Environmental Biology 1

Biodiversity Final Syllabus

Biodiversity
 National tree : Deodar , Cedrus deodara
 Flower , Jasmine , Jasminum grandiforum
 Vegetable ,Lady finger , Abelomoschnus eschulentus
 Fruit ,Mango , Mangifera indicha
 Mammal ,Marknor , Capra falchoneri
 Bird , Cnukor ,Alechtoris chnukar
 Reptile ,Indus chrochodile ,Crochodylus palustris
 Fish , Manaseer ,Tor puttora
 Amphibian ,Frog , Rana Tigrina
 National Icoon , Falchon ,Falcho peregrinus
 Indichaton of biodiversity degradaton ,Snow leopard ,aantnera unicha
 Flagship specoies pakistan ,Blind Indus dolpnin ,alatarita gangetcha minor
 Newzealand ……Kiwi
 Africha…..Girafe
 Australia….Kangaroo
 Archtch region ….polar bear

Protecoted Areas in pakistan

Data Achchording to 1999,

Regions/Provincoe W.L G. Uncolassified Total

s N.Park sancoturies reserve Area PA
Azad jamu
kasnmir 1 0 8 0 9
balochnistan 2 14 8 7 31
aunjab 2 37 19 0 58
KaK 3 6 38 5 52
Sindn 1 35 14 4 54
Federal Territory 1 1 1 0 3
Nortnern Areas 4 5 9 0 18
Total 14 98 97 16 225

Levels of organization
Genetic diversity species diversity Ecosystem diversity

Community kingdom Biosphere

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aopulaton anylum Biome

Individual organism Class Echosystem

Cell Order aatchn

Molechule family Habitat

Genus

Spechies

Sub spechies

Ecozone: A large geographical region having a distinct biodiversity of flora and fauna.

Ecoregion: large unit of land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage

of species, natural communities, and environmental conditions OR an area
defined in terms of its natural features and environment.

Biosphere: The biosphere, (from Greek bias = life, sphaira, sphere) is the layer of the
planet Earth where life exists. The biosphere is one of the four layers that
surround the Earth along with the lithosphere (rock), hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere
(air) and it is the sum of all the ecosystems.
Biome: a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major
habitat, e.g. forest or tundra..
Ecosystem: biological community of interacting organisms and their physical enviroment.
Species:
A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or
interbreeding . The species is the principle natural taxonomic unit , ranking below a genus and
denoted by a Latin binomial ,e.g .Homo Sapiens.

Biodiversity is the part of nature which include the difference in genes among the individuals
of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in
space, locally in a region, in the country and the world and various types of ecosystems, both
terrestrial and aquatic within a defined area. Biodiversity deals with the degree of nature's
variety in the biosphere.
Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere. This variety
can be observed at three levels; the genetic variability within a species, the variety of
species within a community, and the organization of species in an area into
distinctive plant and animal communities constitutes ecosystem diversity.

The difference in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the
plant and animal species at different scales in space, locally in a region, in the country and
the world and various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic within a defined
area. Biodiversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere.
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Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere. This variety
can be observed at three levels; the genetic variability within a species, the variety of
species within a community, and the organization of species in an area into
distinctive plant and animal communities constitutes ecosystem diversity.

Types of Biodiversity:

Genetic Diversity:

Each member of any animal or plant species differs widely from other individuals in its
genetic makeup because of the large number of combinations possible in the genes that
give every individual specific characteristic. Thus, for example, each human being is very
different from all others.

This genetic variability is essential for a healthy breeding population of a species. If the number of
breeding individuals is reduced, the dissimilarity of genetic makeup is reduced and inter
breeding occurs .
The diversity in wild species forms the gene pool from which our crops and domestic animals
have been developed over thousands of years..

Today the variety of nature's bounty is being further harnessed by using wild relatives of crop
plants to create new varieties of more productive crops and to breed better domestic animals.
Modern biotechnology manipulates genes for developing better types of medicines and a variety of
industrial products.
Species Diversity:
Species is a basic unit of classification and is defined as a group of similar organisms that mate and
produce offspring with one another and thus , share a common lineage. The number of species of
plants and animals that are present in a region constitutes its species diversity.
This diversity is seen in both natural ecosystem and in agricultural ecosystems. some areas are richer
in species than others. Natural undisturbed tropical forests have much greater species richness than
plantations.
A natural forests ecosystem provides a large number of non-wood products than local people depend
on such fruit, fuel ,wood, fodder, fiber , gum, resin and medicines. At present conservation scientists
have been able to identify and categorize about 1.75 millions species on earth.
However ,many new species are being identified ,especially, in the flowering plants and insects .
Areas that are rich in species diversity are called hotspot of diversity . india is among the worlds 15
nations that are exceptionally rich in species diversity.
Ecosystem or Community diversity:
There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, which have their own complement of
distinctive inter linked species based on the differences in the habitat .ecosystem diversity can be
described for a specific geographical region , or a political entity such as country , a state.
Distinctive ecosystem include landscape such as forests , grassland, deserts, mountains, etc., as well
as aquatic ecosystems such ass rivers, lakes, and the sea .Ecosystems are most natural in wildness
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areas. If natural ecosystems are overused or misused their productivity eventually decrease and they
are said to be degraded .India is exceptionally rich in ecosystem diversity .
Community diversity has three perspectives:

1. Alpha Diversity:

It is the biodiversity with in a particular areas, community or ecosystem.it is usually expressed by

he number of species ( i.e , species richness ) in that ecosystem .this can be measured by counting the
number of taxa ( distinct groups of organisms) with in the ecosystem. (e.g ., families, genera , and
species ) .
2. Beta species :

Beta diversity isa measure of biodiversity which works by comparing the species diversity between
ecosystem or along enviromental gradients . This involve comparing the number of taxa that are
unique to each of the ecosystems. It is the rate of change in species composition across habitats or
among communities. It gives a quantitative measure of diversity of communities that experience
changing environments.
3 .Gamma diversity :
It refers to the total species richness over a large areas or region .it is a measure of the overall
diversity for the different ecosystems with in region .
Gamma diversity can be expressed in terms of the species richness of component communities as
follows:
Y=S1+S2-e
Where, S1= the total number of species recorded in first community, S2= the total number of species
recorded in the second community , C= the number of species common to both communities .

Threats to biodiversity:
The wide variety of species on earth , whether they are plants ,animals , animals or microscopic
organisms ,are vital to keep the worlds many ecosystem healthy , balanced and thriving growing
plants we can eat ,trees we can shade under , and landscapes to use for everything from vacations to
computer screensavers.
In other words , biodiversity ensures natural sustainability for all life on the plant – thick more
abundant crops and fresher air , for example . More than 3 billion people depend on marine and
coastal biodiversity , while more than 1.6 billion people rely on forests for their livelihood .the loss
of biodiversity affects the lives of more than 1 billion people living in drylands.
But there are a number of issues threatening our planets biodiversity , from climate change to
invasive species .here are some of the biggest threats facing biodiversity today ,as well as what the
world can do to keep them in check.

1. Climate change:
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Changes in climate throughout our planet's history have, of course, altered life
on earth in the long run — ecosystems have come and gone and species routinely
go extinct.

But rapid, manmade climate change speeds up the process, without affording
ecosystems and species the time to adapt. For example, rising ocean temperatures
and diminishing Arctic sea ice affects marine biodiversity and can shift vegetation
zones, having global implications.

Over the coming decades, human-inducted climate change increasingly become

another major factor in reducing biological/biodiversity. These pressures on
biodiversity are, to a large extent, driven by economic development and related
demands including the increasing demand for biological resources.
As climate warms, species will migrate towards higher latitudes and altitudes in
both
hemisphere. The increase in the amount of CO2 in the air affects the
physiological functioning of plant and species composition. Moreover, aquatic
ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, mangrove swamps, and coastal wetlands, ar
vulnerable to changes in climate.
In principle, coral reefs, the most biologically diverse marine systems, are
potentially vulnerable to changes in both sea level and ocean temperature. While
most coral systems should be able to grow at a sufficient pace to survive a 15 to
95 centimeter sea-level rise over the next century, a sustained increase of several
degrees centigrade would threaten the long-term viability of many of these
systems.
Activities that reduce biodiversity, jeopardize economics development and human
health through losses of useful materials, genetic stocks, and the services of
intact ecosystems. Material losses include food, wood, and medicines, as well
as resources important for recreation and tourism. Losing genetic diversity,
like losing species diversity, makes it even more likely that further
environmental disturbance will result in serious reduction in goods and services that
ecosystems can provide.

Decreased biodiversity also interferes with essential ecological services such as

pollination, maintenance of soil fertility, flood controls, water purification, assimilation of
wastes and the cycling of carbon and other nutrients.

Global warming:
Overall, climate is a major factor in the distribution of species across the globe; climate
change forces them to adjust. But many are not able to cope. causing them to die out.

2. Deforestation and habitat loss:

Deforestation:
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Deforestation is a direct cause of extinction and loss of biodiversity . An estimated 18 million acress
of forest are lost each year , due in part to logging and other human practices ,destroying the
ecosystem on which many species depend .
Human activities are causing a loss of biological diversity among animals and plants globally
estimated at 50 to 100 times the average rate of species loss in absence of human activities .
Two most popular species in rich biomes are tropical forests and coral reefs .
Tropical forests are under threat largely from conservation to other land –use, tropical rainforests in
particular ,such as amazon hold a high percentage of the world known species ,yet the regions
themselves are decline due to humans.
While coral reefs are experiencing increasing levels of ever exploitation and pollution .if current
rate of loss of tropical forests continue for the next 30 years (about 1 percent per year ), the
projected number of species that the remaining forests could support would be reduced by 5 to 10
percent relative to the forest in the absence of human disturbance.

Impact on biodiversity

Many individuals do not think about the damage they are causing on biodiversity.
However, it is important as humans to realize the impact we have on biodiversity because without it, there
would be no human existence. If no changes are made in the ways humans use resources on earth, there
will continue to be a degradation of biodiversity until human lives can no longer be sustained. Humans
affect biodiversity by their population numbers, use of land, and their lifestyles, causing damage to
habitats for species. It is important for humans to realize how their actions affect biodiversity and the
importance of maintaining what biodiversity is left on the earth. Through proper education, and by
demanding that governments make decisions to preserve biodiversity, the human population will be able
to sustain life on earth longer.

Human activities are causing major changes in biological communities worldwide, and
these changes can harm biodiversity and ecosystem function. Ecosystem function is important for
supporting plant and animal communities, and ensuring the long-term survival of human populations.

Major Impacts on Biodiversity

More specific threats to biodiversity are posed by deforestation (estimated at 1% annually),

overgrazing, soil erosion, rampant hunting and fishing, and agricultural practices. As a result, it is
estimated that at least 12% of the flora is threatened and several of the faunal species are threatened too.
However, the real status of most species remains unknown. Some of the main threats to biodiversity are:

 Human Activities and Loss of Habitat

 Population Growth
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 Deforestation
 Desertification
 Soil Erosion
 Irrigated Agriculture
 Marine Environment
 Increasing Wildlife Trade
 Climate Change
 Hunting
 Pollution
 Resource exploitation

Human Activities and Loss of Habitat

Human activities are causing a loss of biological diversity among animals and plants
globally estimated at 50 to 100 times the average rate of species loss in the absence of human activities.
Two most popular species in rich biomes are tropical forests and coral reefs.

Tropical forests are under threat largely from conversion to other land-uses, while

coral reefs are experiencing increasing levels of over exploitation and pollution. If current rate of loss of
tropical forests continues for the next 30 years, the projected number of species that the remaining forests
could support would be reduced by 5 to 10 percent relative to the forest in the absence of human
disturbance. The rate of decline would represent 1000 to 10,000 times the expected rate of extinction
without deforestation by humans. Some studies suggest that, globally, as many as one half of all mammal
and bird species may become extinct within 200 to 300 years. Biodiversity loss can result from a number
of activities, including:

 Habitat conversion and destruction

 Over-exploitation of species
 Disconnected patches of original vegetation
 Air and water pollution

Over the coming decades, human inducted climate change increasingly become another
major factor in reducing biological/biodiversity. These pressures on biodiversity are, to a large extent,
driven by economic development and related demands including the increasing demand for biological
resources.

Population Growth
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The principal threat to biodiversity comes from the increased pressure on natural
resources produced by high population growth and demands for increased standards of living. The process
of economic development itself widens inequality and may force the poor to depend heavily on natural
resources, while the development models followed, in most instances, have been incompatible with the
sustainable use of natural resources.

Deforestation

Forest ecosystems contain as much as 80 percent of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity

and provide wood fiber and biomass energy as well as critical components of the Global cycles of water,
energy and nutrient. Forest ecosystems are being cleared and degraded in many parts of the world. Current
projections suggest that demand for wood will roughly double over the next 50 years, which will make
increasing use of sustainable forest practices more difficult. In addition to threats to biodiversity and
potential shortages in the supply of forest products, the degradation of forests represents an enormous
potential source of greenhouse gas emissions.

Forest ecosystems contain about three times the amount of carbon currently present in the
atmosphere and about one-third of this carbon is stored above ground in trees and other vegetation and
two-third is stored in the soil. When forests are cleared or burned, much of

this carbon is released into the atmosphere.

Desertification

Desertification and deforestation are the main causes of biodiversity loss. Both processes
are decisively influenced by the extension of agriculture. The direct cost of deforestation is reflected in the
loss of valuable plants and animal species. Desertification process is the result of poor land management
which can be aggravated by climatic variations. Converting wild lands to agriculture often involves
ploughing the soils which leads in temperate regions to an average decline in soil organic matter between
25 and 40 per cent over twenty-five years. Decreasing soil organic matter is always a clear indication of
soil degradation, and often is accompanied by reductions in water infiltration, fertility, and ability to retain
fertilizers.

Soil Erosion
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Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil, it is one form of soil degradation.
This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice (glaciers),
snow, air (wind), plants, animals, and humans.

Irrigated Agriculture

It is another major threat to both the riverine and mangrove forests of Pakistan, which are
fast disappearing Riverine forests were rich in a wide variety of plants such as obhan, and animals like
hog, deer, jungle cat, fishing cat, and gray and black partridges. Mangrove forests are particularly
important habitats for certain fish species as noted earlier. Both have been identified as endangered
ecosystems, and if they disappear they take with them a unique association of species. Marginal changes
in water releases at certain times are critical to the preservation of riverine habitats, it might be possible to
accommodate them, but if they require water diversions at times when irrigation demands are high and
water supplies are short, the chances of being able to maintain them are low.

Marine Environment

Oceans play a vital role in the global environment. Covering 70 per cent of the earth’s
surface, they influence global climate, food production and economic activities. Despite these roles,
coastal and marine environment are being rapidly degraded in many parts of the globe. In coastal areas,
where human activities are concentrated, pollution, over-exploitation of resources, development of critical
habitats such as wetlands, and mangroves, and water-flow from poor land-use practices have led to drastic
reductions in near shore fisheries production and aquatic biodiversity.

Increasing Wildlife Trade

According to Nick Barnes, “Trade is another cause of biodiversity depletion that gives
rise to conflict between North and South.” Global trade in wildlife is estimated to be over US $ 20 billion
annually. Global trade includes at least 40,000 primates, ivory from at least 90,000 African elephants, 1
million orchids, 4 million live birds, 10 million reptile skins, 15 million furs and over 350 million tropical
fish.

Climate Change

As climate warms, species will migrate towards higher latitudes and altitudes in both
hemispheres. The increase in the amount of CO2 in the air affects the physiological functioning of plant
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and species composition. Moreover, aquatic ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, mangrove swamps, and
coastal wetlands, are vulnerable to changes in climate. In principle, coral reefs, the most biologically
diverse marine systems, are potentially vulnerable to changes in both sea level and ocean temperature.
While most coral systems should be able to grow at a sufficient pace to survive a 15 to 95 centimeter sea-
level rise over the next century, a sustained increase of several degrees centigrade would threaten the
long-term viability of many of these systems.

 The current climate change Earth is facing is caused by the increase in global temperatures.
 Human activity is changing Earth's atmosphere faster than it has ever changed during its history.
 The burning of fossil fuels in industry and by vehicles releases carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
 The burning of fossil fuels in industry and by vehicles releases carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

 The burning of fossil fuels and the growth of animal agriculture has caused large amounts of
greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide and methane) in the atmosphere.
 Higher concentrations of greenhouse gases trap more heat in the biosphere and result in global
warming. In turn, this drives climate change. The atmospheric concentration of CO2 has risen
steadily since the beginning of industrialization.

Atmospheric CO

When climate change affects an environment so much that it is unable to sustain

organisms, they must adapt, relocate, or face extinction. Because of this, climate change can have a huge
effect on biodiversity.

Hunting

Hunting has deep roots in Pakistani culture. It was the recreation of the Moghul emperors
and is still extremely popular today. Wild animals have been hunted to extinction from hunting pressure.
Various lizards and snakes are hunted for their skins, as are crocodiles and the larger mammals.
Distributing the natural order has other subtler consequences. The increase in the numbers of wild boars,
jackals, and porcupines, for example, is directly attributable to the elimination of their predators,
particularly the large cats.
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A greater number of wild boars has led to the trampling and uprooting of gropes and a
reduction in the numbers of snakes, which in turn has led to an increase in the number of rats, responsible
for post-harvest losses of grain. The loss of birds of prey has led to an increase in undesirable bird species.
And having more birds can destroy undergrowth, through their droppings, or even the roost tree itself,
which in turn can lessen the ability to resist water erosion, an ever-present threat in Pakistan.

Human impact on biodiversity

Human activity is a major threat to the planet's biodiversity. This is because human
population growth thus far has been exponential, meaning that its growth rate stays the same regardless of
population size. This makes the population grow faster and faster as it gets larger. Populations may grow
exponentially for some period, but they ultimately reach a carrying capacity when they become limited by
resource availability. Humans, however, have continued to work around carrying capacity as they develop
new technologies to help support the ever-growing population. This threatens biodiversity because the
more humans there are, the more this displaces other species and reduces species richness.

Pollution

Atmospheric and hydrologic pollution have far-reaching negative effects on biodiversity.

Pollution from burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas can remain in the air as particle pollutants or
fall to the ground as acid rain. Acid rain, which is primarily composed of sulfuric and nitric acid, causes
acidification of lakes, streams and sensitive forest soils, and contributes to slower forest growth and tree
damage at high elevations. In addition, chemical pollutants such as pesticides and herbicides leach into
soils and watersheds. Some fish species, such as salmonids, require small freshwater streams to spawn.
Polluted streams result in the abandonment of traditional spawning areas and ultimately in the loss of
salmon populations. Species’ sensitivity to pollution is variable. However, many species are vulnerable to
the indirect effects of pollution through the concentration of toxic chemicals in top predators of food
chains and disruption of predator-prey interactions.

Resource exploitation

Humans constantly consume resources for their own needs. Some examples include the
mining of natural resources like coal, the hunting and fishing of animals for food, and the clearing of
forests for urbanization and wood use. Extensive overuse of nonrenewable resources, like fossil fuels, can
cause great harm to the environment. Recycling products made from nonrenewable resources (such as
plastic, which is made from oil) is one way to reduce the negative impacts of this resource exploitation. In
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addition, the development and use of renewable resources, like solar or wind energy, can help decrease
the harmful effects of resource exploitation.

Conclusion

Biodiversity is an issue that affects everyone and therefore everyone should be aware
of their effect on biodiversity. As biodiversity decreases on earth, so do the chances of human survival.
Therefore, it is important to educate people on living in equilibrium with the environment. It is also
important to make sure that the government is making laws that will ensure biodiversity for the future and
not focus on shortsighted economics. If humans become extinct, it will likely be a result of their own
action or lack of action. Hopefully humans will realize this before it is too late.

Definitions of Biodiversity

Land Racoe: A landrache is a domestchated, lochally adapted, traditonal variety of a spechies of animal or
plant tnat nas developed over tme, tnrougn adaptaton to its natural and chultural environment of
agrichulture and pastoralism, and due to isolaton from otner populatons of tne spechies.

Range Land: It is a land on wnichn tne indigenous vegetaton is predominantly grasses, grass-like plants,
forbs, or snrubs and is managed as a natural echosystem.

Wetlands: A wetland is a distncht echosystem tnat is fooded by water, eitner permanently or seasonally,
wnere oxygen-free prochesses prevail. Tne primary facotor tnat distnguisnes wetlands from otner
landforms or water bodies is tne chnarachteristch vegetaton of aquatch plants, adapted to tne unique
nydrich soil.

Marshes: It an area of low-lying land wnichn is fooded in wet seasons or at nign tde, and typichally always
remains waterlogged.

Swamps: It is an area of low-lying, unchultvated ground wnere water chollechts; a bog or marsn.
Biogeographicoal Realm: A biogeograpnich realm or ecoozone is tne broadest biogeograpnich division of
Eartn's land surfache, based on distributonal paaerns of terrestrial organisms.

Endangered Specoies: Endangered spechies, any spechies tnat is at risk of extnchton bechause of a sudden
rapid dechrease in its populaton or a loss of its chritchal nabitat
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Threatened Specoies: Tnreatened spechies definiton, a plant or animal spechies generally percheived as
likely, soon, to bechome endangered witnin all or muchn of its range: Tne drainage of tnis wetland
promises to leave us witn several tnreatened spechies.

Extincot Specoies A spechies of animal or plant tnat is extncht no longer nas any living members, eitner in tne
world or in a plache.

Eutrophicoation: Tne prochess by wnichn a body of water bechomes enrichned in dissolved nutrients (suchn as
pnospnates) tnat stmulate tne growtn of aquatch plant life usually resultng in tne depleton of dissolved
oxygen.

Silvicoulture It is a branchn of forestry dealing witn tne development and chare of forests. Piscoicoulture:
aischichulture definiton, tne breeding, rearing, and transplantaton of fisn by artfichial means.

Mangrove: A mangrove is a snrub or small tree tnat grows in choastal saline or brachkisn water. Tne term is
also used for tropichal choastal vegetaton chonsistng of suchn spechies.

Variety: It is tne quality or state of naving diferent forms or types.

Cultivators: Cultvators are organisms and espechially one of an agrichultural or nortchultural variety or
strain originatng and persistent under chultvaton.

Global Extincotion: It is extnchton of organism wnichn are not found in wnole world.

Locoal Extincotion: It is tne extnchton of organism wnichn are not found on lochalized or spechifich area of
world.

Protecoted Areas: arotechted Areas are tnose part of eartn wnichn are very chonservatve to wildlife as well
as lochal organisms. Tnese regions are spechifich for endangered life. Dechiduous forest:

Decoiduous forest, vegetaton chomposed primarily of broad-leaved trees tnat sned all tneir leaves during
one season. Tnis biome is found primarily in tnree middle-lattude regions witn a temperate chlimate
chnarachterized by a winter season and year-round prechipitaton.

Indigenous specoies: In biogeograpny, a spechies is indigenous to a given region or echosystem if its

presenche in tnat region is tne result of only natural prochesses, witn no numan interventon. Criticoally
Endangered: A spechies chonsidered to be faching an extremely nign risk of extnchton in tne wild. Endemico
specoies: Endemich spechies are plants and animals tnat exist only in one geograpnich region.

Preserving Biodiversity
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Preserving biodiversity is an extraordinary challenge that must be met by greater

understanding of biodiversity itself, changes in human behavior and beliefs, and various
preservation strategies.

Change in Biodiversity through Time

The number of species on the planet, or in any geographical area, is the result of an
equilibrium of two evolutionary processes that are ongoing: speciation and extinction.
When speciation rates begin to outstrip extinction rates, the number of species will
increase. Likewise, the reverse is true when extinction rates begin to overtake
speciation rates. Throughout the history of life on Earth, as reflected in the fossil record,
these two processes have fluctuated to a greater or lesser extent, sometimes leading to
dramatic changes in the number of species on the planet as reflected in the fossil record
(Figure 1).
Paleontologists have identified five layers in the fossil record that appear to show sudden
and dramatic losses in biodiversity. These are called mass extinctions and are
characterized by more than half of all species disappearing from the fossil record. There
are many Tesser, yet still dramatic, extinction events, but the five mass extinctions
have attracted the most research into their causes. An argument can be made that the
five mass extinctions are only the five most extreme events in a continuous series of
large Figure 1. Extinction intensity as reflected in the fossil extinction events throughout
the fossil record record has fluctuated throughout Earth's history. Sudden (since 542
million years ago). The most recent and dramatic losses of biodiversity, called mass
extinction in geological time, about 65 million extinctions, have occurred five times.
years ago, saw the disappearance of most dinosaurs species (except birds) and many other
species. Most scientists now agree the main cause of this extinction was the impact of a
large asteroid in the present-day Yucatán Peninsula and the subsequent energy release
and global climate changes caused by dust ejected into the atmosphere.

