜇𝐿

If, γ=ρg, ʋ=μ/ρ, the head loss can be calculated as-

𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 32ʋ 𝑉
𝑔𝐷 2 𝑎𝑣𝑔

This expression is known as Hagen-Poiseuille law for laminar flow in tubes.

It can be observed that,
ℎ𝐿 ∞𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔

2𝑔𝐷
From Darcy-Weisbatch” equation, 𝑓 = ℎ𝐿 ∗
𝑉2 𝐿

𝐿 2𝑔𝐷
𝑓 = 32ʋ 𝑉 ∗
𝑔𝐷 2 𝑉2𝐿

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Fluid Mechanics Lecture

ʋ 2
𝑓 = 32 ∗
𝐷 𝑉
64ʋ 64
𝑓= =
𝐷𝑉 𝑅
The equation is applicable if laminar flow, Re<2000.

Entrance condition in Laminar flow

Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity. At the entrance, the fluid
particles in the layer in contact with the surface of the pipe come to a complete stop. This
layer also causes the fluid particles in the adjacent layers to slow down gradually as a
result of friction.
To make up for this velocity reduction, the velocity of the fluid at the midsection of the
pipe has to increase to keep the mass flow rate through the pipe constant. As a result, a
velocity gradient develops along the pipe. The region of the flow in which the effects of
the viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt is called the velocity
boundary layer or just the boundary layer.
The hypothetical boundary surface divides the flow in a pipe into two regions: the
boundary layer region, in which the viscous effects and the velocity changes are
significant, and the irrotational (core) flow region, in which the frictional effects are
negligible.
The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow direction until the
boundary layer reaches the pipe center and thus fills the entire pipe, as shown in the
following figure.
The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the
centerline is called the hydrodynamic entrance region, and the length of this region is
called the hydrodynamic entry length Lh . Flow in the entrance region is called
hydrodynamically developing region.
The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity profile is fully developed and
remains unchanged is called the hydrodynamically fully developed region.
The velocity profile in the fully developed region is parabolic in laminar flow.

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Fluid Mechanics Lecture

Figure: The development of the velocity boundary layer in a pipe.

Problem: Continuation of problem 1, find the centreline velocity. The velocity
at r=2cm, the friction factor, shear stress at pipe wall, headloss per meter of
pipe length.
Maximum velocity for laminar flow in a conduit, Umax=Vc = 2*0.0637 =12.7
cm/s
When, r=r0=5 cm (D=10cm), U=O
𝑈 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐾 ∗ 𝑟 2
0 = 12.7 − 𝐾 ∗ 52
𝐾 = 0.51 1/(𝑐𝑚. 𝑠)
Velocity at 2cm,
𝑈2 = 12.7 − 0.511 ∗ 22
𝑐𝑚
𝑈2 = 10.7
𝑠
64ʋ 64 64
𝑓= = = = 0.18
𝐷𝑉 𝑅 354
ℎ𝐿 𝑉2 1
=𝑓∗ ∗
𝐿 2𝑔 𝐷

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Fluid Mechanics Lecture

ℎ𝐿 0.06372 1
= 0.18 ∗ ∗ = 0.00037 𝑚/𝑚
𝐿 2𝑔 0.1
𝑓𝜌𝑉 2
𝜏𝑜 =
8
0.18 ∗ 0.85 ∗ 0.06372 0.77𝑔 𝑁
𝜏𝑜 = = = 0.077
8 𝑐𝑚. 𝑠 2 𝑚2
Answer.
The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused by fluid
viscosity are felt is called the velocity boundary layer or just the boundary layer.
The layer upto which the velocity within a certain distance is zero or
negligible is called viscus sublayer/laminar sublayer.
𝜐
Viscus sublayer, 𝛿 = 11.6 ∗ 𝜏𝑜
(laminar flow: to determine nominal
√𝜌

thickness )
𝜐
𝛿1 = 3.5 ∗ 𝜏𝑜
(laminar flow: to determine true layer)
√𝜌

𝑓𝜌𝑉 2
𝜏𝑜 = (for both laminar and turbulant flow)
8
𝜐
𝛿 = 32.8 ∗ (for turbulant flow)
𝑉√𝑓

