Chapter-Three

Radar systems

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 Outline
Basic Idea
Basic Radar System
Radar Performance Factors
Antennas & Scanning
Display Methods
Pulsed Radar Systems,
Moving Target Indication
CW Doppler Radar
Frequency Modulated CW Radar
Phased Array Radars.

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 Radar system

RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Ranging System.

It is basically an electromagnetic system used to detect the location and
distance of an object from the point where the RADAR is placed.
It works by radiating energy into space and monitoring the echo or
reflected signal from the objects.
It operates in the UHF and microwave range.

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 Radar system
Detection addresses the question of whether a target is present or
changing.
Ranging, the ability to measure the range to a target, is possible
as radar provides its own illumination (the transmitter) unlike a
radiometer that provides no range information.

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 Basic Radar system
Highly Directional
Antenna

Transmitter Duplexer

Receiver Scanner
Timer

Indicator

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• Transmitter: It can be a power amplifier like a Klystron, Travelling Wave Tube or a
power Oscillator like a Magnetron. The signal is first generated using a waveform
generator and then amplified in the power amplifier.
•Antenna: The antenna used can be a parabolic reflector, planar arrays or electronically
steered phased arrays.
•Duplexer: A duplexer allows the antenna to be used as a transmitter or a receiver. It
can be a gaseous device that would produce a short circuit at the input to the receiver
when transmitter is working.
•Timer: This control the generation of pulses in the transmitter. The receiver as well as
the indicator are synchronized to the timer.
• Indicator: The receiver output is usually fed to the indicator which displays the
output on a cathode ray tube screen in such a manner as to show the difference between
the outgoing pulse and the returning echoes. For this purpose, the voltage of the C.R.T.
display is synchronized with the transmitted power.
• The Scanner: The scanning system rotates both the antenna system and the indicator
deflection coils. However, in the case of electrostatic deflection system, a rotating
sweep voltage is generated and controlled by the scanning circuit.
•Receiver: It can be super heterodyne receiver or any other receiver which consists of a
processor to process the signal and detect it.

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Classification of Radar:
Radar systems may be put into the following two basic categories:
 Continuous Wave Radar (CW Radar)
 Pulsed Radar

Uses of Radar:
Radar may be put to various uses:
 Civilian : Basically navigation aid
 Military Operations: Basically security purposes

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 Some Important Terms for Pulse Radar
T
Pulse Width T : This is the period for which the
transmitter transmits the pulse. Hence this is also
Tx
pulse period
the duration of the received pulse.
Tp
Pulse Repetition Time Tp : It is the time from one starting pulse to generate another pulse.
Pulse Repetition Frequency Fr : This is the frequency at which the pulse repeat itself.
Fr = 1/ Tp
Duty Ratio D: This is the ratio of the pulse width T to pulse repetition period Tp ,
D = T/ Tp
Peak Power Pp : This is the output power of the radar transmitter during the pulse interval
T.
Average Power Pav : This is the transmitter output power averaged over the pulse repetition
interval.
Pav = Pp X D
Travel Time in Pulsed Radar: Two way travel timeΔt of a radar pulse equals twice the
range divided by velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves.
2r = C.Δt

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 Free Space Radar Range Equation

Free space condition implies that the radar set and the target set are isolated in an unbounded
empty space. The condition is realized well enough for practical purposes if the following
conditions are fulfilled:
i) No large obstacle lie between antenna and the target.
ii) No alternative transmission path.
iii) The intervening medium is transparent.
iv) The intervening medium is homogeneous.

Calculation:
Let PT represent the peak power of the transmitter in watts. Then the power density at a distance
d is given by,
PT
S  ,
4 d
2

This results because the entire power PT is the distribution over a surface with radius d

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 Let GT be the power gain of the transmitter antenna in the direction the target relative to
isotropic radiator.
Hence power density at distance d becomes,
PT GT
St  , watt / sq.metre
4
2
d
Then the echo power, power per square meter of the wave front at the radar receiver is given
by,
   Pt Gt   S
 St S    1
Echo power per sq. meter at receiver  
 4 d 2   4 d 2  4 d 2
   

Hence the power delivered to the receiving antenna is given by,

PT GT S
PR  Ag
4  d 
Received Power
2 2

d

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 Radar Performance Factors

The performance of a radar depends upon the following factors:

 The Radar Range
 Pulse Width
 Pulse Repetition Frequency

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 Pulse Radar System

Antenna

Trigger Source
T.R Switch Output Tube Modulator

Mixer Detector
I.F Amplifier

Video Amplifier Indicator

Local Oscillator

From antenna drive motor

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 Pulse Radar System

Trigger: The trigger source gives pulses to the modulator which provides rectangular voltage
pulses used as supply voltage for the output tube, thus switching is ON and OFF as required.
Modulator: The modulator is a circuit arrangement whose function is to generate a pulse of
appropriate amplitude, length, and repetition rate, to be applied between anode and cathode of
the power tube of radar transmitter.
Output Tube: This output tube can be a Magnetron Oscillator or Multicavity Klystron
Amplifier. In case of the amplifier, a source of microwaves is required whose output is
amplified by Klystron.
T.R. Switch: The transmitter part of the radar is terminated with the duplexer which allows
high powered output pulses to the antenna for radiation.
The receiver section is connected to the antenna at appropriate times by the duplexer.
Mixer: The mixer is a crystal diode having a fairly low noise figure, but also a conversion
loss.
I.F Amplifier: The I.F. amplifier operates at 30 or 60 MHz or at a nearby frequency. The I.F.
amplifier should be a low noise device to ensure that the overall noise figure of the receiver
does not deteriorate to a great extent.
Local Oscillator: Another source of noise in the receiver section of a radar is the local
oscillator.
Detector: The detector is a crystal diode, whose output is amplified by video amplifier having
the same bandwidth as the I.F. amplifier.
Indicator: The output signal is then fed to a display unit which may be a cathode ray tube.

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 Moving Target Indicator (MTI) Radar

Antenna

fo+fc
Duplexer Klystron Amp.
fo+fc
fo+fc

fo+fc Modulator
fo

Mixer-1 Mixer-2

STALO
fc
fo

I.F Amp.
COHO
fc fc

Phase Sensitive
Detector

Amplifier

Delay Time Subtractor

Amplifier (-)

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 Frequency Modulated CW Radar

Limiter Freq. Indicator

Counter

Amplifier Sawtooth
Generator

C.W.T Freq.
Mixer Oscillator Modulator

Receiving Transmitting
Antenna Antenna

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 Antennas and Scanning system of Radar

Long-range radar antenna, used Radar of the type used for

to track space objects and ballistic detection of aircraft. It rotates
missiles. steadily, sweeping the airspace
with a narrow beam.

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 Antennas and Scanning system of Radar

Omni-Directional Broadcast: Radio

Surveillance Radar Antenna: More
signals broadcast from a single
modern systems use a
antenna will spread out in all
steerable parabolic "dish" to create a
directions, and likewise a single
tight broadcast beam, typically using
antenna will receive signals equally
the same dish as the receiver. Such
from all directions. This leaves the
systems often combine two radar
radar with the problem of deciding
frequencies in the same antenna in order
where the target object is located.
to allow automatic steering, or radar
lock.

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 Antennas and Scanning system of Radar

Phased array: Phased array antennas are composed

of evenly spaced similar antenna elements, such as
aerials or rows of slotted waveguide. Each antenna Slotted waveguide antenna:
element or group of antenna elements incorporates a Applied similarly to the parabolic reflector, the
discrete phase shift that produces a phase gradient slotted waveguide is moved mechanically to
across the array. For example, array elements producing scan and is particularly suitable for non-
a 5 degree phase shift for each wavelength across the tracking surface scan systems, where the
array face will produce a beam pointed 5 degrees away vertical pattern may remain constant. Owing to
from the centreline perpendicular to the array face. its lower cost and less wind exposure,
Signals travelling along that beam will be reinforced. shipboard, airport surface, and harbour
Signals offset from that beam will be cancelled. The surveillance radars now use this approach in
amount of reinforcement is antenna gain. The amount of preference to a parabolic antenna
cancellation is side-lobe suppression.
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 Antennas and Scanning system of Radar

Types of scan
Primary Scan: A scanning technique where the main antenna aerial is moved to produce a
scanning beam, examples include circular scan, sector scan, etc.
Secondary Scan: A scanning technique where the antenna feed is moved to produce a scanning
beam, examples include conical scan, unidirectional sector scan, lobe switching, etc.
Palmer Scan: A scanning technique that produces a scanning beam by moving the main antenna
and its feed. A Palmer Scan is a combination of a Primary Scan and a Secondary Scan.
Conical scanning: The radar beam is rotated in a small circle around the "boresight" axis, which
is pointed at the target.

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