Recent and Current Extinction Rates

Many biologists say that we are currently experience a sixth mass extinction and it mostly
has to do with the activities of humans. There are numerous recent extinctions of
individual species that are recorded in human writings. Most of these are coincident with
the expansion of the European colonies since the 1500s.
One of the earlier and popularly known examples is the dodo bird. The dodo bird lived in
the forests of Mauritius, an island in the Indian Ocean. The dodo bird became extinct
around 1662. It was hunted for its meat by sailors and was easy prey because the
dodo, which did not evolve with humans, would approach people without fear. Introduced
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pigs, rats, and dogs brought to the island by European ships also killed dodo young and
eggs (Figure 2).
Steller's sea cow became extinct in 1768; it was
related to the manatee and probably once lived along
the northwest coast of North America. Steller's sea cow
was discovered by Europeans in 1741, and it was hunted
for meat and oil. A total of 27 years elapsed between the
sea cow's first contact with Europeans and extinction of
the species. The last Steller's sea cow was killed in
1768. In another example, the last living passenger
pigeon died in a zoo in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1914. This
species had once migrated in the millions but declined
in numbers because of overhunting and loss of habitat
through the clearing of forests for farmland.
These are only a few of the recorded extinctions in
the past 500 years. The International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) keeps a list of extinct
and endangered.

Estimates of Present-day Extinction rates:

Estimates of extinction rates are hampered by the fact that most extinctions are probably
happening without being observed. The extinction of a bird or mammal is often noticed by
humans, especially if it has been hunted or used in some other way. But there are many
organisms that are less noticeable to humans (not necessarily of less value) and many that are
undescribed.
The background extinction rate is estimated to be about 1 per million species years (E/MSY).
One "species year" is one species in existence for one year. One million species years could be
one species persisting for one million years, or a million species persisting for one year. If it is
the latter, then one extinction per million species years would be one of those million species
becoming extinct in that year. For example, if there are 10 million species in existence, then we
would expect 10 of those species to become extinct in a year. This is the background rate.
One contemporary extinction-rate esumate uses the extinctions in the written record since the
year 1500. For birds alone, this method yields an estimate of 26 E/MSY, almost three times the
background rate. However, this value may be underestimated for three reasons. First, many
 Environmental Biology 1 6
existing species would not have been described until much later in the time period and so their
loss would have gone unnoticed. Second, we know the number is higher than the written record
suggests because now extinct species are being described from skeletal remains that were never
mentioned in written history. And third, some species are probably already extinct even though
conservationists are reluctant to name them as such. Taking these factors into account raises the
estimated extinction rate to nearer 100 E/MSY. The predicted rate by the end of the century is
1500 E/MSY.
A second approach to estimating present-time extinction rates is to correlate species loss
with habitat loss, and it is based on measuring forest area loss and understanding
species-area relationships. The species-area relationship is the rate at which new species
are seen when the area surveyed is increased (Figure 3). Likewise, if the habitat area is
reduced, the number of species seen will also decline. This kind of relationship is also
seen in the relationship between an island's 0 10 100 area and the number of species
present on the Forest area (km2) Figure 3. A typical species-area curve shows the
island: as one increases, so does the other, though cumulative number of species found
as more and more
not in a straight line. Estimates of extinction rates area is sampled. The curve has also
been interpreted to based on habitat loss and species-area show the effect on species
numbers of destroying habitat; a relationships have suggested that with about 90 reduction
in habitat of 90 percent from 100 km2 to 10 km2 percent of habitat loss an expected 50
percent of reduces the number of species supported by about 50 species would become
extinct. Figure 3 shows percent. that reducing forest area from 100 km2 to 10 km2, a
decline of 90 percent, reduces the number of species by about 50 percent. Species-area
estimates have led to estimates of present-day species extinction rates of about 1000
E/MSY and higher.

Conservation of Biodiversity

The threats to biodiversity have been recognized for some time. Today, the main efforts
to preserve biodiversity involve legislative approaches to regulate human and corporate
behavior, setting aside
protected areas, and habitat restoration.

Changing Human Behavior

ISTITI
Legislation has been enacted to protect species throughout the world. The openstax
COLLEGE legislation includes international treaties as well as national and state laws.
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
 Environmental Biology 1 7
Flora (CITES) treaty came into force in 1975. The treaty, and the national legislation
that supports it, provides a legal framework for preventing "listed” species from being
transported across nations' borders, thus protecting them from being caught or killed when
the purpose involves The listed species that are protected by the treaty number
exploration of endangered some 33,000. The treaty is limited in its reach because it only
deals with and extinct species, their a international movement of organisms or their
parts. It is also limited by ecosystems, and the causes various countries' ability or
willingness to enforce the treaty and supporting of their endangerment or legislation. The
illegal trade in organisms and their parts is probably a extinction. market in the hundreds of
millions of dollars.
Within many countries there are laws that protect endangered species and that regulate
hunting and fishing. In the United States, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) was
enacted in 1973. When an at-risk 166 Matthew R. Fisher species is listed by the Act, the
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service is required by law to develop a management plan to protect
the species and bring it back to sustainable numbers. The ESA, and others like it in other
countries, is a useful tool, but it suffers because it is often difficult to get a species listed or
to get an effective management plan in place once a species is listed.
The Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) is an agreement between the United States
and Canada that was signed into law in 1918 in response to declines in North American
bird species caused by hunting. The Act now lists over 800 protected species. It makes it
illegal to disturb or kill the protected species or distribute their parts (much of the hunting
of birds in the past was for their feathers). Examples of protected species include
northern cardinals, the red-tailed hawk, and the American black vulture.
Global warming is expected to be a major driver of biodiversity loss. Many governments
are concerned about the effects of anthropogenic global warming, primarily on their
economies and food resources. Because greenhouse gas emissions do not respect
national boundaries, the effort to curb them. is international. The international response
to global warming has been mixed. The Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement
that came out of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change that
committed countries to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 2012, was ratified by some
countries, but spurned by others. Two countries that were especially important in terms of
their potential impact that did not ratify the Kyoto protocol were the United States and
China Some goals for reduction in greenhouse gasses were met and exceeded by
individual countries, but, worldwide, the effort to limit greenhouse gas production is not
succeeding. A renegotiated 2016 treaty, called the Paris Agreement, once again brought
nations together to take meaningful action on climate change. But like before, some
nations are reluctant to participate. The newly-elected President Trump has indicated that
he will withdraw the United States' support of the agreement.

Conservation in Preserves
 Environmental Biology 1 8
Establishment of wildlife and ecosystem preserves is one of the key tools in
conservation efforts (Figure 4). A preserve is an area of land set aside with varying
degrees of protection for the organisms that exist within the boundaries of the preserve.
In 2003, the IUCN World Parks Congress estimated that 11.5 percent of Earth's land
surface was covered by preserves of various kinds. This area is large but only represents
9 out of 14 recognized major biomes and research has shown that 12 percent of all
species live outside Figure 4. National parks, such as Grand Teton National preserves.
Park in Wyoming, help conserve biodiversity. (credit: Don A biodiversity hotspot is a
conservation DeBold) concept developed by Norman Myers in 1988. Hotspots are
geographical areas that contain high numbers of endemic species. The purpose of the
concept was to identify important locations on the planet for conservation efforts, a kind of
conservation triage. By protecting hotspots, governments are able to protect a larger
number of species. The original criteria for a hotspot included the presence of 1500 or
more species of endemic plants and 70 percent of the area disturbed by human activity.
There are now 34 biodiversity hotspots (Figure 5) that contain large numbers of endemic
species, which include half of Earth's endemic plants.

Conservation International has identified 34 biodiversity hotspots. Although these cover

only 2.3 percent of the Earth's surface, 42 percent of the terrestrial vertebrate species and
50 percent of the world's plants are endemic to those hotspots. There has been extensive
research into optimal preserve designs for maintaining biodiversity. The ciples behind
much of the research have come from the seminal theoretical work of Robert H.
MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson published in 1967 on island biogeography. This work
sought to understand the factors affecting biodiversity on islands. Conservation
preserves can be seen as "islands” of habitat within "an ocean" of non-habitat. In general,
large preserves are better because they support more species, including species with large
home ranges; they have more core area of optimal habitat for individual species; they
have more niches to support more species, and they attract more species because they can
be found and reached more easily. One large preserve is better than the same area of
several smaller preserves because there is more core habitat unaffected by less
hospitable ecosystems outside the preserve boundary. For this same reason, preserves
in the shape of circle will be better than a preserve with many thin "arms.” If preserves
must be smaller, then providing wildlife corridors (narrow strips of protected land)
between two preserves is important so that species and their genes can move between
them. All of these factors are taken into consideration when planning the nature of a
preserve before the land is set aside.
In addition to the physical specifications of a preserve, there are a variety of
regulations related to the use of a preserve. These can include anything from timber
extraction, mineral extraction, regulated hunting, human habitation, and
nondestructive human recreation. Many of the decisions to include these other uses are
 Environmental Biology 1 9
made based on political pressures rather than conservation considerations. On the
other hand, in some cases, wildlife protection policies have been so strict that subsistence-
living indigenous populations have been forced from ancestral lands that fell within a
preserve. In other cases, even if a preserve is designed to protect wildlife, if the
protections are not or cannot be enforced, the preserve status will have little meaning in
the face of illegal poaching and timber extraction. This is a widespread problem with
preserves in the tropics.
Climate change will create inevitable problems with the location of preserves as the
species within them migrate to higher latitudes as the habitat of the preserve becomes less
favorable. Planning for the effects of global warming on future preserves, or adding new
preserves to accommodate the changes expected from global warming is in progress, but
will only be as effective as the accuracy of the predictions of the effects of global warming
on future habitats.
Finally, an argument can be made that conservation preserves reinforce the cultural
perception that humans are separate from nature, can exist outside of it,
and can only operate in ways that do damage to biodiversity. Creating
preserves reduces the pressure on human activities outside the preserves
to be sustainable and non-damaging to biodiversity. Ultimately, the
political, economic, and human demographic pressures will degrade and
reduce the size of conservation preserves if the activities outside
them are not altered to be less damaging to biodiversity.

Habitat restoration is the process of bringing an area back to its natural state, before it was
impacted through destructive human activities. It holds considerable promise as a mechanism
for maintaining or restoring biodiversity. Reintroducing wolves, a top predator, to Yellowstone
National Park in 1995 led to dramatic changes in the ecosystem that increased biodiversity. The
wolves (Figure 6) function to suppress elk and coyote populations and provide more abundant
resources to the detritivores. Reducing elk populations has allowed revegetation of riparian (the
areas along the banks of a stream or river) areas, which has increased the diversity of species in
that habitat. Reduction of coyote populations by wolves has increased the prey species
previously suppressed by coyotes. In this habitat, the wolf is a keystone species, meaning a
species that is instrumental in maintaining diversity within an ecosystem. Removing a
keystone species from an ecological community causes a collapse in diversity. The results from
the Yellowstone experiment suggest that restoring a keystone species effectively can have
the effect of restoring biodiversity in the community. Ecologists have argued for the
identification of keystone species where possible and for focusing protection efforts on these
species. It makes sense to return the keystone species to the ecosystems where they have been
removed.
Other large-scale restoration experiments underway involve dam removal. In the United
States, since the mid-1980s, many aging dams are being considered for removal rather than
 Environmental Biology 2 0
replacement because of shifting beliefs about the ecological value of free-flowing rivers. The
measured benefits of dam removal include restoration of naturally fluctuating water levels
(often the purpose of dams is to reduce variation in river flows), which leads to increased fish
diversity and improved water quality. In the Pacific Northwest of the United States, dam
removal projects are expected to increase populations of Figure 6. This photograph shows
the Gibbon wolf pack salmon, which is considered a keystone species in Yellowstone National
Park, March 1, 2007. Wolves because it transports nutrients to inland ecosystems
In other regions, such as the Atlantic coast, dam removal has allowed the return of other
spawning anadromous fish species (species that are born in fresh water, live most of their
lives in salt water, and return to fresh water to spawn). Some of the largest dam removal
projects have yet to occur or have happened too recently for the consequences to be measured,
such as Elwha Dam on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State. The large-scale ecological
experiments that these removal projects constitute will provide valuable data for other dam
projects slated either for removal or construction.

The Role of Zoos and Captive Breeding

Zoos have sought to play a role in conservation efforts both through captive breeding programs
and education (Figure 7). The transformation of the missions of zoos from
collection and exhibition facilities to organizations that are dedicated to
conservation is ongoing. In general, it has been recognized that, except in some
specific targeted cases, captive breeding programs for endangered species are
inefficient and often prone to failure when the species are reintroduced to
the wild. Zoo facilities are far too limited to contemplate captive breeding
programs for the numbers of species that are now at risk. Education, on the
other hand, is a potential positive impact of zoos on conservation efforts,
particularly given the global trend to urbanization and the consequent reduction
in contacts between people and wildlife. A number of studies have been
performed to look at the effectiveness of zoos on people's attitudes and
actions regarding conservation and at present, the results tend to be mixed.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF PAKISTAN/status

 aaksitan is very richn in biodiversity. • Spechially mountains of Nortnern aakistan

nost most of tnem. • aaksitan nave also nost many rarest spechies. • For tnis reason
Nortnren areas mostly challed Jewell of aaksitan
 Environmental Biology 2 1
 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF PAKISTAN • 7% of total plants are Endemich to aakistan
• 200 Specoies and subspechies of Mammals • 666 spechies of Birds, many of wnichn
migratory and some Endangered • More tnan 500 spechies of Fisnes Reptlian Fauna
• 16 spechies of Anuran Ampnibians
 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN PAKISTAN • A rise in populaton choupled witn tne
demand for echonomich growtn is putng ever-inchreasing pressures on tne chountry’s
natural resourche base. Wrong echonomich polichies nave led to tne widening of
inequalites, forching tne poor to depend more neavily on natural resourches Lachk of
fachilites.
 DEFORESTATION • Altnougn only 5.7% of tne total land area of aakistan is chovered
witn forests. Tne disappearanche of trees and snrub means tnat tne assochiated fora
and fauna, dependent on tne forest, are also lost. Deforestaton is naving
partchularly grave efechts on Balochnistan’s juniper forests, tne riverine areas of tne
Indus basin and tne choastal mangroves.
 OVERGRAZING • Large numbers of livestochk, inchreasing at a rate of 20% every 7
years, nave burdened tne charrying chapachity of aakistan’s rangelands. Overgrazing
results in tne loss of topsoil and water and wind erosion, leaving tne soil vulnerable
to loss of nutrients and desertfichaton. Wildlife populatons are also at risk wnen
vegetaton is reduched; as prey spechies suchn as lagomorpns, ungulates and rodents
bechome fewer, tne land is unable to support predator populatons.
 SOIL EROSION • Soil erosion nas seriously afechted agrichultural output, reduching
agrichultural achreage and grazing areas. It nas also led to tne siltaton of dams,
chanals, and waterchourses wnichn are tne lifeline of agrichultural produchton in tne
chountry. Tne storage chapachity of tne dams nas dechreased and tne desiltng of water
chnannels is draining an already impoverisned echonomy.
 . SALINITY & WATERLOGGING • Contnuous surfache irrigaton nas raised tne water-
table in tne Indus basin, as a result of wnichn large trachts of agrichultural land,
partchularly in Sindn and soutnern aunjab, are being lost to salinity and
 Environmental Biology 2 2
waterlogging. Natural forests, wnichn are richn in biodiversity, chould also be afechted
as a result of tnis waterlogging, tnrougn chlear felling to make more land available.
 . HUNTING • Huntng nas a long traditon in aakistan. However, unregulated
nuntng nas resulted in tne dwindling of many spechies of game animals. Some
spechies suchn as tne goitred gazelle and Marcho aolo sneep, are on tne verge of
extnchton. Tne noubara bustard chontnues to be nunted by large partes from tne
Gulf despite tne facht tnat its nuntng is pronibited to tne lochals.
 . Habitat Loss in Islamico coountry •Habitat loss in •Bangladesh -91%, •Pakistan
-76%, •Indonesia -48%, •Malaysia- 41% and • Turkey -21 % .
 . MEASURES FOR CONSERVING BIODIVERSIT • Today , tne aim of biodiversity
chonservaton is tnrougn people’s partchipaton: by seeking to meet numan needs
from biologichal resourches, wnile ensuring tne long-term sustainability of tnese
resourches. Beside chonserving wild spechies, it involves tne protechton of tne genetch
diversity of chultvated and domestchated wild spechies and tneir relatves. Botn in
situ and ex situ metnods are used to ensure tne survival of as many spechies as
possible
 PROTECTED AREAS • Tne chountry’s 14 national parks, 101 wildlife sancotuaries and
96 game reserves are run by tne game departments of diferent provinches, eachn
witn its own jurisdichton. Tne area chovered by tnese tnree chategories totals 11.4%
of tne total area of tne chountry
 PROTECTED AREAS OF GILGIT BALTISTAN 1. Snandoor-anander Natonal aark 2.
Central Karakoram Natonal aark 3. Deosai Natonal aark 4. K2 Natonal aark 5.
Knunjerab Natonal aark 6. Qurumber Natonal aark
 PROTECTED AREAS OF AZAAD KASHMIR 1. Deva Vatala, Bnimber 2. Gnamot,
Neelum valley 3. Gurez, Neelum valley 4. Machniara, MuzaferAbad 5. air Lasura,
Kotli 6. aoonchn River Manaseer, kotli 7. aanjal Mastan, Bagn 8. Toli air, poonchn
 PROTECTED AREAS OF KPK 1. Brognol Valley 2. Cnitral Gol 3. Lulusar- Dudipatsar 4.
Saiful Muluk
 Environmental Biology 2 3
 PROTECTED AREAS OF AZAAD PUNJAB •Murree-Kotli Satan- Kanuta •Margalla
Hills •Lal Sunanra •Kala Cniaa, Aaochk
 . PROTECTED AREAS OF BALOCHISTAN • Hazarganji-Cniltan • Hingol
 LEGISLATION & POLICY • Tnere are many laws chovering areas suchn as: • forestry, •
wildlife protechton, • grazing rignts, • soil chonservaton and • dischnarge of efuents
 . A Wildlife Enquiry Commitee, set up in 1968, drafed chonservaton legislaton
wnichn was adopted by diferent provinches tnrougn provinchial achts and ordinanches.
Tne Commiaee also rechommended tne setng up of a Natonal Counchil for
Conservaton of Wildlife wnichn was establisned in 1974 witnin tne Ministry of Food,
Agrichulture and Co-operatves and churrently chomes under tne Ministry of
Environment, Lochal Government and Rural Development
 GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS & RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS Wildlife
management is tne responsibility of tne provinchial wildlife or forest departments.
Sindn, Balochnistan, tne aunjab, tne KaK and Azad Jammu and Kasnmir nave
separate wildlife departments wnile in tne Gilgit Baltstan, tne forestry department
administers and manages wildlife.
 NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS • A large number of non-government
organizatons are also involved witn biodiversity chonservaton. • World Wide Fund
for Nature, aakistan (WWFa) • Agna Knan Rural Support program (AKRSa) • Muslim
Hands aakistan

Natural Resources:

• Renewable and non-renewable resources

o Forest Resources
o Water Resources
o Mineral Resources
o Food Resources
 Environmental Biology 2 4
o Energy Resources
o Land Resources
o Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources

 Natural Resources

Natural resources includes air, water, forests, animals, fishes, marine life, biomass, fossil fuels, like
coal, petroleum and natural gases, wild life, renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind energy,
biomass energy, geothermal energy etc. • Prosperity of a nation is dependent on the natural resources
available in the nation.

 Renewable Resource

Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and
can be generated again and again as and when required. • They are available in plenty and by far
most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet. • Solar Energy, Wind Energy,
Geothermal Energy, Biomass Energy From Plants, Tidal Energy are the examples of Renewable
resources.

 Non Renewable Resource

A non-renewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re- grown at a scale
comparable to its consumption. • Non-renewable sources are not environmental friendly and can
have serious effect on our health. • They are called non-renewable because they cannot be re-
generated within a short span of time. • Non-renewable sources exist in the form of fossil fuels,
natural gas, oil and coal.

 Forest Resources

Scientists estimate that India should ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we have
only about 12%. Thus we need not only to protect existing forest but also to increase our forest
cover.

 Uses of Forest Resources

They stop the rain-bearing winds and cause the rainfall. • They increase the moisture content in
the atmosphere and thereby provide additional precipitation(i.e., rainfall) in the locality • They
minimize the extreme variation in climatic condition and make the climate more equable. • They
control floods during heavy rain by absorbing excess rain water. They prevent soil erosion by
checking the force of flowing of water. • The thick roots of the trees absorb large quantity of water
thus, forest help in the flow of rivers and streams.
 Environmental Biology 2 5
 Uses of Forest Resources •

They offer hunting grounds. • They provide shelter to wild animals and birds. • They improve the
sanitary condition of a place. • They are a source of revenue to the government. • They facilitate
human existence by providing O2 to human beings and absorbing CO2 by human beings. • They
provide employment large number of people in different capacities as wood cutters, carriers etc. •
They also provide us herbal medicines.

 Reasons for the large scale depletion of forest •

Expansion of agriculture, more forest have been cleared for agriculture. • Large area of forest
lands have been cleared for urbanization and human settlement. • Commercial exploitation of
forest . • Forest fires. • Mining activities in forest areas. • Forest diseases are also partly
responsible for depletion forest.

 Adverse effect of depletion of trees •

It has contributed to rise in temperature. • It has contributed to lesser precipitation. • It is

responsible for increased rate of soil erosion. • It is responsible for increase in the frequency and
volume of floods. • It has lead to loss of soil productivity. • It is responsible for loss of
biodiversity. • It has lead to extinction of several species of plants and animals. • It has caused
imbalance in ecosystem.

 Conservation of Forest •

Regulated and planned cutting of trees. • Control over forest fires. • Reforestation. • Afforestation •
Check on forest clearance for agriculture and human habitation and settlement. • Development
green belt around cities. • Check on mining activities in forest areas. • Protection of existing forest.
• Conservation of threatened species of trees.

 Conservation of Forest •

Agro-forestry. • Development of national parks and sanctuaries. • Development of botanical

gardens. • Development of seed banks. • Forest management. • Proper role of government in forest
conservation

 Deforestation

Deforestation means reckless or large-scale felling or cutting of trees by man for commercial and
other purposes.

 Causes of deforestation
 Environmental Biology 2 6
Desertification. • Soil degradation and soil erosion. • Loss of vegetation cover. • Destruction of
natural habitat and loss of wildlife. • Changes in climatic condition. • Environmental pollution. •
Damage to ecosystem • Reduction in soil moisture.

 Control of Deforestation

Prevention of human settlement in forest areas. • Check on expansion of agriculture into forest
lands. • Prohibition of setting up of agriculture into forest lands. • Check on reckless cutting of
trees. • Controlled mining in forest areas. • Check on construction of large dams in forest areas. •
Control on over grazing in forest areas.

 Water Resources

 Water Resources

While 67% of Earth’s surface is covered by water, only less than 2.7% of global water is
freshwater. Most of the freshwater (2.05%) are locked in ice caps and glaciers. Only less than
0.7% is available for human use.

 Overutilization and pollution of surface and ground water

With the growth of human population there is an increasing need for larger amounts of water to
fulfil a variety of basic needs. Today in many areas this requirement cannot be met. •
Overutilization of water occurs at various levels. Most people use more water than really needed.
Most of us waste water during a bath by using shower or during washing of clothes. Many
agriculturists use more water than necessary to grow crops. There are many ways in which farmers
can use less water without reducing the yields such as the use of drip irrigation systems. •
Agriculture also pollutes surface water and underground water stores by the excessive use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Methods such as the use of biomass as fertilizers and non toxic
pesticides such as neem products reduces the agricultural pollution of surface and ground water. •
Industry tends to maximize short-term economic gains by not bothering about its liquid waste and
releasing it into the streams, rivers, sea.

 Floods

Floods have been a serious environmental hazards from centuries. • Deforestation causes flood
that kills people, damage crops and destroys homes. • Rivers changes its course during floods and
tons of valuable soil is lost to the sea. • As the forest are degraded, rain water no longer percolates
slowly into the sub-soil but runs off down the mountainside bearing large amount of top soil.

 Droughts
 Environmental Biology 2 7
In most arid regions of the world the rains are unpredictable. This leads to a periods when there is
a serious scarcity of water to drink, use in farm, or provide for urban or industrial use. • One of the
factor that worsens the effect of droughts is deforestation. • Drought is one of the major problem in
our country, due to unpredictable climatic condition or due to the failure of one and more
monsoon.

 Distribution of population and water resources

 Water Management

Building several small reservoirs instead of few mega projects. • Develop few catchment dams. •
Afforestation permits recharging of underground water. • Treatment and recycling municipal
waste water for agricultural use. • Preventing leakages from dams and canals. • Preventing loss in
municipal pipes. • Effective rain water harvesting in urban environments. • Water conservation
measures in agriculture such as using drip irrigation. • Pricing the water at its real value makes
people use it more responsibly and efficiently and reduce the water wasting.