Ideally there is no smooth wall. However, If the irregularities are such that
the effect of projection do not pierce through the viscus layer.
Condition
Hydraulically smooth wall if, 𝛿 > 6𝑒

Hydraulically rough wall if, 𝛿 < 0.3𝑒

Transition 6e> δ>0.3e

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Velocity profile in turbulant flow:

𝑑𝑢
For turbulant flow, 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑜 = 𝜌𝑙2 ( )2
𝑑𝑦

turbulant flow is strongly infuenced by the flow phenomena near the wall.
The mixing length l near the wall is proportional to the distance from the
wall, l=ky.
𝑑𝑢 2
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑜 = 𝜌𝐾 2𝑦 2 ( )
𝑑𝑦
1 𝜏 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 = √ 𝑜 ∗
𝐾 𝜌 𝑦

𝜏
From which, 𝑑𝑢 = 2.5√ 𝑜 ∗ 𝑙𝑛𝑦 + 𝐶
𝜌

𝜏𝑜 𝑟0
𝑈 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 2.5√ ∗ 𝑙𝑛
𝜌 𝑟0 − 𝑟

𝜏𝑜 𝑟0
𝑈 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 5.75√ ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝜌 𝑟0 − 𝑟

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Chart for friction factor:

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Fluid Mechanics Lecture

Figure 3: Friction factor as a function of Reynolds number and relative roughness for round
pipes -the Moody chart.

Example: 8.4

e/D= 0.046/500 (in mm)=0.00009

𝟎.𝟐𝟒𝟑
V=
√𝒇

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Fluid Mechanics Lecture

𝑉2 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 ∗ ∗
2𝑔 𝐷

Head loss
The overall head loss for the pipe system consists of the head loss due to
viscous effects of the pipe surface, termed the major loss. The head loss in
various pipe components, termed the minor loss. The minor losses comes
from-
1. Pipe entrance or exit
2. Sudden expansion or contraction
3. Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings
4. Valves,open or partially closed
The major losses may not be so minor; e.g., a partially closed valve can cause
a greater pressure where minor losses are greater than the major losses.
hL = major loss+ minor loss
hL = hL-major + hL-minor
As previously discussed major losses in pipe flow introduced from friction/
viscus force. It shall be calculated using,
𝑉2 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 ∗ ∗
2𝑔 𝐷
64ʋ 64
𝑓= = (for laminar flow)
𝐷𝑉 𝑅

Problem: Find the head loss due to friction in a pipe of 1m

Diameter and 15 km long. The velocity of water in thepipe is 1 m/s
and friction is 0.2 . Neglects all the minor losses.
𝑉2 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 ∗ ∗
2𝑔 𝐷
Ans: 15.29m of water

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Fluid Mechanics Lecture

Minor loss: The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various
fittings, valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and
contractions in addition to the pipes. These components interrupt the
smooth flow of the fluid and cause additional losses because of the flow
seperation.
Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient K (also
called the resistance coefficient), defined as-
𝑉2
ℎ𝑙 = 𝑘 ∗
2𝑔
𝑉2
Loss at entrance, ℎ𝑙 = 𝑘𝑒 ∗
2𝑔

𝑉2
Loss due to contraction, ℎ𝑙 = 𝑘𝑐 ∗
2𝑔

(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2
Loss due to expansion, ℎ𝑙 =
2𝑔

𝑉2
Loss due to obstractio n, ℎ𝑙 = 𝑘𝑔 ∗
2𝑔

𝑉2
Loss due to bends or elbows, ℎ𝑙 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗
2𝑔

𝑉2
Loss due to submerged discharge, ℎ𝑙 =
2𝑔

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