 Mineral Resources

 Mineral Resources • A mineral is a naturally occurring substances of definite chemical

composition and identifiable physical properties. • Minerals are formed over a period of millions
of years in the earths crust. • Iron, aluminium, zinc, manganese and copper are the important raw
materials for the industrial use. • Important non-metal resources includes coal, salt, clay, cement
and silica. • Stone used for building materials, such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute
another category of the minerals. • Minerals with special properties that humans values such as
diamonds, emeralds, rubies. The luster of gold, silver, and platinum are used for the ornaments. •
Minerals in the form of the oil, gas, and coal were formed when ancient plants and animals were
converted into underground fossil fuels.

 Mining

The extraction of the minerals and their ores from the earth interior so that they can be used. This
process is known as mining. • Mines are of two types surface or deep or shaft mines. • Mining is
hazardous occupation, and the safety of the mine workers is an important. • Surface mining is less
hazardous than underground mining. • Metal mining is less hazardous than coal mining. • Mining
possess several long term occupational hazards to the miners. Dust produced during mining
operations is injurious to health and causes a lung disease known as black lung. • Fumes generated
 Environmental Biology 2 8
by incomplete dynamite explosions are extremely poisonous. • Radiation is hazardous in uranium
mines.

 Surface mining and Underground mining

 Food Resources

 Food Resources

Today our food comes almost entirely from agriculture, animal husbandry and fishing. • Although
India is self-sufficient in food production, it is only because of modern patterns of agriculture that
are unsustainable and which pollutes of environment with the excess use of fertilizers and
pesticides. • If this crops are hit by the pest, the entire crop can be devastated, leaving the farmer
no income during the year.

 Major Food Resources

Wheat • Rice • Maize • Potato • Barley • Oats • pulses • Vegetables • Fruits • Sugarcane • Milk •
Meat • Fish

 World Food Problem

In many developing countries where populations are expanding rapidly, the production of food is
unable to keep pace with the growing demand. • Food production in 64 of the 105 developing
countries is lagging behind the population growth levels. These countries are unable to produce
more food, or do not have the financial means to import it. • India is the one of the country that
have been able to produce enough food by cultivating its large proportion of land through
irrigation. The Green revolution of 60’s reduced starvation in the country.

 World Food Problem Country Group No. of people malnourished World 848 million Developed
Country 16 million Developing Country 832 million India 230 million

 Fisheries

Fish is an important protein food in many part of the world. • This includes fresh water and marine
water fish. • The supply of the food from fisheries has been increased nowadays.

Problem of food security Food security Climate change Low productivity Rising population
Demand for water Ecological Degradation Increasing cost of cultivation

 Energy Resources
 Environmental Biology 2 9
 Renewable Resource

Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and
can be generated again and again as and when required. • They are available in plenty and by far
most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet. • Solar Energy, Wind Energy,
Geothermal Energy, Biomass Energy From Plants, Tidal Energy are the examples of Renewable
resources.

 Non Renewable Resource

A non renewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re- grown at a scale
comparable to its consumption. • Non-renewable sources are not environmental friendly and can
have serious effect on our health. • They are called non-renewable because they cannot be re-
generated within a short span of time. • Non-renewable sources exist in the form of fossil fuels,
natural gas, oil and coal.

 Land Resources

 Land Resources

Land Resources includes 1. Hills 2. Valleys 3. Plains 4. River basins 5. Wetland. • Land is a finite
natural resources.

 Land Resources

Man needs land for building homes, cultivating food, developing industries for providing goods, and
for creating towns and cities. • Thus a rational use of land needs careful planning. One can develop
most of these different types of land uses almost anywhere, but it is very important to protect
wilderness area in the form of national parks and sanctuaries. • If land is utilized properly it can be
considered as renewable resources. • Land is also converted into a non renewable resources when
highly toxic industrial and nuclear wastes are dumped on it.

 Land Degradation

Farmland is under threat due to more and more intensive utilization. Every year, between 5 to 7
million hectares of land world wide is added to the existing degraded farmland. • The use of more
and more chemical fertilizers poisons to the soil so that eventually the land becomes unproductive.
• As urban centers grow and industrial expansion occurs, the agricultural land and forest shinks.
This is a serious loss and long term ill effect on the human civilization. • Soil erosion is also
considered as one kind of land degradation.
 Environmental Biology 3 0
 Role of Individual in conservation of natural resources 1. INDIVIDUALS ROLE IN
FOREST CONSERVATION •

The measures to conserve forests , save trees, and planting new trees include- Not felling the trees
in forests ,farms,roads,or houses if they are green. • Not uprooting the existing trees while
constructing a house but planting fast growing plant species in open area of the house. • Planting
herbs, shrubs,or suitable trees in and around the house. • Maintain lawn and garden in open place
in your house ,if possible. • Participating in community plantation programmes.

 Encourage mass scale tree plantation programmes. •

Cooperate with NGOs engaged in saving trees. • Plant trees generously in barren fields. • Tag tree
plantation with year ceremonies such as birth day, marriage anniversary etc. • Observe July 1-7 as
vanmahotsava week. Encourage ‘adopt a tree programme, ‘each one tree one’ • Observe March 21
as forest day. • Discourage using paper for correspondence

 INDIVIDUALS ROLE IN WATER ECONOMY The measures to conserve water resources

include • Not keeping water taps running. • Check water leak and repair. • Adopt minimum water
use patterns. • Installing water saving toilets that use optimum water per flush. • Adopting rain
water harvesting devices in your house to conserve water for future use. • Collect waste water in
your home and use it for watering kitchen garden.

Filling water in washing machine to the level required for the cloths to be washed. • Watering
lawn and kitchen garden plants in the evening to minimize evaporation losses and not watering
them in the mid day. • Save wetlands ,lakes, ponds, wells, etc. • Observe March 22nd as world
water day. • Observe February 2nd as world wetland day. • Join youth water team or any such
NGO engaged in water conservation.

 INDIVIDUALS ROLE IN CONSERVATION OF MINERALS

Some of the measures to conserve minerals are • Minimise the use of minerals which are likely to
be depleted or exhausted. • Minimise use of jewellery to conserve scarce minerals. • Recycle and
reuse minerals and glasses. • Buy durable products that lasts long. • Buy efficient vehicles. •
Repair and reuse bicycles. • Use recyclable utensils

 INDIVIDUALS ROLE IN FOOD SECURITY

 Environmental Biology 3 1
Some of the measures to achieve food security are • Sustainable use of food and not wasting it. •
Eating only as much as required for sustenance of life. • Consuming local and seasonable
vegetables and so as to save energy on their transportation, storage and preservation. • Buy only
organically grown food. • Discourage packed ,canned and preserved food. • Shift from non
vegetarian to vegetarian. • Observe October 16 as world food day and November 21 as world
fishery day.

 INDIVIDUALS ROLE IN ENERGY CONSERVATION AND SAVING ENERGY Some of

the measures are • Turning off lights ,fans, or other electric appliances when not in use. •
Replacing tube lights with CFLs and LED s. • Construct buildings in such a way that maximum
amount of sunlight can be obtained. • Try to dry cloths in sunlight instead of drier of washing
machine. • Using solar cookers for cooking food. • Buying energy efficient appliances, always
checking energy consumption figure. • Minimise use of automobiles by using bicycles, public
transport, carpooling etc.

 Trying to reside near the place of work, if possible. •

Keeping vehicles tuned for low consumption of fuel. • Checking fuel consumption data while
buying a new vehicle. • Following the advice given by petroleum conservation research
association • Wearing adequate woollen clothes during winter instead of using heat convector •
Growing deciduous trees at proper place outside the house, they will cut off intense heat during the
summers ,cut off electricity consumption and will provide a cool breeze. • Observe December 14
as world energy conservation day.

 INDIVIDUALS ROLE IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND SOIL PROTECTION

Some of the measures are • Reducing use of chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides to check
soil pollution. • Using bio fertilizers. • Using biological control measures for pest control. • Avoid
over irrigation without proper irrigation to prevent water logging • Discouraging monoculture
practise in agriculture. • Adopting mix cropping. • Adopting drip irrigation to avoid washing out
soil nutrients. • Observing December 23 as world farmers day. • Observing June 17 as a day to
combat desertification and deserts. • Observe November 21-27 as national land resource
conservation week in India.
 Environmental Biology 3 2
Natural Resources in Pakistan:
Pakistan is rich in diverse natural resources. Pakistan’s human resources include a population of
intelligent young people and a burgeoning urban middle class. The culture, knowledge, wealth,
and infrastructure are sure to grow and improve in the near future. This combined with its prime
location will lead to long-term success for the nation. Pakistan has an abundance of natural
resources. Nature has blessed the country with many types of fossil fuels which if utilized properly
can reshape the country and put the country on a path to prosperity. However, political instability,
corruption and lack of law and order in the country has prevented full use of such resources.
Following are some of the details of natural resources of Pakistan which are needed to be utilized
for the economic boom in the country:

Mining in Pakistan

Mining is an important industry in Pakistan. Pakistan has deposits of several minerals including
coal, copper, gold, chromite, mineral salt, bauxite and several other minerals. There are also a
variety of precious and semi-precious minerals that are also mined. These include peridot,
aquamarine, topaz, ruby, emerald, rare-earth minerals bastnaesite and xenotime, sphene,
tourmaline, and many varieties and types of quartz .

The Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation is the responsible authority for the support and
development of the mining industry. Gemstones Corporation of Pakistan looks after the interests
of stake holders in gemstone mining and polishing as an official entity. Baluchistan province is the
richest in mineral resources available in Pakistan. While recently Sindh discovered coal deposits in
Thar. Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa is rich in gems. Most of the mineral gems found in Pakistan exist
here. Apart from oil, gas and some mineral used in nuclear energy purposes which comes directly
under federal control mining of other minerals is provincial issue. Currently around 52 minerals,
are mined and processed in Pakistan.

Power Resource Minerals

1. Coal.

2. Natural Gas.

3. Crude Oil etc.

Coal:
 Environmental Biology 3 3
We have not yet discovered coal which can be used in engines. It is mostly used in manufacturing
Calcium Carbonate and bricks. Some coal is also used in homes. We have got coal from various
spots places but it is not of good quality. It fulfils 10% of our needs.

Places:

The biggest mines of coal is Salt Ranges in Kohistan in the region of Makarwat in Punjab. In these
regions coal is also found in Dundot and Pudh. Like Makarwal some mines are such whose tunnels
are about nine miles long. In the province of Balochistan many reservoirs are found at other
places. Coalmines are in Sharg, Hoset, Hernai, Sar, Dagari, Sheeren Aab, Bolan, Aab and Mush.
Processing plant is also set in Shargh. In the lower regions of Sindh mines of Jhimpir and Lakhra
are important. Government is in search of more mines.

Mineral Oil:

Minerals oil is very important in modern age. It is used in factories, industries and transport.
Motorcars, tractors, train truck etc depending upon this oil. It is also used in homes. Average
production of oil in Pakistan cannot meet its needs. We are getting 10% oil for our needs and
the rest of the oil is imported on which we spend a large amount of foreign exchange. Experts
say that at certain we can get oil from the sea. For this purpose we started digging in 1985 at
the coast of our sea in Karachi. At certain other places are digging our earth. If we succeed we
shall satisfy our need of oil from our our resources.

Places

We are getting oil from Khor, Bhullian, Tut, Kot Sarug, Miyal, Dherznund (District Attock),
Kazian (District Rawalpindi), Dhodak (District Dera Ghazi Khan), Kursal (District Jhelum),
and Khushkhali (District Badeen). The oil obtained from Attock, Jhelum and Chakwal districts
is refined in Morgah Refinery near Rawalpindi. Refinery means the industry where crude oil is
refined for different purposes.

Mineral salt:

Salt has been mined in the region since 320 BC. The Khewra Salt Mines are among the
world's oldest and biggest salt mines. Salt is mined at Khewra in an underground area of about
110 square kilometres (42 sq mi). Khewra salt mine has an estimated total of 220 million
 Environmental Biology 3 4
tonnes of rock salt deposits. The current production from the mine is 325,000 tons of salt per
annum.

Natural Gas:

Natural gas is an important discovery. We meet 35% of our need of energy from this gas. This gas is
brought in Lahore, Karachi, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Peshawar and other cities by means of
pipelines. This gas is used in Industries and also in our homes as fuel. Fine type of fertilizer is prepared in
Multan by using this gas. This gas is aslo used in manufacturing Rayon thread and Chemical materials.

 Places
The reservoirs of natural gas are in Sui, Uch, Zin, Kherpur, Muzrani, Hindi, Kundkot, Sarung,
Dhodak, Peerkoh and Dhullian.

Iron Ore

Iran ore is very important for the progress of a country. We have set up a steel mill in Karachi with the
cooperation of Russia. In Pakistan, iron is not of good quality so it is imported to meet our needs.

 Places
The biggest reservoir of iron is found in Kala Bagh. Some are also found in Chitral, Khuzdar,
Chulgari and Muslim Bagh. Iron obtained from Chitral and Nokundi is of good quality. Our iron
fulfills only 16% of our needs.

Copper:

It is used in manufacturing electric goods especially electric wires. In past it was only used in making
coins and utensils.

 Places
Its reservoirs are in provinces of Balochistan and Frontier. In Balochistan it is found in Saindak,
Chaghi and some other places. These reservoirs are refined by progressive corporation of natural
resources. Corporation is working on this plan with cooperation of foreign experts. The work has
been started on crude metal in Saindak and Karachi Laboratory.

Saindak Copper Project

In Balochistan, large deposits of copper, gold and silver have been discovered at saindak, Chagai and
Amuri. The economy of Pakistan is depended on these projects. China is collaborating with Pakistan on
 Environmental Biology 3 5
these projects. According to an estimate saindak will give annual production as below. Copper = 16,000
Tones Gold = 1.5 Tones Silver = 2.75 Tones

Chromite:

It is a white metal which is used to make iron. It is also used in manufacturing certain instruments, aero
planes and colours. It is also used in the art of photography. It is exported to get large amount of foreign
exchange.

 Places
Its reservoirs are the biggest of the world in found Pakistan. Theses reservoirs are found in Muslim
Bagh. Small reservoirs are found in Chaghi, Kharan, Malakand, Mehmund and North Waziristan.

Rock Salt :

Pakistan has vast reserves of salt. It is used in various eatables, the biggest is Khewra Mine. The area of
this mine is about 10500 square meters. It is producing high quality of salt from centuries. Another mine
is in Khushah. We also get salt from mines of Kala Bagh, Jutta and Bahadur Khail. We get salt from
seawater near Maripur and Coast of Makran. This sea salt is used to preserve fish and is in some industrial
uses. The annual production during the year 2000-01 was 1275 tonnes.

Lime Stone:

Limestone is very useful raw material for cement industry. It is found in the northern and western
mountain areas of Pakistan mostly. Large deposits are found in Daudthail, Wah, Rohri, Hyderabad and
Karachi. The annual production of limestone is 9.9 thousand tonnes.

Gypsum:

It is obtained from Salt range and western mountainous areas of Pakistan. The annual production of
Gypsum is 358.5 thousand tonnes approximately.

 Places
The important mines of Gypsum are in Khewra, Dandot, Daudkhail, Rohri and Kohat.

Marble:

It is a very beautiful stone of white or black colour. It is used in the floors or walls of building to make
them attractive and beautiful. A large quantity of white and black marble is found in Cambelpur near Faith
Jung in Kala Chitta Hills. District Muzaffarabad and Mirpur of Azad Kashmir are other important areas
where marble is found. The annual production of marble is 586.6 thousand tonnes.
 Environmental Biology 3 6
 Places
In our country marble is of various types. The best in Khyber Agency at Mullah Gori. It is Swat,
Noshera, Hazara, Gilgit and Chaghi.

Sulphur:

It is the necessary part of explosive material. It is very important for the defence of a country. It is also
used in making Sulphuric Acid and many other chemicals. We get crude Sulphur which is made useful by
our experts. Soon we will be able to meet our needs of Sulphur. After cleaning Sulphur, it is also used
chemical industries. Industries are being set up in Quetta and Karachi.

 Places Its reserves are found in Koh-e-Sultan (District Chaghi) and (District Karachi).

Gems and other precious stones

A number of precious stones are mined and polished for local as well as export purposes. The centre point
of this operation is Khyber-Pakhtoonkhwa and most recently Gilgit-Baltistan. These include actinolite,
hessonite, rodingite, agate, idocrase, rutile, aquamarine, jadeite, ruby, amazonite, kunzite, serpentine,
azurite, kyanite, spessartine (garnet), beryl, marganite, spinel, emerald, moonst one, topaz, epidote,
pargasite, tourmaline, garnet (alamandine), peridot, turquoise, grossular, quartz (citrine & others) and
vesuvianite. The export earned from these gems is more than 200 Million dollars.

Soil:

The Soil of Pakistan belongs to dry group having high calcium carbonate and content and deficient in
organic matter. These vary in colour from reddish brown in the north to red or gray in the south. These
soils are generally fertile due to process of formation. The newly deposited alluvium near the river is
called Khaddar and mostly consists of sand. The old alluvium of the bar uplands, called Bangar, consists
of finer particles - loams. At the foot of the mountains the soil is sandy and generally becomes finer
towards the plains where Khankah, limestone concentration, is occasionally found. The soils of the Thal
and the Thar deserts and of Balochistan are wind-blown. In southern Potwar a thin layer of residual soil
covering is found. Soil is defined as that part of the unconsolidated material covering the surface of the
earth which supports plant growth. It has three major constituents. (1) Solid Particles (Salts, mineral and
organic matter), (2) air and (3) water. The type of soil formed is a function of topography, climate
vegetation and the parent rocks from which the soil material is derived. Soil material transported and
deposited by running water is known as alluvium which that transported and deposited by winds form
aeolian soil. Soils formed in silt are termed residual. Soil forming process is complex and continuous. As
a result, soils vary in their chemical composition colour, texture and organic content place to place.
 Environmental Biology 3 7
Land:
About 28% of Pakistan’s total land area is under cultivation. Pakistan boasts one of the largest irrigation
systems in the world. According to Wikipedia, “the most important crops are cotton, wheat, rice,
sugarcane, maize, sorghum, millets, pulses, oil seeds, barley, fruits and vegetables, which together
account for more than 75% of the value of total crop output.” The fertile lands of Punjab are ready to feed
a population twice that of current Pakistan.

Forests:

Forests are extensive, continuous areas of land dominated by trees. The forests of Pakistan reflect great
physiographic, climate and edaphic contrasts in the country. The desired level of forests is 20-30 percent
of the total land of a country. In Pakistan only about 4.8 percent of the total area is forested which is very
low. Forests are important in many different ways. From an ecological point of view, they help to
maintain a balance in the environment by checking pollution and protecting the soil from erosion by wind
or water and intercepting rainfall, particularly on sloping ground. By preventing soil erosion, the trees on
the slopes of hills also regulate the supply of water to the reservoirs thereby reducing floods.

Decomposition of leaves helps in humus formation, which maintains the fertility of the soil. This ensures
food supply to millions of people. From a commercial and industrial point of view, forests provide raw
materials to various industries e.g. timber, pharmaceutical paper. They also have recreational value,
promote tourism and provide employment in the forest department. The are many employment
opportunities that depend on the forests. The type and distribution of forests are closely linked to altitude.
In areas above the snow line, there is hardly any vegetation. Alpine forests grow just below the snow line.
From 1000 to 4000 meters, coniferous forests are found. Below 1000 meters, only irrigated plantations
have good species of wood.

Water:

Water is basic need of life. Human beings, animals and plants cannot live without water. Water is
essential for sustaining quality of life on earth. This finite commodity has a direct bearing on almost all
sectors of economy. In Pakistan its importance is more than ordinary due to the agrarian nature of the
economy. The share of agricultural sector in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Pakistan is about 25%.
Since agriculture is the major user of water, therefore sustainability of agriculture depends on the timely
and adequate availability of water. The increasing pressures of population and industrialization have
already placed greater demands on water, with an ever increasing number and intensity of local and
regional conflicts over its availability and use. Historically, the high aridity index of the country is adding
further to the significance of water in development activities in Pakistan.
 Environmental Biology 3 8
Though, once a water-surplus country with huge water-resources of the Indus River System, Pakistan is
now a water-deficit country. Surface water-resources of Pakistan are mainly based on the flows of the
Indus River and its tributaries. The Indus River has a total length of 2900 kilometres (Km) and the
drainage-area is about 9,66,000 sq.km. Five major tributaries joining its eastern side are Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi, Beas and Sutlej; besides, three minor tributaries are the Soan, Harow, and Siran, which drain in
mountainous areas. The famous lakes of Pakistan are Haleji Lake, Hana Lake, Keenjhar Lake, Manchhar
Lake, Saiful Muluk Lake.

Pakistan rich in natural resources but poor in their management: .

Pakistan is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of natural resources but also one of the
poorest among them in their management. The country is abundant in the vital resources including that of
energy, agriculture, minerals, population, and geography, but unlike the developed countries, these have
not been properly exploited due to poor management. This dismayed situation is caused due to several,
both chronic and acute, flaws which have led to poor governance of country since its inception except
some brief spells of economic prosperity. Prevalent political rivalry and instability, worsening law and
order and rampant corruption have catalyzed the situation to resource development impasse. Contrary to
economic potential of its natural resources, Pakistan is a depending on foreign aid and debt, it is facing
deficit in trade, acute energy crisis to run industry, and water stress for agriculture, to name a few
challenges.

Critically Threatened Areas in Pakistan

 Environmental Biology 3 9

ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS SIGNIFICANCE THREATS

Indus delta and coastal Extensive mangroves and Rich avian and marine Reduced freshwater flow from
wetlands mudflats fauna Diverse mangrove diversions upstream
Inadequate protected area habitat Marine turtle habitat Cutting mangroves for
coverage fuelwood
Drainage of coastal wetlands
Indus river Extensive wetlands Migratory flyway of global Water diversion/
and wetlands importance drainage Agricultural
Habitat for Indus river intensification Toxic
dolphin pollutants
Chagai desert A desert of great antiquity Many endemic and Proposed mining
unique species Hunting parties from the Gulf
Balochistan Huge and ancient junipers Largest remaining Fuelwood cutting and
juniper forest juniper forest in the overgrazing
world Unique flora and Habitat fragmentation
fauna
Chilghoza forest Rock outcrops with shallow Important wildlife habitat for Fuelwood cutting and
(Sulaiman Range) mountain soils several species at risk overgrazing
Illegal hunting
Balochistan Mid-altitude forests with Very few areas now Fuelwood cutting and
sub-tropical forests sparse canopy but rich remain Important wildlife overgrazing
associated flora habitat
Balochistan rivers Not connected with Unique aquatic fauna Water diversion/ drainage
the Indus river system and flora with high levels Overfishing
of endemism
Tropical deciduous Extend from the Margalla Hills Perhaps the most floristically Fuelwood cutting and
forests National Park east rich ecosystem of Pakistan overgrazing
(Himalayan foothills) to Azad Kashmir
Moist and dry temperate Important forest tracts now Global hotspot for avian diver - Commercial logging
Himalayan forests becoming increasingly sity; important wildlife habitat Fuelwood cutting and
fragmented overgrazing
Trans-Himalayan Spectacular mountain scenery Unique flora and Fuelwood cutting and
alps and plateaux fauna; center of overgrazing
endemism Illegal hunting
Unregulated tourism
Habitat
fragmentation

Protected areas:
 PROTECTED AREAS : The country’s 14 national parks, 101 wildlife sanctuaries and 96 game
reserves are run by the game departments of different provinces, each with its own jurisdiction.
The area covered by these three categories totals 11.4% of the total area of the country.
 PROTECTED AREAS OF GILGIT BALTISTAN 1.
o Shandoor-Phander National
o Park 2. Central Karakoram National Park
o Deosai National Park 4.
o K2
o National Park 5.
o Khunjerab National Park 6.
o Qurumber National Park
 PROTECTED AREAS OF AZAAD KASHMIR:
o Deva Vatala, Bhimber
o Ghamot, Neelum valley
o Gurez, Neelum valley
o Machiara, MuzafferAbad
o Pir Lasura, Kotli
 Environmental Biology 4 0
o Poonch River Mahaseer, kotli
o Panjal Mastan, Bagh
o Toli Pir, poonch
 PROTECTED AREAS OF KPK:
o Broghol Valley
o Chitral Gol
o Lulusar Dudipatsar
o Saiful Muluk
 PROTECTED AREAS OF AZAAD PUNJAB:
o Murree-Kotli Sattian- Kahuta
o Margalla Hills •
o Lal Suhanra •
o Kala Chitta, Attock
 PROTECTED AREAS OF BALOCHISTAN
o Hazarganji-Chiltan •
o Hingol
 LEGISLATION & POLICY • There are many laws covering areas such as:
o forestry
o wildlife protection
o grazing rights
o soil conservation and
o discharge of effluents
 A Wildlife Enquiry Committee, set up in 1968, drafted conservation legislation which
was adopted by different provinces through provincial acts and ordinances. The Committee also
recommended the setting up of a National Council for Conservation of Wildlife which was
established in 1974within the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives and currently
comes under the Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development.
 GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS & RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS
Wildlife management is the responsibility of the provincial wildlife or forest departments. Sindh,
Balochistan, the Punjab, the KPK and Azad Jammu and Kashmir have separate wildlife
departments while in the Gilgit Baltistan, the forestry department administers and manages
wildlife.
 NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS • A large number of non-government organizations
are also involved with biodiversity conservation.
o World Wide Fund for Nature, Pakistan (WWFP) •
o Agha Khan Rural Support program (AKRSP) •
o Muslim Hands Pakistan

Importance of Biodiversity:

Loss of biodiversity may have reverberating consequences on ecosystems because of the complex interrelations
among species. For example, the extinction of one species may cause the extinction of another. Biodiversity is
 Environmental Biology 4 1
important to the survival and welfare of human populations because it has impacts on our health and our ability
to feed ourselves through agriculture and harvesting populations of wild animals.

Human Health
 Many medications are derived from natural chemicals made by a diverse group of organisms. For example,
many plants produce compounds meant to protect the plant from insects and other animals that eat them. Some
of these compounds also work as human medicines.
 Contemporary societies that live close to the land often have a broad knowledge of the medicinal uses of
plants growing in their area. For centuries in Europe, older knowledge about the medical uses of plants was
compiled in herbals—books that identified the plants and their uses. Humans are not the only animals to use
plants for medicinal reasons. The other great apes, orangutans, chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas have all
been observed self-medicating with plants.
Modern pharmaceutical science also recognizes the importance of these plant compounds. Examples of significant
medicines derived from plant compounds include aspirin, codeine, digoxin, atropine, and vincristine .
Many medications were once derived from plant extracts but are now synthesized. It is estimated that, at one time,
25 percent of modern drugs contained at least one plant extract. That number has probably decreased to about 10
percent as natural plant ingredients are replaced by synthetic versions of the plant compounds.
Antibiotics, which are responsible for extraordinary improvements in health and lifespans in developed countries,
are compounds largely derived from fungi and bacteria.

In recent years, animal venoms and poisons have excited

intense research for their medicinal potential.
 By 2007, the FDA had approved five drugs based
on animal toxins to treat diseases such as
hypertension, chronic pain, and diabetes. Another
five drugs are undergoing clinical trials and at least
six drugs are being used in other countries. Other
toxins under investigation come from mammals,
snakes, lizards,
various amphibians, fish, snails, octopuses, and
scorpions.

Aside from representing billions of dollars in profits, these

medications improve people's lives.
Pharmaceutical companies are actively looking for new
 Environmental Biology 4 2
natural compounds that can function as medicines. It is
estimated

that one third of pharmaceutical research and development is

spent on natural compounds and that about 35 percent of new
drugs brought to market between 1981 and 2002 were from
natural compounds.

Finally, it has been argued that humans benefit

psychologically from living in a biodiverse world. The
chief proponent of this idea is famed entomologist E. O.
Wilson. He argues that human evolutionary history has
adapted us to living in a natural environment and that
built environments generate stresses that affect human
health and well-being. There is considerable research into
the psychologically regenerative benefits of natural
landscapes that suggest the hypothesis may hold some
truth.
Agricultural
 Since the beginning of human agriculture more than 10,000 years ago, human groups have been breeding and
selecting crop varieties. This crop diversity matched the cultural diversity of highly subdivided populations
of humans.
 For example, potatoes were domesticated beginning around 7,000 years ago in the central Andes of Peru and
Bolivia. The people in this region traditionally lived in relatively isolated settlements separated by
mountains.
 The potatoes grown in that region belong to seven species and the number of varieties likely is in the
thousands. Each variety has been bred to thrive at particular elevations and soil and climate conditions.
 The diversity is driven by the diverse demands of the dramatic elevation changes, the limited movement
of people, and the demands created by crop rotation for different varieties that will do well in different
fields.

Potatoes are only one example of agricultural diversity. Every plant, animal, and fungus that has been cultivated by
humans has been bred from original wild ancestor species into diverse varieties arising from the demands for food
value, adaptation to growing conditions, and resistance to pests.

The potato demonstrates a well-known example of the risks of low crop diversity: during the tragic Irish potato
famine (1845-1852 AD), the single potato variety grown in Ireland became susceptible to a potato blight—wiping
out the crop. The loss of the crop led to famine, death, and mass emigration.

Resistance to disease is a chief benefit to maintaining crop biodiversity and lack of diversity in contemporary crop
species carries similar risks. Seed companies, which are the source of most crop varieties in developed countries,
must continually breed new varieties to keep up with evolving pest organisms.

These same seed companies, however, have participated in the decline of the number of varieties available as they
focus on selling fewer varieties in more areas of the world replacing traditional local varieties.

The ability to create new crop varieties relies on the diversity of varieties available and the availability
of wild forms related to the crop plant. These wild forms are often the source of new gene variants that can be bred
with existing varieties to create varieties with new attributes.
 Loss of wild species related to a crop will mean the loss of potential in crop improvement. Maintaining the genetic
diversity of wild species related to domesticated species ensures our continued supply of food.

Since the 1920s, government agriculture departments have maintained seed banks of crop varieties as a way to
maintain crop diversity.

This system has flaws because over time seed varieties are lost through accidents and there is no way to replace
them. In 2008, the Svalbard Global seed Vault, located on Spitsbergen island, Norway, (Figure) began storing seeds
from around the world as a backup system to the regional seed banks.

If a regional seed bank stores varieties in Svalbard, losses can be replaced from Svalbard should something happen
to the regional seeds. The Svalbard seed vault is deep into the rock of the arctic island.

Conditions within the vault are maintained at ideal temperature and humidity for seed survival, but the deep
underground location of the vault in the arctic means that failure of the vault's systems will not compromise the
climatic conditions inside the vault.

Although crops are largely under our control, our ability to grow them is dependent on the biodiversity of
the ecosystems in which they are grown. That biodiversity creates the conditions under which crops are
able to grow through what are known as ecosystem services—valuable conditions or processes that are
carried out by an ecosystem. Crops are not grown, for the most pan, in built environments. They are
grown in soil. Although some agricultural soils are rendered sterile using controversial pesticide
treatments, most contain a huge diversity of organisms that maintain nutrient cycles—breaking down
organic matter into nutrient compounds that crops need for growth. These organisms also maintain soil
texture that affects water and oxygen dynamics in the soil that are necessary for plant growth.

Replacing the work of these organisms in forming arable soil is not practically possible. These kinds of processes are
called ecosystem services.
They occur within ecosystems, such as soil ecosystems, as a result of the diverse metabolic activities of the
organisms living there, but they provide benefits to human food production, drinking water availability, and
breathable air.
Other key ecosystem services related to food production are plant pollination and crop pest control.
It is estimated that honeybee pollination within the United States brings in $1.6 billion per year; other pollinators
contribute up to $6.7 billion. Over 150 crops in the United States require pollination to produce.
Many honeybee populations are managed by beekeepers who rent out their hives' services to farmers. Honeybee
populations in North America have been suffering large losses caused by a syndrome known as colony collapse disorder,
a new phenomenon with an unclear cause.
Other pollinators include a diverse array of other bee species and various insects and birds. Loss of these species
would make growing crops requiring pollination impossible, increasing dependence on other crops.
Finally, humans compete for their food with crop pests, most of which are insects.
Pesticides control these competitors, but these are costly and lose their effectiveness over time as pest populations
adapt.
They also lead to collateral damage by killing non-pest species as well as beneficial insects like honeybees, and
risking the health of agricultural workers and consumers.
Moreover, these pesticides may migrate from the fields where they are applied and do damage to other ecosystems
like streams, lakes, and even the ocean.
Ecologists believe that the bulk of the work in removing pests is actually done by predators and parasites of those
pests, but the impact has not been well studied.
A review found that in 74 percent of studies that looked for an effect of landscape complexity (forests and fallow
fields near to crop fields) on natural enemies of pests, the greater the complexity, the greater the effect of pest-
suppressing organisms.
Another experimental study found that introducing multiple enemies of pea aphids (an important alfalfa pest) increased
the yield of alfalfa significantly. This study shows that a diversity of pests is more effective at control than one single
pest.
Loss of diversity in pest enemies will inevitably make it more difficult and costly to grow food.
The world's growing human population faces significant challenges in the increasing costs and other difficulties
associated with producing food.
 Wild Food Sources
In addition to growing crops and raising food animals, humans obtain food resources from wild
populations, primarily wild fish populations. For about one billion people, aquatic resources provide the main
source of animal protein. But since 1990, production from global fisheries has declined. Despite considerable
effort, few fisheries on Earth are managed sustainability.
Fishery extinctions rarely lead to complete extinction of the harvested species,
but rather to a radical restructuring of the marine ecosystem in which a
dominant species is so over-harvested that it becomes a minor player,
ecologically. In addition to humans losing the food source, these alterations affect
many other species in ways that are difficult or impossible to predict. The
collapse of fisheries has dramatic and long-lasting effects on local human
populations that work in the fishery. In addition, the loss of an inexpensive
protein source to populations that cannot afford to replace it will increase the
cost of living and limit societies in other ways. In general, the fish taken from
fisheries have shifted to smaller species and the larger species are overfished. The
ultimate outcome could clearly be the loss of aquatic systems as food sources.

Direct and Indirect loss of Biodiversity:

Soil loss, waterlogging, salinization, intensification of production and the
increased use of pesticides. Soil degradation, waterlogging and salinization
all reduce the productivity of agricultural lands, decreasing the capacity of
these lands to sustain soil micro- organisms, invertebrates and higher trophic
levels, and indirectly placing greater human demand on natural biodiversity
resources. Intensification reduces floral and faunal diversity in crops and field
margins.
Globally, the genetic diversity of many crops is eroding. This is mainly due to
developments in this century of uniform cultivars grown in very similar
environments and created using the same sophisticated agricultural practices.
The spread of cultivars in Pakistan is expected to lead to an erosion of prim-
itive crop genetic variety.
 Critically Threatened Ecosystem:
In Pakistan, given the widespread historic conversion of natural ecosystems to
agriculture, the already highly advanced and rapidly accelerating degradation
of habitats, and the continuing depletion of populations, almost all remaining
natural or modified ecosystems are now critically threatened.
To date, no systematic and comprehensive assessment with the aim of
objectively ranking the biodiversity importance of Pakistan’s natural ecosys-
tems has been made. However, based on various reports (e.g. Mallon 1991) and
the opinions of recognised authorities (T.J. Roberts, pers. com., R. Rafiq, pers.
com.), at least 10 ecosystems of particular value for their species richness and/
or unique communities of flora and fauna are threatened with habitat loss and
degradation (Table 2). Given their biodiversity importance and the high level
of threat, these ecosystems are considered to be of critical concern for
conservation.

Direct causes of Biodiversity Loss:

Biodiversity loss has both direct and indirect causes. The former include
activities resulting in the loss and degradation of habitats, over-exploitation of
plant and animal species, agricultural intensification, pollution, invasion by
introduced species and climate change.

Activities Causing Habitat Loss

Habitat loss is the principal cause of the present high rate of global extinctions
and poses a severe threat in all biomes (UNEP 1995). There is no ‘safe’ level
of habitat loss which would reduce the risk of extinction of some species; no
network of carefully selected reserves that would suffice to protect all species.
Changes in habitat quality, while less extreme than habitat loss, would still
affect plant and animal populations. For many species, the consequences of
even subtle changes in habitat quality can be confidently predicted from
existing knowledge of their habitat requirements. Habitat fragmentation
increases the risk of extinction by isolating small pockets of previously more
connected populations. Small, isolated populations are more vulnerable to the
loss of genetic variability and run a greater risk of extinction.

Deforestation
The principal cause of deforestation is the consumption of fuelwood and
timber. This consumption has already been detailed in relation to trends in
forest loss, frag- mentation, and degradation.
Grazing and Fodder Collection
The direct cause of degradation of rangelands and forests is the rapidly
increasing domestic livestock population. Between 1945 and 1986, the number
of cattle almost doubled, while the numbers of buffaloes, sheep and goats more
than tripled (GoP and IUCN 1992). Overall livestock numbers continue to
increase at a rate of 2% per year. While much of this increase has been fed by
the production of fodder within irrigated areas, persistent overgrazing has
reduced forage production in rangelands to one-third the potential – a loss of
almost 50 million tonnes per year – and in some areas to as low as 15% of the
potential (GoP and IUCN 1992). The problem is particularly acute in
Balochistan.

Soil Erosion
Both wind and water erosion are exacerbated by a reduction in vegetation
cover, resulting from agricultural activities and overstocking. Water erosion is
not only a particular problem in the Northern Areas and the NWFP, but it also
affects the agro-ecosystems of the barani lands e.g. the Potwar plateau and the
Sulaiman rodkohi (traditional water harvesting sys- tem). About 11 million
hectares are affected by water erosion and the consequent washing away of
soil. Water erosion results in increasing sedimentation of wetlands and
resulting habitat degradation.
While wind erosion is not as severe a problem as water erosion, some 2 million
hectares of Pakistan (of which 1.5 million hectares are in the Punjab) are
experiencing moderate to severe wind erosion. The light soils of the Potwar
Plateau and the sandy soils of the Thal and Cholistan deserts are particularly
vulnerable. The sandy deserts of Thal, Cholistan, Thar and Chagai-Kharan
suffer from the linked problem of shifting sand dunes. In Balochistan,
excessive pumping of groundwater has led to falling water-tables, with the
result that vegetation cover is decreasing and soil erosion is on the rise. The
loss of soil through water and wind erosion implies a loss of soil organisms,
plant diversity and the population of animals these plants support.

Water Diversion and Drainage

The diversion of water for irrigation, and the drainage of wetlands, are major
causes of wetland habitat degradation in Pakistan. The mean quantity of water
entering the Indus Basin in Pakistan is 137.2 million acre-feet (MAF), of which
104 MAF are diverted at the canal head. Thus, three-quarters of the water
entering the Indus Basin is now diverted and only a quarter reaches the Indus
Delta and the Arabian Sea (GoP and IUCN 1992). Despite these figures,
further diversions are planned e.g. the Ghazi Barotha project.
Many small but valuable wetlands created by seepage or overspill from the
massive irrigation sys- tem in the Punjab are threatened by drainage for agri-
cultural land use. Others are threatened by the dis- charge of saline water into
the wetland, or by falling groundwater levels due to drainage programmes.

Activities Causing Species or Population Loss

Globally, many extinctions have resulted from human over-exploitation for
food through hunting and collection. The search for precious commodities and
for zoo specimens and medicinal plants, has also impinged on some
populations and obliterated others.

Hunting and Trapping

Many bird and animal species are experiencing population declines due to
illegal hunting for sport, meat and trade. Some species are ruthlessly perse-
cuted for their depredations on livestock or agricultural crops. There is a strong
tradition of hunting in Pakistan, and the impact has increased with the spread of
modern guns and greater mobility. Virtually all large mammals have declined
in number and their range has been reduced. A list of species thought to be
declining due to unregulated human use is given in Table 3.

Fishing
Marine catch has steadily increased and further catch increases are not possible
without depleting stocks (Mallon 1991). The valuable shrimp fishery has
already begun to show signs of over-exploitation: the number of boats has risen
rapidly; there is a tendency to fish in shallower waters; and there is an
increased proportion of young shrimp in the catch (Amjad 1996). Concern has
also been expressed about the incidental take of marine turtles by com-
mercial shrimp trawlers using mechanized nets. The introduction of new
technology and bigger fishing trawlers have also increased the tendency to ove-
r exploit the fishery resource.
No data is available for native freshwater fish stock levels, but overfishing is
thought to threaten native fish species in some rivers in Balochistan and inland
wetlands such as Kinjhar Lake.

Over-exploitation of Plants
Pakistan is rich in medicinal plants due to its varied climatic and edaphic
factors. Of the almost 6,000 species of vascular plants reported to occur in
Pakistan, about 1,000 species have been recognized to possess phytochemical
properties. Between 350-400 species are traded in different drug markets of the
country and are used by leading manufacturing units of yunani and
homeopathic medicines.
A number of medicinal plants and their derivatives, whose cultivation is not
feasible in the country, are brought in under a liberal import policy. Besides
this, about 40,000–50,000 tabibs (practitioner of Greco-Arabic medicine),
vaids (practitioners of Ayurvedic and folk-medicine) and a number of
unregistered practitioners scattered in rural and remote hilly areas use more
than 200 plants in traditional and folk-medicines.
In recent years, there has been a consistent gorwth in the demand for plant-
based drugs and products from a variety of species. This has given rise to
larger scale collection and habitat degradation. It has resulted in the scarcity of
a number of valuable medicinal plant species, and their wide range of chemical
diver- sity will diminish at the present scale of extraction from natural habitats
(R. M. Ashfaque, pers. com.).

HUMAN USES SPECIES AFFECTED

Illegal hunting Most ungulates, game birds and

waterfowl

Persecution All predators (including brown and

black bear, grey wolf, snow leopard,
(in response to leopard and leopard cat) as well as
livestock/ crop losses) rhesus macaque

Falconry Saker, lagger and peregrine falcons

Domestication Cranes, rhesus macaque, parrots

and bears (dancing and baiting)

Medicinal purposes Rhesus macaque, bears, musk dee,r

dolphins, pelicans and lizards

Decoration Most felids and mustelids (for fur);

ungulates (for trophies); crocodiles
and snakes (for skins); turtles (for
shells and oil); and monal pheasant
(for feathers)
Though cross-breeding can lead to relatively rapid gains in productivity, it also
increases the rate of genetic loss if the parent stock is not maintained. Some 75-
80% of Pakistan’s domestic livestock aer cross-breeds. There is an
immediate need to monitor this situation by conducting scientific surveys.
The agricultural use of pesticides and fertilisers has increased rapidly in recent
years. Pesticide use in Pakistan increased seven-fold in quantity between 1981
and 1992, from 915 million tonnes to 6,865 million tonnes of which 80% were
organophosphates (Baloch 1995). Direct mortality of wildlife, especially birds,
following the use of organophosphates has frequently been reported. Pesticides
destroy the natural biotic balance in agricultural soils and reduce the diversity
and abundance of invertebrate fauna with cascading effects at higher trophic
levels. The increasing presence of pesticides in agricultural run- off has both
acute and chronic effects on aquatic fauna and on fish-eating birds. It is
estimated that 25% of all pesticides used in Pakistan end up in the sea (M. F.
Ahmad, pers. com.).
The use of fertilisers grew at over 7% per year during the Sixth Five-Year Plan
(GoP and IUCN 1992). Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilisers leads to
eutrophication of water channels and wetlands, the spread of aquatic
vegetation, and reduced aquatic diversity. Khurshid (1991) cites Haleji, Drigh
and Patisar lakes as examples. The effect of hazardous chemical pesticides,
fertilizers and industrial effluents on biological diversity, especially on
microbial populations and varieties, is well established. Preservation and
quantification of the microbial population as a bench mark to measure the
effect of these chemicals is essential.

Pollution
Pollutants can have direct negative impacts on ecosystems and may reduce or
eliminate populations of sensitive species as contamination vertebrates along
the food chain. Globally, soil microbes have suffered from pollution as
industry sheds heavy metals and irrigated agriculture brings on salinization.
The excessive use of synthetic chemicals such as pesticides is not only a direct
threat to biodiversity .but it can also be toxic for people, either through direct
exposure or as residue in food and drinking water. Marine pollution
(particularly from oil) has contaminated many estuaries and seas throughout
the world. In Pakistan, pollution is a growing problem particularly in urban
areas and water courses (both fresh- water and marine). The discharge of
sewage and industrial effluent into aquatic and marine ecosystems is rapidly
growing. The organic load of sewage depletes oxygen levels in water and
indirectly reduces the diversity of animal and plant life. Major cities dis- pose
of largely untreated sewage into irrigation sys- tems, streams and rivers.
Lahore alone dischagres 240 million gallons of sewage per day mainly into the
river Ravi (GoP and IUCN 1992). The resultant loss of fish and contamination
of potential drinking water has considerable economic and health impacts.
Industrial pollution is particularly severe in the industrial centre of Karachi
with a population of over 12 million people. About 80% of the total
wastewater remains untreated and is discharged into the sea through sewers
and rivers, mainly the Lyari and Malir. Many creeks and coastal waters in the
Karachi area exhibit eutrophication due to high levels of organic pollution. The
characteristic smell of hydrogen sulphide in parts of the city is a sign of the
intense bacterial activity from the presence of organic wastes.
Most coastal pollution is concentrated in Karachi harbour where an estimated
90,000 tons of oil products from vessels and port terminals are dumped every
year. Extremely high levels of toxic heavy metals such as mercury have
been documented, especially in the coastal waters and sea near Karachi.
These are likely to have both acute and chronic toxic impacts on human beings,
marine biodiversity, and fish-eating birds. The impacts of these pollutants on
commercial fin-fish and shrimp fisheries are unknown, but likely to be
significant.

Global Climate Change

Average global temperature has been rising for more than a century, either as a
result of natural fluctuation or from the build-up of greenhouse gases. Climate
change is likely to reduce biodiversity, and the goods and services that
ecosystems supply to Pakistan by:
 increasing desertification in arid and semi-arid areas;
 increasing seawater intrusion of the Indus delta with a consequent
reduction in mangrove cover and a loss of sandy beaches;
 increasing summer flooding in monsoon-affected areas;
 the retreat of glaciers and an upwards shift in ecological zones in the
Himalaya-Hindu Kush- Karakorum ranges;
 the desiccation and die-back of forests;
 reduced agricultural production; and
 changes in marine fisheries.

Indirect Causes
of Biodiversity Loss:

The direct reasons for biodiversity loss described above are not the root of the
problem. As the Global Biodiversity Strategy points out, the crisis is not ‘out
there’ in the forest or the rangelands, but embedded in the way we live. The
Strategy identifies six fundamental causes of biodiversity loss:
 the unsustainably high rate of human population growth and
consumption;
 economic systems that fail to value the environment and its
resources;
 inequity in the ownership, management and flow of benefits from both
the use and conservation of biological resources;
 deficiencies in knowledge and its application;
 legal and institutional systems that promote unsustainable exploitation;
and
 the steadily narrowing spectrum of traded products from agriculture,
forestry and fisheries.
While these causes are common to most countries, the relative importance
and the particular ways in which each cause manifests itself, are particular to
each country. They are discussed for Pakistan below.

Increasing demand for natural resources:

 Population Growth:
Though people are without doubt the most valuable resource in Pakistan,
uncontrolled growth in their numbers puts undue pressures on all other national
resources. Unrestrained population growth cannot continue without irreversible
changes in ecosystems and with dire consequences for people themselves (GoP
and IUCN 1992). Pakistan’s population grew from 31 million in 1951 (West
Pakistan) to 110 mil- lion in 1991 and is estimated to be about 130.6 mil- lion
today based on the 1998 census (National Institute of Population Studies data).
With a growth rate of 2.6%, among the highest in Asia, Pakistans’ population
is expected to reach 200 million by the year 2010. The proximate cause of this
growth is a high fertility rate and about 5.3 living children per woman. A
corollary is a youthful age structure with 45% of the population under 15 years
of age, creating the potential for further rapid growth. However, there are some
signs that awareness of family planning is growing. The use of contraceptives
among married women has doubled, from 12% in 1991 to 24% in 1998 (Hakim
et al. 1998).
 Consumption
While per capita consumption of natural resources in Pakistan is
much lower than in developed countries, the combination of
population growth and growth in real economic demand means a
doubling of the demand for natural resources every 12 years. For
example, the consumption of woody biomass for fuel and timber is
reducing the total growing stock at the alarming rate of 4% per year
(GoP 1992). As an energy-poor country, Pakistan has few
alternatives, and these alternatives also pose potential threats to
biodiversity. The burning of animal wastes reduces soil biodiversity
by depriving soils of much-needed organic matter. The development
of hydroelectric power will have considerable adverse impacts on
biodiversity, unless siting alternatives and mitigating measures are
addressed early in the planning stage. The impact of these growing
energy demands on bio- diversity will be particularly acute where
higher population densities and/ or large-scale energy demands
coincide with areas of high biodiversity.

 Low Primary Productivity

Increasing natural resource consumption is exacerbated in Pakistan
by low primary productivity in agriculture, rangelands, forestry and
fisheries. Increased productivity in agriculture, animal husbandry,
silviculture and pisciculture would reduce pressures on natural
resources.
The low productivity of Pakistan’s rangelands has already been
discussed. While there is very little scope for increasing the area of
agricultural land in Pakistan (almost all cultivable land is already
cultivated), productivity per hectare is among the lowest in the
world (GoP and IUCN 1992). There are three main contributing
factors to this low productivity: limited avail- ability of water; poor
land and crop management; and soil degradation. Because of the
limited availability of water under current water management
regimes, only one-third of the available land suitable for double-
crop- ping is actually double-cropped. Low yields result for m many
factors, including: soil deficiencies; inadequate seed-bed
preparation in clay soils; limited application of modern cropping
techniques; the system of absentee landlords; fragmentation of land
holdings; poor access to capital for expansion and improvement;
poor technology transfer to farmers; and, lack of advice concerning
the use and timing of farm inputs. Application of fertilizers and
pesticides (for increased production of food to feed increasing
populations) has adversely affected soil microbial populations in the
fields. Applying naturally occurring microbes for increased
production could be one solution to the diminishing microbial
population in ecosystems. Many of the most harmful pesticides have
now been banned in Pakistan through recent amendments to the
Pesticide Ordinance, 1971.
The scope for increased forest productivity, in particular through
increased farm forestry, is substantial. The main reasons given by
farmers for not growing trees are lack of water and land, while little
advice and support to farmers are also identified as constraints (GoP
1992). However, many marginal lands, including waterlogged and
slightly saline lands, have potential for plantation.
Forest productivity in irrigated forest plantations can be increased
though additional inputs in the form of better irrigation water
management, regular tending operations and timely felling and
regeneration work. In the sub-mountainous forest and range areas,
better grazing management together with community participation
could effectively increase range productivity. Watersheds in the
mountainous areas could be protected and productivity increased by
regulating the yield from forest areas and applying modern planting/
regeneration techniques. Wildlife harvesting based on sound
principles and with the participation of local communities could
also increase the overall productivity of natural areas. Similarly,
there is substantial scope for increasing fish production in Pakistan,
particularly through commercial fish ponds.

Economic Causes of Biodiversity Loss:

The main economic reason behind the erosion of biodiversity is the
underlying disparity between private versus social costs and benefits
of biodiversity use and conservation. Private costs and benefits refer
to those losses and gains as perceived by the immediate user of the
environment: the farmer, the industrialist and the consumer.
Social costs and benefits refer to losses and gains that accrue to
society as a whole. Social and private interests often do not
coincide: what is good for the individual may impose costs on the
rest of society – so-called ‘externalities’. Sometimes, what is good
for society as a whole is also good for the individual, but no
institutions exist for the individual to capture this ‘global value’.
From the perspective of the individual, it pays to exploit
biodiversity. But from the point of view of society as a whole, it is
better to seek ways of sustainably utilising that biodiversity and,
on many occasions, of outright protecting it. ‘Society’ in this respect
can be the local society, the porvince, the nation, or the world as
a whole. The main factors in this divergence between private and
social interests are market and intervention failures. These are
exacerbated by weak property regimes, high discount rates, and the
globalization of the world economy (McNeely 1988).
 Market Failure:

Freely functioning markets are based on narrow self- interest. The

upstream polluter has no incentive to account for the costs he
imposes on a downstream user of a river. The downstream
‘externality’ is being ignored by the upstream polluter. This failure
arises from the free functioning of the market place (Pearce and
Moran 1994).
‘Local market failures’ of this kind are evident in the pollution of
many kinds of ‘resource streams’ in Pakistan. For example, the so-
called timber mafia exploiting the Himalayan forests do not need to
concern themselves with the downstream siltation they are causing,
or the species they are depleting; once they have logged ‘their’
forest, they will leave, and the nation will have to pay for the
siltation of reservoirs and the reduction of biological diversity.
Similarly, the industrial effluents discharged in streams and canals
lead to losses in biodiversity and productivity, especially in fish
catch. For example, fish catch from the river Ravi and its tributaries
has been reduced by 5,000 tonnes annually. Decisions are often
taken to exploit natural resources in Pakistan without taking into
account the social costs of habitat loss or extinction. Conversely, the
social benefits of conserving biodiversity are rarely taken into
account. Conventional methods of measuring national income in
Pakistan (such as per capita GNP) do not recognise the drawing
down of natural capital stock, and instead consider the depletion of
national resources, i.e. the loss of national wealth, as net income.
Many conservation activities yield global bene- fits. If, for example,
biodiversity is conserved in Pakistan’s Himalayan forests, it yields a
benefit to people in other countries, first because they simply want
it, and second because they provide potentially important goods
(e.g. medicines) and biogeochemical services (e.g. carbon
sequestration). But if Pakistan receives no financial benefits to pay
for the incremental cost of these global external benefits, it will
have less incentive to look after these biological resources. This has
been called the global market failure (Pearce and Moran 1994). This
failure arises not from the functioning of the free market, but from
the fact that the markets are not there at all. They aer missing
markets. When these global missing markets coincide with local
market failure and with intervention failure, as is the case with
Pakistan’s most important and unique ecosystems, they do much to
explain why biodiversity is disappearing.
 Intervention Failure:

Governments have a habit of intervening in markets. They may do

so with the best of intentions. Indeed, they often intervene to
remove the main elements of the externality caused by market
behaviour. This is exactly what environmental regulation does.
Unfortunately, a great many other interventions are
contrary to the interests of biodiversity, even where those
interventions appear to serve some social purpose (Pearce and
Moran 1994).
The principal form of intervention failure is sub- optimal pricing,
e.g. of timber, agricultural products, water and energy. Underpricing
is often deliberate, with the intention of promoting greater use and
thus contributing to national development. In Pakistan, for example,
irrigation water is underpriced (Pearce and Moran 1994), leading to
overuse, wastage, and the consequent degradation of aquatic
habitats and agro-ecosystems. Energy is similarly underpriced to
stimulate development, leading to policies that obscure the
environmental costs of energy production, whether based on
fossil fuels or hydropower (Banuri 1997).

 Weak Ownership:

Market and intervention failures are exacerbated by the weak

ownership regimes characteristic of much of Pakistan’s remaining
natural habitats. A large proportion of the country’s forests,
rangelands, wet- lands and coastal waters are open access sources,
or are ineffectively controlled under crumbling com- mon property
regimes, the centralised state or absentee landlords. Exploitation is
allocated to those who pay most for the rights, not to those who
most value the resource (McNeely 1988). The costs of protecting
species and ecosystems from exploitation can be prohibitive for
owners, be they government, communities or individuals, who often
lack sufficient resources and capacity to enforce regulations or other
restrictions.
There is a growing tendency for multinational firms to take
biological and genetic material as well as knowledge from
indigenous cultural groups for their own study and exploitation
without acknowledging their sources. Many instances have
surfaced- where multinationals have secured patents and intellectual
property rights for the commercial distribution of medicines and
genetic materials derived from indigenous flora and fauna (A. H.
Cheema, pers. com.). National legislation is needed to check this
biopiracy, to regulate bioprospecting and to protect sovereign
property rights.
High Discount Rates:

Market and intervention failures are also exacerbated by uncertainty

linked, for example, to changing patterns of labour, policies and
prices. In an uncertain future, the time horizon of people shrinks,
and the discount rate increases. The discount rate is the percent by
which we prefer current consumption over future consumption. A
higher discount rate means that future consumption has less value,
and therefore that people would prefer immediate benefits rather
than greater delayed benefits. Where high discount rates coincide
with low biological growth rates – as, for example, in the juniper
and chilghoza forests of Balochistan – the economic activity is
devoted entirely to immediate interests at the expense of future
generations. A high discount rate is presumably a factor in the
deforestation by Afghan refugees in Pakistan.

Globalisation of Word Economy:

Finally, market and intervention failures are exacerbated by various
trends in the global economy. These include the growth in
international trade, the associated General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT) agreement and establishment of the World Trade
Organisation, the internalisation of finance, the growing volume of
inter-country financial flows, and the growing indebtedness of
developing countries. These trends are influencing governments
and economic agents to behave in ways that are highly destructive
to the social and natural environment in general and to biodiversity
in particular.
International trade has been growing at a rate much higher than
global income. This affects biodiversity in many ways. First, by
increasing international competition, it exposes Pakistan’s industries
to bankruptcy and induces government to provide hid- den
subsidies, such as cheap electricity, free water and lax pollution
control standards, i.e., it exacerbates intervention failure. Second, it
shifts production from subsistence towards commercial products,
and thus reduces the concern of the producers for the long-term
sustainability of resource use. Third, it encourages government
leaders to pursue high trade and growth at the expense of all other
benefits. Fourth, it diverts attention from the primary products
derived from natural and agro-ecosystems, towards the production
of secondary and tertiary goods and services. The recent General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) agreement, with the
establishment of the WTO, restricts governments from using trade
policies to protect the environment. The CBD Secretariat is in the
process of working with the WTO Committee on Trade and
Environment to include the Secretariat’s views on processes that
have an impact on biodiversity.
Since the 1970s, there has been an even more dramatic growth in
international financial flows. This further reduces the policy
effectiveness and autonomy of the government. The government
cannot use capital controls, interest rate policies or discriminatory
practices to protect natural resources, as these would invite market
retaliation in the form of damaging financial outflows.
Equally significant has been the growth in foreign debt. Though
Pakistan has been far more restrained in terms of exposure to
foreign debt than, for example, many Latin American countries,
debt levels had risen to over 50% of national income by the 1990s.
This has been matched by a similar growth in domes- tic debt,
increasing budgetary deficits and generally reducing the solvency
level of government.
The consequences of all these changes are that the government has
far less room for manoeuver today than two or three decades ago;
there is strong pressure on producers to compete in international
markets and earn foreign exchange; and conventional forms of cash
subsidies have become impossible, while subsidies in kind have
become difficult. Consequently, the only way of subsidising local
producers is to obscure and hide environmental costs. This is
creating increasing pressures on natural resources and consequently,
on biodiversity.

Agricultural intensification:
Irrigation causes degradation of agro-ecosystems when it results in
increasing salinity, sodicity and waterlogging. This is an extremely
serious problem but has limited direct impact on natural ecosystems.
Salinity and sodicity affect 2.1 million hectares in Sindh and 2.6
million hectares in the Punjab (GoP and IUCN 1992). Most of the
soils affected are of low agri- cultural potential, but nonetheless,
almost 10% of Class I and II soils are affected. WAPDA classifies
all aer as with a water-table within 1.5 metres of the surface, 5.3
million hectares out of 14.6 million hectares, as the ‘disastrous
zone’ of waterlogging. The NCS gives a much lower figure of
200,000 hectares, where a dis- aster area is defined as an area where
the water-table lies within one metre of the surface.
Crop genetic diversity in Pakistan is also drop- ping and the principal
reason is the development and use of high-yield varieties (HYVs).
These HYVs respond better to water and fertilizer, but are a
tremendous threat to indigenous species and primitive cultivars that had been
selected and maintained by Pakistani farmers for generations. This genetic
erosion is well pronounced in wheat, rice, sorghum, sugarcane and vegetables.

Though cross-breeding can lead to relatively rapid gains in productivity, it also

increases the rate of genetic loss if the parent stock is not maintained. Some 75-
80% of Pakistan’s domestic livestock aer cross-breeds. There is an
immediate need to monitor this situation by conducting scientific surveys.

The agricultural use of pesticides and fertilisers has increased rapidly in recent
years. Pesticide use in Pakistan increased seven-fold in quantity between 1981
and 1992, from 915 million tonnes to 6,865 million tonnes of which 80% were
organophosphates (Baloch 1995). Direct mortality of wildlife, especially birds,
following the use of organophosphates has frequently been reported. Pesticides
destroy the natural biotic balance in agricultural soils and reduce the diversity
and abundance of invertebrate fauna with cascading effects at higher trophic
levels. The increasing presence of pesticides in agricultural run- off has both
acute and chronic effects on aquatic fauna and on fish-eating birds. It is
estimated that 25% of all pesticides used in Pakistan end up in the sea (M. F.
Ahmad, pers. com.).

The use of fertilisers grew at over 7% per year during the Sixth Five-Year Plan
(GoP and IUCN 1992). Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilisers leads to
eutrophication of water channels and wetlands, the spread of aquatic
vegetation, and reduced aquatic diversity. Khurshid (1991) cites Haleji, Drigh
and Patisar lakes as examples. The effect of hazardous chemical pesticides,
fertilizers and industrial effluents on biological diversity, especially on
microbial populations and varieties, is well established. Preservation and
quantification of the microbial population as a bench mark to measure the
effect of these chemicals is essential.

Introduced and invasive species:

Introduced or alien invasive species can have a significant negative impact on

biodiversity. This form of ‘bio-pollution’ has increased in recent years as glob-
alisation has meant the more rapid and widespread movement of goods from
one place to another, fostering the spread of organisms in ship ballast water in
containers and even in commodities. Introduced species are responsible for
many recorded species extinctions, especially on islands, and are second only
to habitat loss as a global cause of extinction (Simberloff 1995). In Lake
Victoria, Africa, for example, the introduction of the Nile perch, a voracious
predator, eliminated about 200 native fish species in the largest single
vertebrate extinction ever recorded (Bright 1998).

The introduction of exotic species can also be done deliberately by natural

resource managers, most often to increase commercial production in agri

culture and forestry. In countries such as South Africa, Chile, Taiwan,

Australia, Sweden and Finland, a majority of commercially planted tree species
are introduced. This has resulted in higher production of woody biomass than
would otherwise have been possible using only native tree species.
.
The effect of exotic species on the native fauna and flora of Pakistan has not
been well documented. In attempts to meet the increasing demands of a rapidly
growing human population, fast growing exotics have been introduced to
alleviate shortages in timber, fodder and fuelwood. Prominent tree species
include eucalyptus, hybrid poplar and Paulownia planted on farmlands and
irrigated plantations. While these species do not appear to have threatened
indigenous vegetation so far, the introduction of Robinia, Ailanthus and
eucalyptus in the sub-tropical chir pine zone may pose threats to natural
habitats in the future (R.M. Ashfaque, pers. com.).

Many primitive landraces/ cultivars and wild relatives of agricultural crops

(such as wheat, rice, pulses, sugarcane and cotton) have suffered from gene-t ic
erosion from the introduction of HYVs of these crops, habitat degradation and
the excessive use of pesticides and herbicides (U.K. Baloch, pers. com.). As the
genetic traits of local species are lost, the ability to adapt to local environments
and climates, and to tolerate diseases is greatly reduced.

Extreme care is required in the selection of species to be introduced to

minimize impacts on native species. Introductions should be considered only if
absolutely necessary and should be accompanied by strategies to assess the
magnitude of any threats to indigenous species. W here practical, indigenous
flora and fauna should be restored to reduce native biodiversity loss.
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, refers to the variety of life on Earth. As defined by the
United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, it includes diversity of ecosystems, species
and genes, and the cological processes that support them. Natural diversity in ecosystems
provides essential economic benefits and services to human society—such as food, clothing,
shelter, fuel and medicines—as well as ecological, recreational, cultural and aesthetic values, and
thus plays an important role in sustainable development. Biodiversity is under threat in many
areas of the world. Concern about global biodiversity loss has emerged as a prominent and
widespread public issue.

Pakistan has 225 Protected Areas (PAs) 14 national parks, 99 wildlife sanctuaries, and 96 game
reserves.

Biography:
The country lies at the western end of the South Asian subcontinent, and its flora and fauna are
composed of a blend of Palearctic and Indomalayan elements, with some groups also
containing forms from the Ethiopian region.

Ecological zones
Pakistan is divided into 9 major ecological zones.

Critical Ecosystems
Under the Global 200, ecosystems have been ranked to carry out conservation through
comparative analysis. It covers all habitats on the land masses and in the ocean. The Earth has
been divided into 238 ecoregions, by the United Nation, the National Geographic Society with
WWF. Out of them 5 are in Pakistan. The Global ecoregions of Pakistan are:

1. Rann of Kutch flooded grasslands

2. Tibetan Plateau
3. Western Himalayan Temperate Forests
4. Indus Delta Ecosystem
5. Arabian Sea.

Flora
About 5,500 - 6,000 ( Nasir and Ali 1970) species of vascular plants have been recorded in
Pakistan including both native and introduced species. The flora included elements of the 6
phytogeographic regions. 4 monotypic genera of flowering plants and around 400 (7.8%)
species are endemic to Pakistan. Almost 80% of the endemics are found in the northern and
western mountains (Ali and Qaiser,1986). The Kashmir Himalayas are identified as a
global centre of plant diversity and endemism. Families with more than 20 recorded
endemics are Papilionaceae(57
species), Compositae (49), Umbelliferae (34), Poaceae (32) and Brassicaceae (20).
 Mammals
Around 174 mammal species have been reported in Pakistan. Out of these, there are atleast
3 endemic species and a number of endemic and near endemic sub-species (Biodiversity
Action Plan for Pakistan, WWF - P, IUCN - P and GoP).

Birds
668 bird species have been recorded in Pakistan. Out of them, 375 were recorded as breeding (
Roberts, Z.B.Mirza). Breeding birds are a mixture of Palearctic and Indomalayan forms (
1/3rd) and the occurrence of many species at one or the other geographical limits of their range
shows the diverse origins of the avifauna.

The Sulaiman Range, the HinduKush, and the Himalayas in the NWFP and Azad Kashmir
comprise part of the Western Himalayan Endemic Bird Area; this is the global centre of bird
endemism. The Indus Valley wetlands are the second area of endemism.

Reptiles/ Amphibians
Around 177 species, being a blend of Palearctic and Indomalayan forms. Out of the total 14
species of turtles, 90 of lizards and 65 of snakes have been reported. While 13 species are
believed to be endemic.
Being a semi arid country, only 22 species of amphibians have been recorded, of which 9 are
endemic. (Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan, WWF - P, IUCN - P and GoP).

Fish/ Invertebrates
Pakistan has 198 native and introduced freshwater fish species. The fish fauna is
predominately south Asian and with some west Asian and high asian elements. Fish species
diversity is highest in the Indus river plains and in adjacent hill ranges (Kirthar Range), and in
the Himalayan foothills in Hazara, Malakand, Swat and Peshawar. Diversity is lowest in the
mountain zone of the northern mountains and arid parts of north-west Baluchistan.There are 29
endemic species.
There has been little research on Invertebrates of Pakistan. About 5,000 species of
invertebrates have been recorded including insects (1,000 species of true bugs, 400 species of
butterflies and moths, 110 species of flies and 49 species of termites). Other include 109
species of marine worms, over 800 species of molluscs and 355 species of nematodes.
(Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan, WWF - P, IUCN - P and GoP).

Threats to Biodiversity:Deforestation:
Pricinciple cause of deforestation in Pakistan is the consumption of fuelwood and timber.

Grazing:
Rapidly increasing domestic livestock population is the direct cause of degradation on
rangelands and forests.
Soil Erosion & Desertification:
Agricultural activities and overstocking has lead to the reduction of vegetation cover, resulting in
the acceleration of both wind and water erosion.

Dams/Irrigation:
The construction of dams and barrages in the Indus basin to control flooding and store water for
irrigation have greatly increased the amount of Wetlands habitat in Pakistan.
Reduction in freshwater flow to the coast has greatly increased salinity in mangrove forests. The
most serious effect has been the consequent conversion of land to agriculture, with removal of
extensive tracts of riverine and thorn forests and the resulting disappearence from large areas of
the associated fauna.

Salination/waterlogging:
Being a serious problem faced by the agriculture sector, pockets of forests of the Indus basin
could be threatened.

Pollution:
Pakistan faces a serious challenge of growing pollution in urban areas and water courses.
Likewise discharge of sewage and industrial effluent into aquatic and marine ecosystems is also
on the rise.In Pakistan's 1981 census, 415 cities were classed as urban in which less than one
third of the population resides, which is increasing by 4.4% per annum.

Hunting/Fishing:
There is a strong tradition of illegal hunting and sports hunting in Pakistan. This has resulted into
the decline of bird and mammal species.

Agricultural practices:
Pakistan faces degradation of agro-ecosystems caused by irrigation. The agricultural use of
pesticides and fertilisers has rapidly increased in recent years. Pesticide use in Pakistan has
increased 7 fold in quantity between 1981 and 1992.

Biodiversity: The range of variation found among microorganisms, plants, fungi, and animals.
Also the richness of species of living organisms.

Community: Populations of organisms of different species that interact with one another.

Ecosystem: Any geographic area with all of the living organisms present and the nonliving parts
of their physical environment. Involves the movement and storage of energy and matter through
living things and activities.

Gene: A unit of inherited material. An organism’s collection of genes determines what it is,
what it looks like, and often how it behaves.

Organism: An individual living thing.

Population: A group of individuals belonging to one species living in an area.

Species: A group of populations of similar organisms that reproduce among themselves, but do
not naturally reproduce with any other kinds of organisms (e.g., Haliaeetus leucocephalus--bald
eagle; Quercus rubra--red oak tree).

What are the Threats to Biodiversity?

The loss of biodiversity is a significant issue for scientists and policy-makers and the topic is
finding its way into living rooms and classrooms. Species are becoming extinct at the fastest rate
known in geological history and most of these extinctions have been tied to human activity.

• Habitat loss and destruction, usually as a direct result of human activity and population growth,
is a major force in the loss of species, populations, and ecosystems.

• Alterations in ecosystem composition, such as the loss or decline of a species, can lead to a loss
of biodiversity. For example, efforts to eliminate coyotes in the canyons of southern California
are linked to decreases in song bird populations in the area. As coyote populations were reduced,
the populations of their prey, primarily raccoons, increased. Since raccoons eat bird eggs, fewer
coyotes led to more raccoons eating more eggs, resulting in fewer song birds.

• The int roduct ion of exot ic (non-nat ive) species can disrupt ent i re ecosystems and impact
populations of native plants or animals. These invaders can adversely affect native species by
eating them, infecting them, competing with them, or mating with them.

• The over-exploitation (over-hunting, over-fishing, or over-collecting) of a species or population

can lead to its demise.

• Human-generated pollution and contamination can affect all levels of biodiversity.

• Global climate change can alter environmental conditions. Species and populations may be lost
if they are unable to adapt to new conditions or relocate.

Why is Biodiversity Important?

The diversity of life enriches the quality of our lives in ways that are not easy to quantify.
Biodiversity is intrinsically valuable and is important for our emotional, psychological, and
spiritual well-being. Some consider that it is an important human responsibility to be stewards
for the rest of the world’s living organisms. Diversity breeds diversity. Having a diverse array of
living organisms allows other organisms to take advantage of the resources provided. For
example, trees provide habitat and nutrients for birds, insects, other plants and animals, fungi,
and microbes. Humans have always depended on the Earth’s biodiversity for food, shelter, and
health. Biological resources that provide goods for human use include:

• food—species that are hunted, fished, and gathered, as well as those cultivated for agriculture,
forestry, and aquaculture;
• shelter and warmth—timber and other forest products and fibers such as wool and cotton;

• medicines—both traditional medicines and those s y n t h e s i z e d f r o m b i o l o g i c a l

r e s o u r c e s a n d processes

Biodiversity also supplies indirect services to humans which are often taken for granted. These
include drinkable water, clean air, and fertile soils. The loss of populations, species, or groups of
species from an ecosystem can upset its normal function and disrupt these ecological services.
Recent declines in honeybee populations may result in a loss of pollination services for fruit
crops and flowers Biodiversity provides medical models for research into solving human health
problems. For example, researchers are looking at how seals, whales, and penguins use oxygen
during deep-water dives for clues to treat people who suffer strokes, shock, and lung disease. The
Earth’s biodiversity contributes to the productivity of natural and agricultural systems. Insects,
bats, birds, and other animals serve as pollinators. Parasites and predators can act as natural pest
controls. Various organisms are responsible for recycling organic materials and maintaining the
productivity of soil. Genetic diversity is also important in terms of volution. The loss of
individuals, populations, and species decreases the variety of genes—the material needed for
species and populations to adapt to changing conditions or for new species to evolve.

3 types of biodiversity?

Ecological diversity refers to the sum of the different types of environment or Ecosystem
present in a region or the habitat which is the sum total of the climate, vegetation and geography
of a region. Ecosystem is a unit of the biosphere in which there is an interaction between the
living and nonliving factors so as to maintain a continuous flow of energy. It is a structural and
functional unit of a biosphere. There are several kinds of habitats or ecosystems around the
world. The variety of diversity of species in an ecosystem is influenced by the ecosystem it self.
Examples of ecosystems: Grass land, wet land, desert, aquatic ecosystem etc.

Species diversity is the variety of different species in a given area. It is very difficult to estimate
the different species in a given area. Most of the species are found near the equator and a few at
the poles.

Genetic Diversity may be defined as variation in genes with a particular species. It refers to the
heritable variation. Sexual reproduction play an important role genetic diversity. A species
having more genetic diversity can adapt better to the changed environmental conditions.

Ecosystem biodiversity implies the existence of different species within an ecosystem. It can also
be defined as the degree of variations among the life forms in an ecosystem or planet.
Biodiversity is important in an ecosystem as it forms an integral part of food chain and natural
cycles of that particular biome or ecosystem. Extinction of any species from the food chain will
have a huge impact on the entire ecosystem.
 Number of species on Earth:

Mentioned below are the estimated number of different species present in the biosphere as per
the research carried out by the Global Taxonomy Initiative and the European Distributed
Institute of Taxonomy.

• Insects: 10–30 Million

• Bacteria: 5–10 Million3333
• Fungi: 1.5 Million
• Mites: 1 Million
• Different types of biodiversity
• species diversity
•

• Species diversity refers to the number of plant and animal species present in a community
or an ecosystem. species diversity varies a great deal from one ecosystem to another. We
find a large number of different plants and animals in an ecosystem with high species
diversity. Various under water species of plants and animals
• The following factors determine the degree of species diversity in an ecosystem or
community :
• Habitat stress : species diversity is low in habitats under any stress such as harsh climate
or pollution.
• Geographical isolation : species diversity is less in isolated regions like an island. if a
species in an island disappears due to random events, it cannot be easily replaced.
Organisms from the mainland have difficulties in reaching and colonizing the island.
• Dominance by one species : the dominant species consumes a disproportionate share of
the resources. This does not allow many species to evolve and flourish.
• Edge effect : there is always greater species diversity in transition area, where two or
more ecosystem overlap.
• Geological history : old and stable ecosystems such as rain forests that have not
experienced many changes have high species diversity. An ecosystem like the arctic has
undergone many changes and this does not allow any species to establish themselves.
• some examples of low species diversity : -
• *a small isolated island generally has low diversity of species, since few new species
migrate to the island.
• A small island near the coastal region of india
•

• *the polar region : the farther away we move from the equator towards either pole , the
less is the species diversity.
• The polar ice caps
• *a patch of desert : there is normally little species diversity to be seen in a desert,
especially during the day. At night, however many desert species come out of their hiding
places.
• The thar desert of india support a very small number of life
• *an apartment complex in a city, with the ground completely paved with concrete.
• some magnificent examples of high species diversity : -
•

• *botanical garden : in a botanical garden, we see a wide variety of trees, flowering plants,
flowering plants, cacti, and so on.
• Botanical garden situated in ooty, india
• *tropical rain forest : a tropical rain-forest contains an extraordinary number of different
species of plants and animals.
• Tropical rain forests of india are rich in biodiversity *coastal zone : the zone where the
ocean meets land generally contains many different species . We find in this zone marine
species, land species, nd others who live on land and in water.
• mangrove forest of sunderban delta
• genetic diversity
• Genetic diversity is the variety in the genetic make-up among individuals within a
species. Many plants and some animal species have as many as 400,000 genes. These
can give rise to enormous genetic variation in the individuals in the species.
• The amount of diversity at the genetic level is important because it represents the raw
material for evolution and adaptation. More genetic diversity in a species or population
 means greater ability for some of the individuals in it to adapt to changes in the
environment.
• Less diversity leads to uniformity, which is a problem in the long term. It is unlikely that
any individual in such a population would be able to adapt to changing conditions.
• Example of high genetic diversity : -*a variety of colours, sizes, and tastes among
bananas.
• *different hair colours among humans.*thousands of rice varieties with different colours
and tastes in traditional indian agriculture.*extraordinary colours and patterns among
butterflies of the same species.
• Examples of low genetic diversity : -
• *modern agriculture : previously, there were thousands of rice varities in india. The green
revolution promoted a small number of high yielding varieties. Thus, the genetic diversity
of rice is now very low.
• *threatened species : the giant panda in china is a threatened species. There about 1,000
pandas left and even these are distributed over 20 small populations as a result their
genetic diversity is very low.
• Ecosystem diversity
• Ecosystem diversity is the variety of habitats found in an area. It is the variety of forests,
deserts, grasslands, aquatic ecosystem, etc., that occur in the area.
• India, for example,has high ecosystem diversity. We have mountain ranges,lakes, deserts,
temperate forests, tropical rain forests, alpine vegetation, backwaters snow peaks,
grasslands, rivers, coral reefs, and so on. Green land in the arctic, on the other hand, has
little ecosystem diversity. It is mostly ice and snow.

How Biodiversity Impacts Life on Earth

Biodiversity affects everyday life on Earth; examples of biodiversity include:

• approximately 30 percent of medicines are developed from plants or animals

• soil enrichment through the decomposition of dead animals and plants and waste
breakdown by organisms such as insects and worms
• green plant photosynthesis
 • approximately 80 plant species are accredited with the source of over 90 per cent of the
world's food sources.

The Importance of Ecosystems

Ecosystems support a rich diversity of species which interact with their surrounding
environments to produce a number of benefits; these include:

• air and water purification

• provision of many of man's necessities such as shelter, food, fuel and building materials
• stabilization of the Earth's climate
• detoxification of waste products
• plant pollination
• weather and environmental control through floods and fire
• control of erosion
• control of disease
• source of many medicines
• nutrient recycling.

Different levels of biodiversity

Population diversity. While we often hear about species, what we generally see and interact
with are populations - distinct groups of members of a particular species that have a limited
exchange of genetic material among the groups. They can reproduce together but they don't
often do so.

As a result, the genetic differences between populations tend to increase, even though the
variability within any one population may be less than across the species as a whole. Also,
because of the isolation, local impacts on one population may not be felt by another. A
conservative first estimate indicates that about 220 populations per species puts the total
number of populations world-wide into at least the low billions (Hughes, et. al, 1997).

Extreme population variability can be a double-edged sword. For example, lake trout in
Ontario's Great Lakes were once very diverse. There were at least 15 to 20 different forms of
lake trout recognized by commercial fishermen before the sea lamprey appeared. The lake
trout differed in where they were found, when they spawned, and in their appearance. They
were given such names as blacks, redfins, yellowfins, paper bellies, fats, humpers and sand
trout. Undoubtedly, the number of genetically distinct populations was much higher.
However, even all this diversity could not withstand over-harvest, sea lamprey predation and
loss of habitat, particularly inshore rubble shoals required for spawning. The catches of lake
trout plunged to 10% of the original yield in Lake Superior and down to almost nothing in
the other Great Lakes. When conditions improved and it came time to try and reintroduce
lake trout, the results were disappointing in all but Lake Superior where enough wild
populations survived to make a decent comeback.

All those discrete lake trout stocks had evolved for a reason: reproductive success of lake
trout in each area. The fish were in effect "tailor-made" for the area. Now many of those
stocks have disappeared forever. It will take a lot of time and effort to find stocks that might
be reasonable replacements.

Species diversity is all of the different kinds of living things found in a certain habitat or
ecosystem. World-wide more than 1.4 million species have been identified (Wilson,
1992) but estimates of the actual number vary from 5 million up to 100 million. Fourteen
million appears to be an estimate that is commonly quoted in the literature (Global
Biodiversity Assessment, 2001 Summary).

In Ontario, over 30,000 species have been identified including:

• over 20,000 macro-invertebrates (insects, spiders, etc.)

• more than 4,800 plants
• more than 150 fish
• more than 1000 fungi
• 53 reptiles and amphibians
• 479 birds
• 81 mammals

Globally the estimated numbers of species are:

• 35,000 micro-organisms
• 70,000 fungi
• 273,000 plants
• 875,000 invertebrates (insects, spiders, etc.)
• 19,000 fish
• 10,500 reptiles and amphibians
• 9,000 birds
• 4,000 mammals
• 105,000 other animals

(KY Afield, 1997; CFM, 1997)

Species diversity, however, is more than just the number of species in a given area, habitat or
ecosystem. Some species' importance can be out of line with their numbers, for
example keystone species. There can also be great differences in species composition over
time. Species diversity can also be greatly affected by physical conditions in the ecosystems
where they live, such as differences in temperature, light, structure and chemical
composition.

The point is, biodiversity cannot be reduced to a single number. There are dimensions
to diversity, many of them.

Ecosystem diversity is the variety of ecosystems within a landscape or region including

wetlands, prairies or savannahs, lakes and rivers, forests and agricultural landscapes. The
basic principles of biodiversity apply here as well but the scope is much larger. It is at this
level that the interactions and links among species and the consequences of those links are
evident. Less diverse ecosystems, such as coldwater streams or small lake trout lakes,
contribute to the functioning and productivity of larger areas such as bioregions.
Community and ecosystem diversity
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Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem exists along 3 levels. It could be within-
community diversity (alpha diversity), between-communities diversity (beta diversity) or
diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area (gamma diversity).

Three perspectives of diversity: alpha, beta and gamma diversity

Introduction: Loss of Biodiversity
The Global Convention on Biological Diversity, signed in 1992 at the Earth Summit, describes
biodiversity as the "variability among all living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part, this
includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems."

Among the ten policy fields, Loss of Biodiversity is probably the most controversial one. The
diversity of nature is the result of an evolutionary process that started about two billion years
ago. When looking, for example, at the destruction of rain forests over the last twenty years, it
becomes obvious that mankind is destroying this heritage at an incredible speed. Not
surprisingly, the biodiversity debate is laden with ethical, sometimes religious arguments. It was
probably a biologist who has coined the saying "dont put price tags on my butterflies" ; however,
economic reality puts "price tags" on biodiversity every day, mostly ignoring the moral
considerations raised by experts.

The number of species endangered by human activities and the number of natural or semi-natural
habitats being destroyed, fragmented or changed are constantly growing, thus destabilising
ecosystems, causing the loss of vital resources together with genetic and cultural
impoverishment.

Europe covers only 7% of the Earths land surface but contains a large biodiversity due to natural
fragmentation by rivers, mountains, seas, the influences of glaciation, etc. The pressures on
European biodiversity emanate from all sectors of society, with agriculture, forestry and
transport being particularly responsible for habitat loss and fragmentation.

Measuring pressure on biodiversity, although an ambitious task, is essential to supply the

controversial biodiversity debate with (hopefully) non-controversial, neutral and objective
figures. Given the complexity of the issue, one should not expect perfect solutions. Describing
threats to the "health" of ecosystems with just six indicators will resemble very much what a
doctor would advise a human patient: "stop smoking, drink less, avoid fat meals and ride your
bicycle every day." Most of the following indicators are of this rather general character. They are
no substitute for a proper diagnosis, or a detailed plan to preserve a valuable habitat, but they
may serve to publicly monitor the biggest threats to European biodiversity.

Please note that this chapter focuses on pressures on terrestrial biodiversity. The biodiversity of
marine ecosystems is treated within the separate policy field Marine Environment & Coastal
Zones . Forestecosystem matters will be included in the biodiversity chapter , whereas economic
aspects such as wood consumption will be treated under Resource Depletion .

Values of biodiversity

We all depend on the natural world to sustain us with food, clothing and other necessities,
establishing a set of use values. But there are many less obvious values of biodiversity, of equal
importance, to be considered (see box).
Values from human use

A total of about 3,000 plant species, 200 of which have been domesticated, are used worldwide
as a food source. However, just 20 of these plants provide more than 80% of our food at the
present time. In order to maintain the high level of production such consumption demands, plant
breeders frequently turn to the wild relatives of domestic crops in search of desirable genetic
traits such as resistance to disease or drought: wild plants are a valuable reservoir of genetic
diversity. A smaller number of animal species provide human food but the scale is often
enormous. For example, in 1989 world landings of fish and other aquatic life forms totalled 99.5
mega-tonnes, 70 % of which was for human consumption.

In addition to food, many of our drugs and raw materials for manufacturing also originate from
either plants or animals. Globally 3.5 billion people rely on plant-based medicine for primary
health care, and in the USA a quarter of medicines prescribed are based on compounds originally
found in plants. Many industrial materials, such as fibres, resins, dyes, waxes, pesticides,
lubricants and perfumes derive from plant or animal sources. Trees provide more than 3.8
million cubic metres of wood annually for use as fuel, timber or pulp.

In addition to these long established patterns of consumptive utilisation, there is now a rapidly
growing leisure industry, which involves the non-consumptive "use" of the living world. For
example, eco-tourism, based on the observation of wild animals and wilderness habitats,
generates between 100 and 200 billion US dollars annually, much of it in needy developing
economies.

Non-use values

While we can readily identify uses of biodiversity which directly support human life and are
commercially valued, we often overlook a host of ‘hidden’ functions of living organisms which
are equally vital to human well-being. Foremost among these are ‘free’ environmental services,
such as nutrient cycling, soil formation, watershed protection, waste disposal, pollination,
oxygen production, carbon sequestration and climate regulation. Placing a cash value on these
services is not easy, but one estimate of their global value is US$ 33 trillion per annum,
compared to a world GNP of US$ 18 trillion.
There are also many species which are not exploited themselves but have indirect value because
they are food for economically valuable species. For example, molluscs and crustaceans are
eaten by edible fishes. Other non-use values derive from the as yet undiscovered possibilities for
future uses of wild flora and fauna, such as new drugs from plants and genes usable in breeding
new characteristics into crops and domestic animals.

A totally different set of non-use values attaches to the significant contribution of wild organisms to
human art, literature and religion. Christianity values biodiversity as a potent reminder to humans of
God’s personality, power and creative genius (Rom.1:20) and Psalm 104 exclaims: "O Lord, what a
variety you have made! And in wisdom you made them all! The earth is full of your riches."

Intrinsic value

All values considered above refer to the multifaceted relationship of living things to humankind,
but the Preamble to the Convention on Biological Diversity, signed by 150 nations in 1992,
refers to the intrinsic value of biodiversity. This notion, which is reflected in most major
religions, recognises that creation has a value quite apart from its usefulness to humanity. For
example, Christianity recognises that nature has value because it was made by God for His own
glory, not merely for human benefit. The whole of creation belongs to God (Psalm 24:1); Man is
His steward, accountable to Him for everything he does with and to nature, especially to living
creatures (Gen.2:15).

Valuing Biodiversity

• Most values are assigned by humans

• Most are related to human survival

Use values

• Direct uses of biodiversity: consumptive - food, medicines, non-consumptive - eco-tourism

• Subject to trade & commerce, monetary value readily assigned, varies with demand
Non-use values

• Indirectly related to humans, ecosystem services,

future options, aesthetics

• Monetary valuation difficult

Intrinsic value

• Worth ‘in themselves’

"It is the generally received opinion, that all this visible world was created for Man as if there
were no other end to any creature but some way
or other to be serviceable to Man... yet wise men nowadays think otherwise ‘the creatures are
made to enjoy themselves as well as to serve us’ "
John Ray, The Wisdom of God..., 1691

Threats to biodiversity

In our eagerness to improve living conditions for the six billion members of our species, we
humans are imposing serious threats to the survival of much biodiversity, including many species
whose direct value is clearly established. Almost all ecosystems are greatly modified by humans,
who transform habitats and exterminate rivals and competitors.

Habitat degradation

The greatest threat is the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats. This includes clearing forests
for timber or plantations, overgrazing, draining wetlands and the destruction of heathlands and
coral reefs.

Conversion of natural habitat to agriculture From Pearce and Moran, 1994. Figures given
are in million hectares p.a. cropland

Region 1900 1980 % change

Sub-Saharan Africa 73 222 + 204

Latin America 33 142 + 330

South Asia 89 134 + 51

China 89 134 + 51

South-East Asia 15 55 + 267

North America 133 203 + 53

Europe 145 137 -5

Ex-USSR 147 233 + 58

Pollution also degrades habitats. Pesticides, sewage, oil, combustion emissions and acid rain
contaminate soils, freshwater, oceans and air.

One alarming effect of atmospheric pollution is accelerating changes in climatic patterns to

which ecosystems are adapted by long-term evolutionary processes. Anticipated results include
dramatic changes in the geographical distribution of some species leading to ecosystem
imbalance, and the extermination of others due to flooding and other climate-related phenomena.

Over-exploitation

Excessive exploitation has pushed some species to the verge of extinction. Included are the tiger,
Giant Panda, Black Rhinoceros, cod and several whale species. Between 1979 and 1989 the
African eleph-ant population was halved by ivory poaching. Other species have been relentlessly
persecuted as vermin, often based on wrong assumptions about the supposed harm they caused.
For centuries in Britain, Red Kites had a price on their head as ‘lamb-killers’, in spite of their
lack of strength for such a task.

Results of threats

Resulting from this array of human threats, rates of extinction are now estimated to be between
1,000 and 10,000 times greater than in the recent past. Tropical forests are being destroyed at the
rate of 0.8 to 2.0% per annum, sending some of their estimated 5 million species into extinction.
We know that 484 species of animal and 654 plants have become extinct since 1600 AD. IUCN
considers that one in eight plant species is at risk of extinction. In Britain eleven tree species are
classified as ‘Critically Endangered’ by IUCN, including Ley’s Whitebeam, of which only 15
individuals remain, and the Welsh Whitebeam, of which 44 are left.

Graph of projected extinction of seven animal species in Britain based on present rates of
decline.

In the animal world too, many species face imminent extinction. For example, 116 species of
European farmland birds are now of conservation concern. It is estimated that over the last 20
years in Britain alone ten species of farmland birds have between them ten million fewer
breeding individuals. This is just one of the devastating effects of the intensification of
agriculture on biodiversity.

Examples of birds at risk of extinction in Britain are the Skylark, whose breeding population has
declined 54% in just 25 years, the Song Thrush, down 73% in many areas, and the Grey
Partridge, whose numbers have halved in the past 25 years. Such is the significance attached to
the decline of bird populations that the current Environment Secretary has included a composite
trend of 139 species in the list of indicators of sustainable development upon which the
government reports annually.
The search for solutions

Political level

The international Convention on Biological Diversity at Rio in 1992 focused attention on the
need for sustainable use (rather than non-use) of the components of biodiversity, and the fair and
equitable sharing of benefits - such as profits from new drugs based on tropical plants. Nations
are required to develop their own strategies that integrate biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use into the entire range of national decision-making. The UK action plan (1994), in
addition to the conservation of species and habitats, emphasised a need for the involvement of
individuals and communities, as well as government.

Conservation legislation is costly to enforce and only works well if it reflects widely accepted
values in the community. Attempts to tackle biodiversity loss politically are unlikely to succeed
unless they fully take into account the underlying causes of the crisis, viz. the social organization
and growth of the human population; patterns of natural resource consumption; global trade;
economic systems and policies that fail to value the environment; and inequity in ownership,
management and the flow of benefits from the use and conservation of biological resources.

Policy level

Many governments rely on technical fixes to combat the problem. Conservation-conscious

nations set up parks and reserves to protect and rehabilitate wildlife and examples of natural
vegetation. However, Michael Soulé, a respected US biologist, points out that a 90 % habitat loss
can result in a 50 % loss of species. This means that a country protecting 10% of its area (an
ambitious target; many aim at only 5 %) may lose 50 percent of its species.

In Britain, schemes offering incentives to farmers to preserve traditional landscape features

between them encompass only about 12.5% of agricultural land. A preferred approach would be
to temper all of agricultural production with conservation measures, as well as encouraging
organic farming, which promotes habitat diversity of benefit to many forms of wildlife.
Reduction of industrial and domestic pollution is a worldwide priority, particularly in the rich
nations. In many cases the technology for pollution reduction is available but industrialists are
reluctant to pay for it.

Over-exploitation has been restrained by bodies such as the International Whaling Commission
and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Both organizations
aim to ensure that use of wild species is sustainable, rather than to attempt absolute bans.
However, continual vigilance is required and trade in thousands of less conspicuous species such
as orchids or tropical butterflies is often difficult to assess and regulate.

Our response as individuals

Where do I stand as an individual or member of my community on the accelerating degradation

of our planet’s biodiversity? How acute is my appreciation of nature, aesthetically and as an
indispensable resource for the continued well-being of humankind? Has the urbanisation of
modern society removed me from vital contact with the living world?

How often do I thank God for the natural world and - together with my fellow creatures -
worship Him? How aware am I of my God-given responsibility as a custodian of His creation?

Most of us need to address questions such as these and take deliberate steps to remedy any short-
comings they expose. It may be that we need to be better informed by appropriate reading or by
attending a seminar on biodiversity. We will then be better equipped to discuss these matters
with colleagues, address a luncheon club or church group, or even lobby our local MP.

Christians are exhorted to be "salt" and "light" in the world around them (Matt.5.13-14). Surely
this should include campaigning for greater care for the environment so that its living resources
will continue to support humankind and serve as a reminder of the God who made them
(Rom.1.20 & 25). There may be a need to request more biblical teaching on creation care in your
church through sermons, home groups or literature. What God is redeeming ought to be of
serious concern to his followers (Rom.8.19-22).
Lifestyle

In addition to being well informed and spreading the message, we need to check our lifestyle. Is
our wood from sustainable forestry and our news-paper recycled? Do we use chemicals in our
home or garden which are toxic to wildlife? Do we design parts of our gardens for the benefit of
wildlife?

Above all, our pattern of expenditure will reflect the seriousness of our commitment to caring for
the living world around us. Are we helping protect nature and its sustainable use? This could be
done by supporting a conservation organization such as RSPB, WWF, A Rocha or a local
Wildlife Trust.

Progress in curtailing the alarming loss of biodiversity in our modern world will depend on the
commitment and sacrifices of individuals just as much as the actions of governments.
Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

The loss of biodiversity has often been seen as an aesthetic or bioethical issue. The
lack of a broader understanding of the consequences of the declining diversity of
our living resources has been an important gap in our scientific understanding of
the world.

Results emerging from the most extensive research ever on the ecological impacts
of biodiversity have begun to fill this gap. A large-scale study called the
BIODEPTH project has shown that reduced plant diversity impairs important
aspects of ecosystem functioning. The research demonstrated that reduced
biodiversity of grassland plants also lowers the productivity of the land. These
findings have important implications for agriculture, grassland management, water
quality and sustainable land use.

(BIODEPTH is an acronym for BIODiversity and Ecosystem Processes in

Terrestrial Herbaceous Ecosystems.)

Plant biodiversity is declining worldwide because of intensive farming, land

abandonment, pollution, and other environmental change. To mimic this gradual
loss of plant species, researchers created a series of small meadows that contained
progressively fewer plant species. They created the miniature meadows by
removing the existing vegetation and sowing different flower and grass seeds of
local origin, basing the highest diversity upon the species richness of neighbouring
grasslands. Five levels of diversity were sown, from the highly diverse to single
species monocultures typical of modern agriculture.

A similar method was used to set up experiments at eight field sites in seven
countries, embracing a wide range of climates, soil types and grasslands, creating
about 500 plots of four square metres each.BIODEPTH performed the same
standardized experiment at every location, making the results applicable on a large
scale.

At each field site scientists monitored key ecological processes such as plant
growth and harvest yield (plant productivity), the breakdown of dead leaves
(decomposition), and the amounts of nutrients in plants and soils (nutrient
recycling and retention). Across sites, there is a reduction of harvest yield with
decreasing species richness. Each halving of the number of plant species reduced
yield by approximately 10-20%.

Reduced plant diversity led to changes in the way the whole ecosystem performed.
Because they grew less, they also took up less carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
showing that loss of biodiversity might increase the effects of climate change by
reducing the ability of ecosystems to absorb carbon dioxide.

BIODEPTH scientists now aim to reveal the mechanisms that explain the
widespread relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function. One
explanation is that plants grow better in species-rich communities because each
species has its own specialized way to exploit soil nutrients, capture light, deter
pests or gather other resources for growth. The plants interact with each other in
complementary and positive ways. Modern monoculture crops are probably less
efficient in capturing and using resources unless a farmer adds large amounts of
fertilizers and pesticides, an environmentally unsustainable practice.

When there are more species, each with its own preferred resources and its own
way of gathering them, the plant community has a greater overall capacity for
growth. Scientific evidence for these mechanisms remains controversial because it
is difficult to demonstrate. However, farmers in "traditional" agriculture sometimes
practice intercropping or companion planting, where different crops are grown
together to get a better yield from the land. They often use the technique to deter
insect pests or increase the amount of nitrogen in the soil.

A new theory from BIODEPTH suggests that grasslands that have lost species are
less resistant to changes in the environment. These findings suggest that
biodiversity is useful to society in buffering extreme climatic events such as
drought, flood, and fire. This "Insurance Effect" of biodiversity has yet to be
properly tested by experiments.

Extreme weather, for example as seen during the regular El Nino climate
phenomenon, is becoming more common as greenhouse gases accumulate in the
earth's atmosphere. Investigating practical ways for ecosystems to cope with
environmental change is relevant to the agricultural economy and for sustainable
management of the environment. Fundamental, long-term ecological research is
required for informed policy-making.

1. Climate change:

Changes in climate throughout our planet's history have, of course, altered life on
Earth in the long run ecosystems have come and gone and species routinely go
extinct.

But rapid, manmade climate change speeds up the process, without affording
ecosystems and species the time to adapt. For example, rising ocean temperatures
and diminishing Arctic sea ice affects marine biodiversity and can shift vegetation
zones, having global implications.

Over the coming decades, human-inducted climate change increasingly become

another major factor in reducing biological biodiversity. These pressures on
biodiversity are, to a large extent, driven by economic development and related
demands including the increasing demand for biological resources,

As climate warms, species will migrate towards higher latitudes and altitudes in
both hemisphere. The increase in the amount of CO2 in the air affects the
physiological functioning of plant and species composition. Moreover, aquatic
ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, mangrove swamps, and coastal wetlands, are
vulnerable to changes in climate:
In principle, coral reefs, the most biologically diverse marine systems, are
potentially vulnerable to changes in both sea level and ocean temperature. While
most coral systems should be able to grow at a sufficient pace to survive a 15 to 95
centimeter sea-level rise over the next century, a sustained increase of several
degrees centigrade would threaten the long-term viability of many of these
systems.

Activities that reduce biodiversity, jeopardize economic development and human

health through losses of useful materials, genetic stocks, and the services of intact
ecosystems. Material losses include food, wood, and medicines, as well as
resources important for recreation and tourism. Losing genetic diversity, like
losing species diversity, makes it even more likely that further environmental
disturbance will result in serious reductions in goods and services that ecosystems
can provide.

This diversity is seen both in natural ecosystems and in agricultura taulgural

ecosystems. Some areas are richer in species than others. Natural undisturbed
tropical forests have much greater species richness than plantations.

A natural forest ecosystem provides a large number of non-wood products that

local people depend on such as fruit, fuel wood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin and
medicines. At present conservation scientists have been able to identify and
categorized about 1.75 million species on earth.

However, many new species are being identified, especially in the flowering plants
and insects. Areas that are rich in species diversity are called 'hotspots of diversity.
India is among the world's 15 nations that are exceptionally rich in species
diversity.

Ecosystem or Community Diversity:

There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, which have their own
complement of distinctive inter linked species based on the differences in the
habitat. Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region, or
a political entity such as a country, a state.

Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes such as forests, grasslands, deserts,

mountains, etc., as well as aquatic ecosystems such as rivers, lakes, and the sea.
Ecosystems are most natural in wilderness areas. If natural ecosystems are
overused or misused their productivity eventually decreases and they are then said
to be degraded. India is exceptionally rich in ecosystem diversity

Community diversity has three perspectives:

1. Alpha Diversity:

It is the biodiversity within a particular area community or ecosystem.It is usually

expressed by the number of species (i.e species richnes )in that ecosystem.This can
be measured by counting the number of taxa (distinct groups of organisms) within
the ecosystem (e.g., families,genera, and species).

2. Beta Diversity:

Beta diversity (B-diversity) is a measure of biodiversity which works by

comparing the species diversity between ecosystems or along environmental
gradients. This involves comparing the number of taxa that are unique to each of
the ecosystems. It is the rate of change in species composition across habitats or
among communities. It gives a quantitative measure of diversity of communities
that experience changing environments.

3. Gamma Diversity:

It refers to the total species richness over a large area or region. It is a measure of
the overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a region .

Gamma diversity can be expressed in terms of the species richness of component

communities as

follows:

Y-=S1+S2 - c

Where, Sl = the total number of species recorded in the first community, S2 = the
total number of species recorded in the second community, the number of species
common to both communities.

Threats to biodiversity:
The wide variety of species on Earth, whether they're plants, animals or
microscopic organisms, are vital to keep the world's many ecosystems healthy,
balanced and thriving - growing plants we can eat, trees we can shade under, and
landscapes to use for everything from vacations to computer screensavers.

In other words, biodiversity ensures natural sustainability for all life on the planet -
- think more abundant crops and fresher air, for example. More than 3 billion
people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity, while more than 1.6 billion
people rely on forests for their livelihoods. The loss of biodiversity affects the lives
of more than 1 billion people living in drylands.

But there are a number of issues threatening our planet's biodiversity, from climate
change to invasive species. Here are some of the biggest threats facing biodiversity
today, as well as what the world can do (and is doing) to keep them in check.

Decreased biodiversity also interferes with essential ecological services such as

pollination, maintenance of soil fertility, flood controls, water purification,
assimilation of wastes and the cycling of carbon and other nutrients.

Global warming:

Overall, climate is a major factor in the distribution of species across the globe;
climate change forces them to adjust. But many are not able to cope, causing them
to die out.

2. Deforestation and habitat loss:

Deforestation:

Deforestation is a direct cause of extinction and loss of biodiversity. An estimated

18 million acres of forest are lost each year, due in part to logging and other human
practices, destroying the ecosystems on which many species depend.

Human activities are causing a loss of biological diversity among animals and
plants globally estimated at 50 to 100 times the average rate of species loss in the
absence of human activities. Two most popular species in rich biomes are tropical
forests and coral reefs
Tropical forests are under threat largely from conversion to other land-uses,
Tropical rainforests in particular, such as the Amazon, hold a high percentage of
the world's known species, yet the regions themselves are in decline due to
humans.

While coral reefs are experiencing increasing levels of over exploitation and
pollution. If current rate of loss of tropical forests continues for the next 30 years
(about 1 percent per year), the projected number of species that the remaining
forests could support would be reduced by 5 to 10 percent relative to the forest in
the absence of human disturbance.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the part of nature which includes the difference in genes among the
individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species
at different scales in space, locally in a region, in the country and the world and
various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic within a defined area.
Biodiversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere.

Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere. This
variety can be observed at three levels; the genetic variability within a species, the
variety of species within a. community, and the organization of species in an area
into distinctive plant and animal communities constitutes ecosystem diversity.

Types of Biodiversity:

Genetic Diversity:

Each member of any animal or plant species differs widely from other individuals
in its genetic makeup because of the large number of combinations possible in the
genes that give every individual specific characteristic. Thus, for example, each
human being is very different from all others.

This genetic variability is essential for a healthy breeding population of a species.

If the number of breeding individuals is reduced, the dissimilarity of genetic
makeup is reduced and in breeding occurs. The diversity in wild species forms the
'gene pool' from which our crops and domestic animals have been developed over
thousands of years.

Today the variety of nature's bounty is being further harnessed by using wild
relatives of crop plants to create new varieties of more productive crops and to
breed better domestic animals. Modern biotechnology manipulates genes for
developing better types of medicines and a variety of industrial products.

Species Diversity:

Species is a basic unit of classification and is defined as a group of similar

organisms that mate and produce offspring's with one another and thus, share a
common lineage. The numbers of species of plants and animals that are present in
a region constitutes its species diversity.

Ecozone: A large geographical region having a distinct biodiversity of flora and

fauna.

Ecoregion: large unit of land or water containing a geographically distinct

assemblage of species, natural communities, and environmental conditions OR an
area defined in terms of its natural features and environment.

Biosphere: The biosphere, (from Greek bios = life, sphaira, sphere) is the layer of
the (ezos pihene) planet Earth where life exists. The biosphere is one of the four
layers that

surround the Earth along with the lithosphere (rock), hydrosphere (water) and
atmosphere (air) and it is the sum of all the ecosystems.

Biome: a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a

major habitat, e.g. forest or tundra

Desert, Tenbecale decidua forest, Conei fences forest Woodland, Tropical forest,
Tropical Savanna Grassland

Ecosystem: biological community of interacting organisms and their physical

environment.
All the being things in a green area interacting with each other and then non lucing
environment (roll, ealth, sun, Wealt, elemente)

Species: a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of

exchanging genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic
unit, ranking below a genus and denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g. Homo sapiens.

Levels of Organization
Genetic Diversity Species Diversity Ecosystem Diversity
Community Kingdom Biosphere
Population Phylum Biome

Individual Organism Class Ecosystem

Cell Order Patch
Molecule Family Habitat
Genus
Species
Sub Species
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, refers to the variety of life on Earth. As defined by the
United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, it includes diversity of ecosystems, species
and genes, and the cological processes that support them. Natural diversity in ecosystems
provides essential economic benefits and services to human society—such as food, clothing,
shelter, fuel and medicines—as well as ecological, recreational, cultural and aesthetic values, and
thus plays an important role in sustainable development. Biodiversity is under threat in many
areas of the world. Concern about global biodiversity loss has emerged as a prominent and
widespread public issue.

Pakistan has 225 Protected Areas (PAs) 14 national parks, 99 wildlife sanctuaries, and 96 game
reserves.

Biography:
The country lies at the western end of the South Asian subcontinent, and its flora and fauna are
composed of a blend of Palearctic and Indomalayan elements, with some groups also
containing forms from the Ethiopian region.

Ecological zones
Pakistan is divided into 9 major ecological zones.

Critical Ecosystems
Under the Global 200, ecosystems have been ranked to carry out conservation through
comparative analysis. It covers all habitats on the land masses and in the ocean. The Earth has
been divided into 238 ecoregions, by the United Nation, the National Geographic Society with
WWF. Out of them 5 are in Pakistan. The Global ecoregions of Pakistan are:

1. Rann of Kutch flooded grasslands

2. Tibetan Plateau
3. Western Himalayan Temperate Forests
4. Indus Delta Ecosystem
5. Arabian Sea.

Flora
About 5,500 - 6,000 ( Nasir and Ali 1970) species of vascular plants have been recorded in
Pakistan including both native and introduced species. The flora included elements of the 6
phytogeographic regions. 4 monotypic genera of flowering plants and around 400 (7.8%)
species are endemic to Pakistan. Almost 80% of the endemics are found in the northern and
western mountains (Ali and Qaiser,1986). The Kashmir Himalayas are identified as a
global centre of plant diversity and endemism. Families with more than 20 recorded
endemics are Papilionaceae(57
species), Compositae (49), Umbelliferae (34), Poaceae (32) and Brassicaceae (20).
 Mammals
Around 174 mammal species have been reported in Pakistan. Out of these, there are atleast
3 endemic species and a number of endemic and near endemic sub-species (Biodiversity
Action Plan for Pakistan, WWF - P, IUCN - P and GoP).

Birds
668 bird species have been recorded in Pakistan. Out of them, 375 were recorded as breeding (
Roberts, Z.B.Mirza). Breeding birds are a mixture of Palearctic and Indomalayan forms (
1/3rd) and the occurrence of many species at one or the other geographical limits of their range
shows the diverse origins of the avifauna.

The Sulaiman Range, the HinduKush, and the Himalayas in the NWFP and Azad Kashmir
comprise part of the Western Himalayan Endemic Bird Area; this is the global centre of bird
endemism. The Indus Valley wetlands are the second area of endemism.

Reptiles/ Amphibians
Around 177 species, being a blend of Palearctic and Indomalayan forms. Out of the total 14
species of turtles, 90 of lizards and 65 of snakes have been reported. While 13 species are
believed to be endemic.
Being a semi arid country, only 22 species of amphibians have been recorded, of which 9 are
endemic. (Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan, WWF - P, IUCN - P and GoP).

Fish/ Invertebrates
Pakistan has 198 native and introduced freshwater fish species. The fish fauna is
predominately south Asian and with some west Asian and high asian elements. Fish species
diversity is highest in the Indus river plains and in adjacent hill ranges (Kirthar Range), and in
the Himalayan foothills in Hazara, Malakand, Swat and Peshawar. Diversity is lowest in the
mountain zone of the northern mountains and arid parts of north-west Baluchistan.There are 29
endemic species.
There has been little research on Invertebrates of Pakistan. About 5,000 species of
invertebrates have been recorded including insects (1,000 species of true bugs, 400 species of
butterflies and moths, 110 species of flies and 49 species of termites). Other include 109
species of marine worms, over 800 species of molluscs and 355 species of nematodes.
(Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan, WWF - P, IUCN - P and GoP).

Threats to Biodiversity:Deforestation:
Pricinciple cause of deforestation in Pakistan is the consumption of fuelwood and timber.

Grazing:
Rapidly increasing domestic livestock population is the direct cause of degradation on
rangelands and forests.
Soil Erosion & Desertification:
Agricultural activities and overstocking has lead to the reduction of vegetation cover, resulting in
the acceleration of both wind and water erosion.

Dams/Irrigation:
The construction of dams and barrages in the Indus basin to control flooding and store water for
irrigation have greatly increased the amount of Wetlands habitat in Pakistan.
Reduction in freshwater flow to the coast has greatly increased salinity in mangrove forests. The
most serious effect has been the consequent conversion of land to agriculture, with removal of
extensive tracts of riverine and thorn forests and the resulting disappearence from large areas of
the associated fauna.

Salination/waterlogging:
Being a serious problem faced by the agriculture sector, pockets of forests of the Indus basin
could be threatened.

Pollution:
Pakistan faces a serious challenge of growing pollution in urban areas and water courses.
Likewise discharge of sewage and industrial effluent into aquatic and marine ecosystems is also
on the rise.In Pakistan's 1981 census, 415 cities were classed as urban in which less than one
third of the population resides, which is increasing by 4.4% per annum.

Hunting/Fishing:
There is a strong tradition of illegal hunting and sports hunting in Pakistan. This has resulted into
the decline of bird and mammal species.

Agricultural practices:
Pakistan faces degradation of agro-ecosystems caused by irrigation. The agricultural use of
pesticides and fertilisers has rapidly increased in recent years. Pesticide use in Pakistan has
increased 7 fold in quantity between 1981 and 1992.

Biodiversity: The range of variation found among microorganisms, plants, fungi, and animals.
Also the richness of species of living organisms.

Community: Populations of organisms of different species that interact with one another.

Ecosystem: Any geographic area with all of the living organisms present and the nonliving parts
of their physical environment. Involves the movement and storage of energy and matter through
living things and activities.

Gene: A unit of inherited material. An organism’s collection of genes determines what it is,
what it looks like, and often how it behaves.

Organism: An individual living thing.

Population: A group of individuals belonging to one species living in an area.

Species: A group of populations of similar organisms that reproduce among themselves, but do
not naturally reproduce with any other kinds of organisms (e.g., Haliaeetus leucocephalus--bald
eagle; Quercus rubra--red oak tree).

What are the Threats to Biodiversity?

The loss of biodiversity is a significant issue for scientists and policy-makers and the topic is
finding its way into living rooms and classrooms. Species are becoming extinct at the fastest rate
known in geological history and most of these extinctions have been tied to human activity.

• Habitat loss and destruction, usually as a direct result of human activity and population growth,
is a major force in the loss of species, populations, and ecosystems.

• Alterations in ecosystem composition, such as the loss or decline of a species, can lead to a loss
of biodiversity. For example, efforts to eliminate coyotes in the canyons of southern California
are linked to decreases in song bird populations in the area. As coyote populations were reduced,
the populations of their prey, primarily raccoons, increased. Since raccoons eat bird eggs, fewer
coyotes led to more raccoons eating more eggs, resulting in fewer song birds.

• The int roduct ion of exot ic (non-nat ive) species can disrupt ent i re ecosystems and impact
populations of native plants or animals. These invaders can adversely affect native species by
eating them, infecting them, competing with them, or mating with them.

• The over-exploitation (over-hunting, over-fishing, or over-collecting) of a species or population

can lead to its demise.

• Human-generated pollution and contamination can affect all levels of biodiversity.

• Global climate change can alter environmental conditions. Species and populations may be lost
if they are unable to adapt to new conditions or relocate.

Why is Biodiversity Important?

The diversity of life enriches the quality of our lives in ways that are not easy to quantify.
Biodiversity is intrinsically valuable and is important for our emotional, psychological, and
spiritual well-being. Some consider that it is an important human responsibility to be stewards
for the rest of the world’s living organisms. Diversity breeds diversity. Having a diverse array of
living organisms allows other organisms to take advantage of the resources provided. For
example, trees provide habitat and nutrients for birds, insects, other plants and animals, fungi,
and microbes. Humans have always depended on the Earth’s biodiversity for food, shelter, and
health. Biological resources that provide goods for human use include:

• food—species that are hunted, fished, and gathered, as well as those cultivated for agriculture,
forestry, and aquaculture;
• shelter and warmth—timber and other forest products and fibers such as wool and cotton;

• medicines—both traditional medicines and those s y n t h e s i z e d f r o m b i o l o g i c a l

r e s o u r c e s a n d processes

Biodiversity also supplies indirect services to humans which are often taken for granted. These
include drinkable water, clean air, and fertile soils. The loss of populations, species, or groups of
species from an ecosystem can upset its normal function and disrupt these ecological services.
Recent declines in honeybee populations may result in a loss of pollination services for fruit
crops and flowers Biodiversity provides medical models for research into solving human health
problems. For example, researchers are looking at how seals, whales, and penguins use oxygen
during deep-water dives for clues to treat people who suffer strokes, shock, and lung disease. The
Earth’s biodiversity contributes to the productivity of natural and agricultural systems. Insects,
bats, birds, and other animals serve as pollinators. Parasites and predators can act as natural pest
controls. Various organisms are responsible for recycling organic materials and maintaining the
productivity of soil. Genetic diversity is also important in terms of volution. The loss of
individuals, populations, and species decreases the variety of genes—the material needed for
species and populations to adapt to changing conditions or for new species to evolve.

3 types of biodiversity?

Ecological diversity refers to the sum of the different types of environment or Ecosystem
present in a region or the habitat which is the sum total of the climate, vegetation and geography
of a region. Ecosystem is a unit of the biosphere in which there is an interaction between the
living and nonliving factors so as to maintain a continuous flow of energy. It is a structural and
functional unit of a biosphere. There are several kinds of habitats or ecosystems around the
world. The variety of diversity of species in an ecosystem is influenced by the ecosystem it self.
Examples of ecosystems: Grass land, wet land, desert, aquatic ecosystem etc.

Species diversity is the variety of different species in a given area. It is very difficult to estimate
the different species in a given area. Most of the species are found near the equator and a few at
the poles.

Genetic Diversity may be defined as variation in genes with a particular species. It refers to the
heritable variation. Sexual reproduction play an important role genetic diversity. A species
having more genetic diversity can adapt better to the changed environmental conditions.

Ecosystem biodiversity implies the existence of different species within an ecosystem. It can also
be defined as the degree of variations among the life forms in an ecosystem or planet.
Biodiversity is important in an ecosystem as it forms an integral part of food chain and natural
cycles of that particular biome or ecosystem. Extinction of any species from the food chain will
have a huge impact on the entire ecosystem.
 Number of species on Earth:

Mentioned below are the estimated number of different species present in the biosphere as per
the research carried out by the Global Taxonomy Initiative and the European Distributed
Institute of Taxonomy.

• Insects: 10–30 Million

• Bacteria: 5–10 Million3333
• Fungi: 1.5 Million
• Mites: 1 Million
• Different types of biodiversity
• species diversity
•

• Species diversity refers to the number of plant and animal species present in a community
or an ecosystem. species diversity varies a great deal from one ecosystem to another. We
find a large number of different plants and animals in an ecosystem with high species
diversity. Various under water species of plants and animals
• The following factors determine the degree of species diversity in an ecosystem or
community :
• Habitat stress : species diversity is low in habitats under any stress such as harsh climate
or pollution.
• Geographical isolation : species diversity is less in isolated regions like an island. if a
species in an island disappears due to random events, it cannot be easily replaced.
Organisms from the mainland have difficulties in reaching and colonizing the island.
• Dominance by one species : the dominant species consumes a disproportionate share of
the resources. This does not allow many species to evolve and flourish.
• Edge effect : there is always greater species diversity in transition area, where two or
more ecosystem overlap.
• Geological history : old and stable ecosystems such as rain forests that have not
experienced many changes have high species diversity. An ecosystem like the arctic has
undergone many changes and this does not allow any species to establish themselves.
• some examples of low species diversity : -
• *a small isolated island generally has low diversity of species, since few new species
migrate to the island.
• A small island near the coastal region of india
•

• *the polar region : the farther away we move from the equator towards either pole , the
less is the species diversity.
• The polar ice caps
• *a patch of desert : there is normally little species diversity to be seen in a desert,
especially during the day. At night, however many desert species come out of their hiding
places.
• The thar desert of india support a very small number of life
• *an apartment complex in a city, with the ground completely paved with concrete.
• some magnificent examples of high species diversity : -
•

• *botanical garden : in a botanical garden, we see a wide variety of trees, flowering plants,
flowering plants, cacti, and so on.
• Botanical garden situated in ooty, india
• *tropical rain forest : a tropical rain-forest contains an extraordinary number of different
species of plants and animals.
• Tropical rain forests of india are rich in biodiversity *coastal zone : the zone where the
ocean meets land generally contains many different species . We find in this zone marine
species, land species, nd others who live on land and in water.
• mangrove forest of sunderban delta
• genetic diversity
• Genetic diversity is the variety in the genetic make-up among individuals within a
species. Many plants and some animal species have as many as 400,000 genes. These
can give rise to enormous genetic variation in the individuals in the species.
• The amount of diversity at the genetic level is important because it represents the raw
material for evolution and adaptation. More genetic diversity in a species or population
 means greater ability for some of the individuals in it to adapt to changes in the
environment.
• Less diversity leads to uniformity, which is a problem in the long term. It is unlikely that
any individual in such a population would be able to adapt to changing conditions.
• Example of high genetic diversity : -*a variety of colours, sizes, and tastes among
bananas.
• *different hair colours among humans.*thousands of rice varieties with different colours
and tastes in traditional indian agriculture.*extraordinary colours and patterns among
butterflies of the same species.
• Examples of low genetic diversity : -
• *modern agriculture : previously, there were thousands of rice varities in india. The green
revolution promoted a small number of high yielding varieties. Thus, the genetic diversity
of rice is now very low.
• *threatened species : the giant panda in china is a threatened species. There about 1,000
pandas left and even these are distributed over 20 small populations as a result their
genetic diversity is very low.
• Ecosystem diversity
• Ecosystem diversity is the variety of habitats found in an area. It is the variety of forests,
deserts, grasslands, aquatic ecosystem, etc., that occur in the area.
• India, for example,has high ecosystem diversity. We have mountain ranges,lakes, deserts,
temperate forests, tropical rain forests, alpine vegetation, backwaters snow peaks,
grasslands, rivers, coral reefs, and so on. Green land in the arctic, on the other hand, has
little ecosystem diversity. It is mostly ice and snow.

How Biodiversity Impacts Life on Earth

Biodiversity affects everyday life on Earth; examples of biodiversity include:

• approximately 30 percent of medicines are developed from plants or animals

• soil enrichment through the decomposition of dead animals and plants and waste
breakdown by organisms such as insects and worms
• green plant photosynthesis
 • approximately 80 plant species are accredited with the source of over 90 per cent of the
world's food sources.

The Importance of Ecosystems

Ecosystems support a rich diversity of species which interact with their surrounding
environments to produce a number of benefits; these include:

• air and water purification

• provision of many of man's necessities such as shelter, food, fuel and building materials
• stabilization of the Earth's climate
• detoxification of waste products
• plant pollination
• weather and environmental control through floods and fire
• control of erosion
• control of disease
• source of many medicines
• nutrient recycling.

Different levels of biodiversity

Population diversity. While we often hear about species, what we generally see and interact
with are populations - distinct groups of members of a particular species that have a limited
exchange of genetic material among the groups. They can reproduce together but they don't
often do so.

As a result, the genetic differences between populations tend to increase, even though the
variability within any one population may be less than across the species as a whole. Also,
because of the isolation, local impacts on one population may not be felt by another. A
conservative first estimate indicates that about 220 populations per species puts the total
number of populations world-wide into at least the low billions (Hughes, et. al, 1997).

Extreme population variability can be a double-edged sword. For example, lake trout in
Ontario's Great Lakes were once very diverse. There were at least 15 to 20 different forms of
lake trout recognized by commercial fishermen before the sea lamprey appeared. The lake
trout differed in where they were found, when they spawned, and in their appearance. They
were given such names as blacks, redfins, yellowfins, paper bellies, fats, humpers and sand
trout. Undoubtedly, the number of genetically distinct populations was much higher.
However, even all this diversity could not withstand over-harvest, sea lamprey predation and
loss of habitat, particularly inshore rubble shoals required for spawning. The catches of lake
trout plunged to 10% of the original yield in Lake Superior and down to almost nothing in
the other Great Lakes. When conditions improved and it came time to try and reintroduce
lake trout, the results were disappointing in all but Lake Superior where enough wild
populations survived to make a decent comeback.

All those discrete lake trout stocks had evolved for a reason: reproductive success of lake
trout in each area. The fish were in effect "tailor-made" for the area. Now many of those
stocks have disappeared forever. It will take a lot of time and effort to find stocks that might
be reasonable replacements.

Species diversity is all of the different kinds of living things found in a certain habitat or
ecosystem. World-wide more than 1.4 million species have been identified (Wilson,
1992) but estimates of the actual number vary from 5 million up to 100 million. Fourteen
million appears to be an estimate that is commonly quoted in the literature (Global
Biodiversity Assessment, 2001 Summary).

In Ontario, over 30,000 species have been identified including:

• over 20,000 macro-invertebrates (insects, spiders, etc.)

• more than 4,800 plants
• more than 150 fish
• more than 1000 fungi
• 53 reptiles and amphibians
• 479 birds
• 81 mammals

Globally the estimated numbers of species are:

• 35,000 micro-organisms
• 70,000 fungi
• 273,000 plants
• 875,000 invertebrates (insects, spiders, etc.)
• 19,000 fish
• 10,500 reptiles and amphibians
• 9,000 birds
• 4,000 mammals
• 105,000 other animals

(KY Afield, 1997; CFM, 1997)

Species diversity, however, is more than just the number of species in a given area, habitat or
ecosystem. Some species' importance can be out of line with their numbers, for
example keystone species. There can also be great differences in species composition over
time. Species diversity can also be greatly affected by physical conditions in the ecosystems
where they live, such as differences in temperature, light, structure and chemical
composition.

The point is, biodiversity cannot be reduced to a single number. There are dimensions
to diversity, many of them.

Ecosystem diversity is the variety of ecosystems within a landscape or region including

wetlands, prairies or savannahs, lakes and rivers, forests and agricultural landscapes. The
basic principles of biodiversity apply here as well but the scope is much larger. It is at this
level that the interactions and links among species and the consequences of those links are
evident. Less diverse ecosystems, such as coldwater streams or small lake trout lakes,
contribute to the functioning and productivity of larger areas such as bioregions.
Community and ecosystem diversity
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Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem exists along 3 levels. It could be within-
community diversity (alpha diversity), between-communities diversity (beta diversity) or
diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area (gamma diversity).

Three perspectives of diversity: alpha, beta and gamma diversity

Introduction: Loss of Biodiversity
The Global Convention on Biological Diversity, signed in 1992 at the Earth Summit, describes
biodiversity as the "variability among all living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part, this
includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems."

Among the ten policy fields, Loss of Biodiversity is probably the most controversial one. The
diversity of nature is the result of an evolutionary process that started about two billion years
ago. When looking, for example, at the destruction of rain forests over the last twenty years, it
becomes obvious that mankind is destroying this heritage at an incredible speed. Not
surprisingly, the biodiversity debate is laden with ethical, sometimes religious arguments. It was
probably a biologist who has coined the saying "dont put price tags on my butterflies" ; however,
economic reality puts "price tags" on biodiversity every day, mostly ignoring the moral
considerations raised by experts.

The number of species endangered by human activities and the number of natural or semi-natural
habitats being destroyed, fragmented or changed are constantly growing, thus destabilising
ecosystems, causing the loss of vital resources together with genetic and cultural
impoverishment.

Europe covers only 7% of the Earths land surface but contains a large biodiversity due to natural
fragmentation by rivers, mountains, seas, the influences of glaciation, etc. The pressures on
European biodiversity emanate from all sectors of society, with agriculture, forestry and
transport being particularly responsible for habitat loss and fragmentation.

Measuring pressure on biodiversity, although an ambitious task, is essential to supply the

controversial biodiversity debate with (hopefully) non-controversial, neutral and objective
figures. Given the complexity of the issue, one should not expect perfect solutions. Describing
threats to the "health" of ecosystems with just six indicators will resemble very much what a
doctor would advise a human patient: "stop smoking, drink less, avoid fat meals and ride your
bicycle every day." Most of the following indicators are of this rather general character. They are
no substitute for a proper diagnosis, or a detailed plan to preserve a valuable habitat, but they
may serve to publicly monitor the biggest threats to European biodiversity.

Please note that this chapter focuses on pressures on terrestrial biodiversity. The biodiversity of
marine ecosystems is treated within the separate policy field Marine Environment & Coastal
Zones . Forestecosystem matters will be included in the biodiversity chapter , whereas economic
aspects such as wood consumption will be treated under Resource Depletion .

Values of biodiversity

We all depend on the natural world to sustain us with food, clothing and other necessities,
establishing a set of use values. But there are many less obvious values of biodiversity, of equal
importance, to be considered (see box).
Values from human use

A total of about 3,000 plant species, 200 of which have been domesticated, are used worldwide
as a food source. However, just 20 of these plants provide more than 80% of our food at the
present time. In order to maintain the high level of production such consumption demands, plant
breeders frequently turn to the wild relatives of domestic crops in search of desirable genetic
traits such as resistance to disease or drought: wild plants are a valuable reservoir of genetic
diversity. A smaller number of animal species provide human food but the scale is often
enormous. For example, in 1989 world landings of fish and other aquatic life forms totalled 99.5
mega-tonnes, 70 % of which was for human consumption.

In addition to food, many of our drugs and raw materials for manufacturing also originate from
either plants or animals. Globally 3.5 billion people rely on plant-based medicine for primary
health care, and in the USA a quarter of medicines prescribed are based on compounds originally
found in plants. Many industrial materials, such as fibres, resins, dyes, waxes, pesticides,
lubricants and perfumes derive from plant or animal sources. Trees provide more than 3.8
million cubic metres of wood annually for use as fuel, timber or pulp.

In addition to these long established patterns of consumptive utilisation, there is now a rapidly
growing leisure industry, which involves the non-consumptive "use" of the living world. For
example, eco-tourism, based on the observation of wild animals and wilderness habitats,
generates between 100 and 200 billion US dollars annually, much of it in needy developing
economies.

Non-use values

While we can readily identify uses of biodiversity which directly support human life and are
commercially valued, we often overlook a host of ‘hidden’ functions of living organisms which
are equally vital to human well-being. Foremost among these are ‘free’ environmental services,
such as nutrient cycling, soil formation, watershed protection, waste disposal, pollination,
oxygen production, carbon sequestration and climate regulation. Placing a cash value on these
services is not easy, but one estimate of their global value is US$ 33 trillion per annum,
compared to a world GNP of US$ 18 trillion.
There are also many species which are not exploited themselves but have indirect value because
they are food for economically valuable species. For example, molluscs and crustaceans are
eaten by edible fishes. Other non-use values derive from the as yet undiscovered possibilities for
future uses of wild flora and fauna, such as new drugs from plants and genes usable in breeding
new characteristics into crops and domestic animals.

A totally different set of non-use values attaches to the significant contribution of wild organisms to
human art, literature and religion. Christianity values biodiversity as a potent reminder to humans of
God’s personality, power and creative genius (Rom.1:20) and Psalm 104 exclaims: "O Lord, what a
variety you have made! And in wisdom you made them all! The earth is full of your riches."

Intrinsic value

All values considered above refer to the multifaceted relationship of living things to humankind,
but the Preamble to the Convention on Biological Diversity, signed by 150 nations in 1992,
refers to the intrinsic value of biodiversity. This notion, which is reflected in most major
religions, recognises that creation has a value quite apart from its usefulness to humanity. For
example, Christianity recognises that nature has value because it was made by God for His own
glory, not merely for human benefit. The whole of creation belongs to God (Psalm 24:1); Man is
His steward, accountable to Him for everything he does with and to nature, especially to living
creatures (Gen.2:15).

Valuing Biodiversity

• Most values are assigned by humans

• Most are related to human survival

Use values

• Direct uses of biodiversity: consumptive - food, medicines, non-consumptive - eco-tourism

• Subject to trade & commerce, monetary value readily assigned, varies with demand
Non-use values

• Indirectly related to humans, ecosystem services,

future options, aesthetics

• Monetary valuation difficult

Intrinsic value

• Worth ‘in themselves’

"It is the generally received opinion, that all this visible world was created for Man as if there
were no other end to any creature but some way
or other to be serviceable to Man... yet wise men nowadays think otherwise ‘the creatures are
made to enjoy themselves as well as to serve us’ "
John Ray, The Wisdom of God..., 1691

Threats to biodiversity

In our eagerness to improve living conditions for the six billion members of our species, we
humans are imposing serious threats to the survival of much biodiversity, including many species
whose direct value is clearly established. Almost all ecosystems are greatly modified by humans,
who transform habitats and exterminate rivals and competitors.

Habitat degradation

The greatest threat is the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats. This includes clearing forests
for timber or plantations, overgrazing, draining wetlands and the destruction of heathlands and
coral reefs.

Conversion of natural habitat to agriculture From Pearce and Moran, 1994. Figures given
are in million hectares p.a. cropland

Region 1900 1980 % change

Sub-Saharan Africa 73 222 + 204

Latin America 33 142 + 330

South Asia 89 134 + 51

China 89 134 + 51

South-East Asia 15 55 + 267

North America 133 203 + 53

Europe 145 137 -5

Ex-USSR 147 233 + 58

Pollution also degrades habitats. Pesticides, sewage, oil, combustion emissions and acid rain
contaminate soils, freshwater, oceans and air.

One alarming effect of atmospheric pollution is accelerating changes in climatic patterns to

which ecosystems are adapted by long-term evolutionary processes. Anticipated results include
dramatic changes in the geographical distribution of some species leading to ecosystem
imbalance, and the extermination of others due to flooding and other climate-related phenomena.

Over-exploitation

Excessive exploitation has pushed some species to the verge of extinction. Included are the tiger,
Giant Panda, Black Rhinoceros, cod and several whale species. Between 1979 and 1989 the
African eleph-ant population was halved by ivory poaching. Other species have been relentlessly
persecuted as vermin, often based on wrong assumptions about the supposed harm they caused.
For centuries in Britain, Red Kites had a price on their head as ‘lamb-killers’, in spite of their
lack of strength for such a task.

Results of threats

Resulting from this array of human threats, rates of extinction are now estimated to be between
1,000 and 10,000 times greater than in the recent past. Tropical forests are being destroyed at the
rate of 0.8 to 2.0% per annum, sending some of their estimated 5 million species into extinction.
We know that 484 species of animal and 654 plants have become extinct since 1600 AD. IUCN
considers that one in eight plant species is at risk of extinction. In Britain eleven tree species are
classified as ‘Critically Endangered’ by IUCN, including Ley’s Whitebeam, of which only 15
individuals remain, and the Welsh Whitebeam, of which 44 are left.

Graph of projected extinction of seven animal species in Britain based on present rates of
decline.

In the animal world too, many species face imminent extinction. For example, 116 species of
European farmland birds are now of conservation concern. It is estimated that over the last 20
years in Britain alone ten species of farmland birds have between them ten million fewer
breeding individuals. This is just one of the devastating effects of the intensification of
agriculture on biodiversity.

Examples of birds at risk of extinction in Britain are the Skylark, whose breeding population has
declined 54% in just 25 years, the Song Thrush, down 73% in many areas, and the Grey
Partridge, whose numbers have halved in the past 25 years. Such is the significance attached to
the decline of bird populations that the current Environment Secretary has included a composite
trend of 139 species in the list of indicators of sustainable development upon which the
government reports annually.
The search for solutions

Political level

The international Convention on Biological Diversity at Rio in 1992 focused attention on the
need for sustainable use (rather than non-use) of the components of biodiversity, and the fair and
equitable sharing of benefits - such as profits from new drugs based on tropical plants. Nations
are required to develop their own strategies that integrate biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use into the entire range of national decision-making. The UK action plan (1994), in
addition to the conservation of species and habitats, emphasised a need for the involvement of
individuals and communities, as well as government.

Conservation legislation is costly to enforce and only works well if it reflects widely accepted
values in the community. Attempts to tackle biodiversity loss politically are unlikely to succeed
unless they fully take into account the underlying causes of the crisis, viz. the social organization
and growth of the human population; patterns of natural resource consumption; global trade;
economic systems and policies that fail to value the environment; and inequity in ownership,
management and the flow of benefits from the use and conservation of biological resources.

Policy level

Many governments rely on technical fixes to combat the problem. Conservation-conscious

nations set up parks and reserves to protect and rehabilitate wildlife and examples of natural
vegetation. However, Michael Soulé, a respected US biologist, points out that a 90 % habitat loss
can result in a 50 % loss of species. This means that a country protecting 10% of its area (an
ambitious target; many aim at only 5 %) may lose 50 percent of its species.

In Britain, schemes offering incentives to farmers to preserve traditional landscape features

between them encompass only about 12.5% of agricultural land. A preferred approach would be
to temper all of agricultural production with conservation measures, as well as encouraging
organic farming, which promotes habitat diversity of benefit to many forms of wildlife.
Reduction of industrial and domestic pollution is a worldwide priority, particularly in the rich
nations. In many cases the technology for pollution reduction is available but industrialists are
reluctant to pay for it.

Over-exploitation has been restrained by bodies such as the International Whaling Commission
and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Both organizations
aim to ensure that use of wild species is sustainable, rather than to attempt absolute bans.
However, continual vigilance is required and trade in thousands of less conspicuous species such
as orchids or tropical butterflies is often difficult to assess and regulate.

Our response as individuals

Where do I stand as an individual or member of my community on the accelerating degradation

of our planet’s biodiversity? How acute is my appreciation of nature, aesthetically and as an
indispensable resource for the continued well-being of humankind? Has the urbanisation of
modern society removed me from vital contact with the living world?

How often do I thank God for the natural world and - together with my fellow creatures -
worship Him? How aware am I of my God-given responsibility as a custodian of His creation?

Most of us need to address questions such as these and take deliberate steps to remedy any short-
comings they expose. It may be that we need to be better informed by appropriate reading or by
attending a seminar on biodiversity. We will then be better equipped to discuss these matters
with colleagues, address a luncheon club or church group, or even lobby our local MP.

Christians are exhorted to be "salt" and "light" in the world around them (Matt.5.13-14). Surely
this should include campaigning for greater care for the environment so that its living resources
will continue to support humankind and serve as a reminder of the God who made them
(Rom.1.20 & 25). There may be a need to request more biblical teaching on creation care in your
church through sermons, home groups or literature. What God is redeeming ought to be of
serious concern to his followers (Rom.8.19-22).
Lifestyle

In addition to being well informed and spreading the message, we need to check our lifestyle. Is
our wood from sustainable forestry and our news-paper recycled? Do we use chemicals in our
home or garden which are toxic to wildlife? Do we design parts of our gardens for the benefit of
wildlife?

Above all, our pattern of expenditure will reflect the seriousness of our commitment to caring for
the living world around us. Are we helping protect nature and its sustainable use? This could be
done by supporting a conservation organization such as RSPB, WWF, A Rocha or a local
Wildlife Trust.

Progress in curtailing the alarming loss of biodiversity in our modern world will depend on the
commitment and sacrifices of individuals just as much as the actions of governments.
Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

The loss of biodiversity has often been seen as an aesthetic or bioethical issue. The
lack of a broader understanding of the consequences of the declining diversity of
our living resources has been an important gap in our scientific understanding of
the world.

Results emerging from the most extensive research ever on the ecological impacts
of biodiversity have begun to fill this gap. A large-scale study called the
BIODEPTH project has shown that reduced plant diversity impairs important
aspects of ecosystem functioning. The research demonstrated that reduced
biodiversity of grassland plants also lowers the productivity of the land. These
findings have important implications for agriculture, grassland management, water
quality and sustainable land use.

(BIODEPTH is an acronym for BIODiversity and Ecosystem Processes in

Terrestrial Herbaceous Ecosystems.)

Plant biodiversity is declining worldwide because of intensive farming, land

abandonment, pollution, and other environmental change. To mimic this gradual
loss of plant species, researchers created a series of small meadows that contained
progressively fewer plant species. They created the miniature meadows by
removing the existing vegetation and sowing different flower and grass seeds of
local origin, basing the highest diversity upon the species richness of neighbouring
grasslands. Five levels of diversity were sown, from the highly diverse to single
species monocultures typical of modern agriculture.

A similar method was used to set up experiments at eight field sites in seven
countries, embracing a wide range of climates, soil types and grasslands, creating
about 500 plots of four square metres each.BIODEPTH performed the same
standardized experiment at every location, making the results applicable on a large
scale.

At each field site scientists monitored key ecological processes such as plant
growth and harvest yield (plant productivity), the breakdown of dead leaves
(decomposition), and the amounts of nutrients in plants and soils (nutrient
recycling and retention). Across sites, there is a reduction of harvest yield with
decreasing species richness. Each halving of the number of plant species reduced
yield by approximately 10-20%.

Reduced plant diversity led to changes in the way the whole ecosystem performed.
Because they grew less, they also took up less carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
showing that loss of biodiversity might increase the effects of climate change by
reducing the ability of ecosystems to absorb carbon dioxide.

BIODEPTH scientists now aim to reveal the mechanisms that explain the
widespread relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function. One
explanation is that plants grow better in species-rich communities because each
species has its own specialized way to exploit soil nutrients, capture light, deter
pests or gather other resources for growth. The plants interact with each other in
complementary and positive ways. Modern monoculture crops are probably less
efficient in capturing and using resources unless a farmer adds large amounts of
fertilizers and pesticides, an environmentally unsustainable practice.

When there are more species, each with its own preferred resources and its own
way of gathering them, the plant community has a greater overall capacity for
growth. Scientific evidence for these mechanisms remains controversial because it
is difficult to demonstrate. However, farmers in "traditional" agriculture sometimes
practice intercropping or companion planting, where different crops are grown
together to get a better yield from the land. They often use the technique to deter
insect pests or increase the amount of nitrogen in the soil.

A new theory from BIODEPTH suggests that grasslands that have lost species are
less resistant to changes in the environment. These findings suggest that
biodiversity is useful to society in buffering extreme climatic events such as
drought, flood, and fire. This "Insurance Effect" of biodiversity has yet to be
properly tested by experiments.

Extreme weather, for example as seen during the regular El Nino climate
phenomenon, is becoming more common as greenhouse gases accumulate in the
earth's atmosphere. Investigating practical ways for ecosystems to cope with
environmental change is relevant to the agricultural economy and for sustainable
management of the environment. Fundamental, long-term ecological research is
required for informed policy-making.

1. Climate change:

Changes in climate throughout our planet's history have, of course, altered life on
Earth in the long run ecosystems have come and gone and species routinely go
extinct.

But rapid, manmade climate change speeds up the process, without affording
ecosystems and species the time to adapt. For example, rising ocean temperatures
and diminishing Arctic sea ice affects marine biodiversity and can shift vegetation
zones, having global implications.

Over the coming decades, human-inducted climate change increasingly become

another major factor in reducing biological biodiversity. These pressures on
biodiversity are, to a large extent, driven by economic development and related
demands including the increasing demand for biological resources,

As climate warms, species will migrate towards higher latitudes and altitudes in
both hemisphere. The increase in the amount of CO2 in the air affects the
physiological functioning of plant and species composition. Moreover, aquatic
ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, mangrove swamps, and coastal wetlands, are
vulnerable to changes in climate:
In principle, coral reefs, the most biologically diverse marine systems, are
potentially vulnerable to changes in both sea level and ocean temperature. While
most coral systems should be able to grow at a sufficient pace to survive a 15 to 95
centimeter sea-level rise over the next century, a sustained increase of several
degrees centigrade would threaten the long-term viability of many of these
systems.

Activities that reduce biodiversity, jeopardize economic development and human

health through losses of useful materials, genetic stocks, and the services of intact
ecosystems. Material losses include food, wood, and medicines, as well as
resources important for recreation and tourism. Losing genetic diversity, like
losing species diversity, makes it even more likely that further environmental
disturbance will result in serious reductions in goods and services that ecosystems
can provide.

This diversity is seen both in natural ecosystems and in agricultura taulgural

ecosystems. Some areas are richer in species than others. Natural undisturbed
tropical forests have much greater species richness than plantations.

A natural forest ecosystem provides a large number of non-wood products that

local people depend on such as fruit, fuel wood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin and
medicines. At present conservation scientists have been able to identify and
categorized about 1.75 million species on earth.

However, many new species are being identified, especially in the flowering plants
and insects. Areas that are rich in species diversity are called 'hotspots of diversity.
India is among the world's 15 nations that are exceptionally rich in species
diversity.

Ecosystem or Community Diversity:

There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, which have their own
complement of distinctive inter linked species based on the differences in the
habitat. Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region, or
a political entity such as a country, a state.

Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes such as forests, grasslands, deserts,

mountains, etc., as well as aquatic ecosystems such as rivers, lakes, and the sea.
Ecosystems are most natural in wilderness areas. If natural ecosystems are
overused or misused their productivity eventually decreases and they are then said
to be degraded. India is exceptionally rich in ecosystem diversity

Community diversity has three perspectives:

1. Alpha Diversity:

It is the biodiversity within a particular area community or ecosystem.It is usually

expressed by the number of species (i.e species richnes )in that ecosystem.This can
be measured by counting the number of taxa (distinct groups of organisms) within
the ecosystem (e.g., families,genera, and species).

2. Beta Diversity:

Beta diversity (B-diversity) is a measure of biodiversity which works by

comparing the species diversity between ecosystems or along environmental
gradients. This involves comparing the number of taxa that are unique to each of
the ecosystems. It is the rate of change in species composition across habitats or
among communities. It gives a quantitative measure of diversity of communities
that experience changing environments.

3. Gamma Diversity:

It refers to the total species richness over a large area or region. It is a measure of
the overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a region .

Gamma diversity can be expressed in terms of the species richness of component

communities as

follows:

Y-=S1+S2 - c

Where, Sl = the total number of species recorded in the first community, S2 = the
total number of species recorded in the second community, the number of species
common to both communities.

Threats to biodiversity:
The wide variety of species on Earth, whether they're plants, animals or
microscopic organisms, are vital to keep the world's many ecosystems healthy,
balanced and thriving - growing plants we can eat, trees we can shade under, and
landscapes to use for everything from vacations to computer screensavers.

In other words, biodiversity ensures natural sustainability for all life on the planet -
- think more abundant crops and fresher air, for example. More than 3 billion
people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity, while more than 1.6 billion
people rely on forests for their livelihoods. The loss of biodiversity affects the lives
of more than 1 billion people living in drylands.

But there are a number of issues threatening our planet's biodiversity, from climate
change to invasive species. Here are some of the biggest threats facing biodiversity
today, as well as what the world can do (and is doing) to keep them in check.

Decreased biodiversity also interferes with essential ecological services such as

pollination, maintenance of soil fertility, flood controls, water purification,
assimilation of wastes and the cycling of carbon and other nutrients.

Global warming:

Overall, climate is a major factor in the distribution of species across the globe;
climate change forces them to adjust. But many are not able to cope, causing them
to die out.

2. Deforestation and habitat loss:

Deforestation:

Deforestation is a direct cause of extinction and loss of biodiversity. An estimated

18 million acres of forest are lost each year, due in part to logging and other human
practices, destroying the ecosystems on which many species depend.

Human activities are causing a loss of biological diversity among animals and
plants globally estimated at 50 to 100 times the average rate of species loss in the
absence of human activities. Two most popular species in rich biomes are tropical
forests and coral reefs
Tropical forests are under threat largely from conversion to other land-uses,
Tropical rainforests in particular, such as the Amazon, hold a high percentage of
the world's known species, yet the regions themselves are in decline due to
humans.

While coral reefs are experiencing increasing levels of over exploitation and
pollution. If current rate of loss of tropical forests continues for the next 30 years
(about 1 percent per year), the projected number of species that the remaining
forests could support would be reduced by 5 to 10 percent relative to the forest in
the absence of human disturbance.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the part of nature which includes the difference in genes among the
individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species
at different scales in space, locally in a region, in the country and the world and
various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic within a defined area.
Biodiversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere.

Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere. This
variety can be observed at three levels; the genetic variability within a species, the
variety of species within a. community, and the organization of species in an area
into distinctive plant and animal communities constitutes ecosystem diversity.

Types of Biodiversity:

Genetic Diversity:

Each member of any animal or plant species differs widely from other individuals
in its genetic makeup because of the large number of combinations possible in the
genes that give every individual specific characteristic. Thus, for example, each
human being is very different from all others.

This genetic variability is essential for a healthy breeding population of a species.

If the number of breeding individuals is reduced, the dissimilarity of genetic
makeup is reduced and in breeding occurs. The diversity in wild species forms the
'gene pool' from which our crops and domestic animals have been developed over
thousands of years.

Today the variety of nature's bounty is being further harnessed by using wild
relatives of crop plants to create new varieties of more productive crops and to
breed better domestic animals. Modern biotechnology manipulates genes for
developing better types of medicines and a variety of industrial products.

Species Diversity:

Species is a basic unit of classification and is defined as a group of similar

organisms that mate and produce offspring's with one another and thus, share a
common lineage. The numbers of species of plants and animals that are present in
a region constitutes its species diversity.

Ecozone: A large geographical region having a distinct biodiversity of flora and

fauna.

Ecoregion: large unit of land or water containing a geographically distinct

assemblage of species, natural communities, and environmental conditions OR an
area defined in terms of its natural features and environment.

Biosphere: The biosphere, (from Greek bios = life, sphaira, sphere) is the layer of
the (ezos pihene) planet Earth where life exists. The biosphere is one of the four
layers that

surround the Earth along with the lithosphere (rock), hydrosphere (water) and
atmosphere (air) and it is the sum of all the ecosystems.

Biome: a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a

major habitat, e.g. forest or tundra

Desert, Tenbecale decidua forest, Conei fences forest Woodland, Tropical forest,
Tropical Savanna Grassland

Ecosystem: biological community of interacting organisms and their physical

environment.
All the being things in a green area interacting with each other and then non lucing
environment (roll, ealth, sun, Wealt, elemente)

Species: a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of

exchanging genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic
unit, ranking below a genus and denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g. Homo sapiens.

Levels of Organization
Genetic Diversity Species Diversity Ecosystem Diversity
Community Kingdom Biosphere
Population Phylum Biome

Individual Organism Class Ecosystem

Cell Order Patch
Molecule Family Habitat
Genus
Species
Sub Species