Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers

Roots of Complex Numbers

Complex Logarithm

LECTURE THREE

ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS II

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah

February 6, 2023

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Outline

1 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers

The power of a complex number

2 Roots of Complex Numbers

3 Complex Logarithm

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Outline of Presentation

1 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers

The power of a complex number

2 Roots of Complex Numbers

3 Complex Logarithm

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Definition (Trigonometric Form)

The trigonometric form of z = x + iy is z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) where
arg(z) = θ and ||z|| = r.

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Polar representation of a complex number

1 For a complex number z = x+yi we can write the polar representation

z = r(cosθ∗ + isinθ∗ ), where r ∈ [0, ∞) and θ∗ ∈ [0, 2π) are the
polar coordinates of the geometric image of z.
2 The polar argument θ∗ of the geometric image of z is called the
argument of z, denoted by arg z.
3 The polar radius r of the geometric image of z is equal to the modulus
of z.
4 The set Argz = {θ : θ∗ + 2kπ, k ∈ Z} is called the extended
argument of the complex number z. Then
 
∗ ∗
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = z = r cos(θ + 2kπ) + i sin(θ + 2kπ) (1)

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Example
Let us find the polar representation of the numbers:
1 z1 = −1 − i
2 z2 = 2 + 2i
√
3 z3 = −1 + i 3
√
4 z4 = 1 − i 3
and determine their extended argument.

Solution
p √
1 r1 = (−1)2 + (−1)2 = 2
y
θ1∗ = tan−1 + π = tan−1 (1) + π =
x
π 5π
+π = , because of the third
4 4
quadrant.
√
z1 = 2 (cos 5π/4 + i sin 5π/4)
Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration  
 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

z2 = 2 + 2i

√ √
r2 = 22 + 22 = 2 2
π
θ2∗ = tan−1 (1) =
√ 4
z2 = 2 2 (cos π/4 + i sin π/4)
Argz = {π/4 + 2kπ|k ∈ Z}

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm
√
z3 = −1 + i 3

q √ 2
r3 = (−1)2 + 3 = 2
√
θ3∗ = tan−1 ( 3) + π = π − π/3 = 2π/3
z3 = 2 (cos 2π/3 + i sin 2π/3)
Argz = {2π/3 + 2kπ|k ∈ Z}

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Example
√
z = 1 + i has modulus 2 and argument arg(z) = π/4+2kπ, k ∈ Z.
In other words, the trigonometric form of z can be any one of the following
√
z = 2 (cos π/4 + i sin π/4) ; k = 0 (2)
√
= 2 (cos(π/4 ± 2π) + i sin(π/4 ± 2π)) ; k = ±1 (3)
√
= 2 (cos(π/4 ± 4π) + i sin(π/4 ± 4π)) ; k = ±2 (4)
√
= 2 (cos(π/4 ± 6π) + i sin(π/4 ± 6π)) ; k = ±3 = · · · (5)

If there is no ambiguity, we choose the argument between 0 and 2π. Thus

√
z = 2 (cos π/4 + i sin π/4) (6)

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Remarks
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0
π π
i = cos + i sin
2 2
−1 = cos π + i sin π
3π 3π
−i = cos + i sin
2 2

If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) then

z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )]

If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) 6= 0 then

z1 r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )]
z2 r2

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Example
√
Let z1 = 1 − i and z2 = 3 + i, then
√
 
7π 7π  π π
z1 = 2 cos + i sin , z2 = 2 cos + i sin
4 4 6 6

and
√
    
7π π 7π π
z1 z2 = 2 2 cos + + i sin +
4 6 4 6
√
 
23π 23π
= 2 2 cos + i sin
12 12

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Properties

Let z1 and z2 be two non-zero complex numbers. We have

1 z2 = z1 ⇐⇒ ||z2 || = ||z1 || and arg(z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
2 arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ) + 2kπ.
3 arg(z1n ) = n arg(z1 ) + 2kπ.
4 arg(1/z1 ) = − arg(z1 ) + 2kπ.
5 arg(z¯1 ) = − arg(z1 ) + 2kπ.

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Definition (Euler’s equation)

The relationship

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ (7)

is called Euler’s equation.

Thus, if z ∈ C − {0}
(Trigonometric form) z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) ⇐⇒ (Polar form): z = reiθ .

Also, because any two arguments for a give complex number differ by an integer
multiple of 2π we will sometimes write the exponential form as,

z = rei(θ+2πk) , k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · (8)

Example
√
z = 2+2i 3 has modulus ||z|| = 4 and argument θ = π/3. Therefore, z = 4eiπ/3
is its polar form.

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

De Moivre’s theorem
For all real number θ and all integer n,

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ). (9)

Definition (Euler’s formula)

eiθ + e−iθ einθ + e−inθ

cos θ = cos(nθ) = (10)
2 2
eiθ − e−iθ einθ − e−inθ
sin θ = sin(nθ) = . (11)
2i 2i

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

Trigonometric identities
Let us use De Moivre’s formula to express cos 2θ in terms of cos θ and sin θ

cos 2θ + i sin 2θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)2 (12)

2 2
= cos θ − sin θ + i(cos θ sin θ + sin θ cos θ) (13)

We observe that,

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ (14)

and
sin 2θ = 2 cos θ sin θ (15)

Exercise
Express cos 3θ and sin 4θ in terms of cos θ and sin θ.
Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration
 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers The power of a complex number
Complex Logarithm

The power of a complex number

De Moivre
For z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and n ∈ N, we have

z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ)

Example
Let us compute (1 + i)1000
√
The polar representation of 1 + i is 2(cos π/4 + i sin π/4). Applying de
Moivre’s formula we obtain
√ 1000
(1 + i)1000 = 2 (cos 1000(π/4) + i sin 1000(π/4))
= 2500 (cos 250π + i sin 250π)
= 2500

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Outline of Presentation

1 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers

The power of a complex number

2 Roots of Complex Numbers

3 Complex Logarithm

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Roots of Complex Numbers

Definition (Complex polynomials)

Polynomials with complex coefficients and unknown are called complex
polynomials.
√
P (z) = iz 4 − 2z + i 2 + 4 is a complex polynomial of degree 4.

Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every complex polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n complex
roots.
The roots of the complex polynomial z 3 − 3z 2 + 2z are 0, 1, 2. Note
degree = 3 and number of roots = 3.

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

The nth Roots of Unity

Consider a positive integer n ≥ 2 and a complex number z0 6= 0. As in

the field of real numbers, the equation

Z n − z0 = 0 (16)

is used for defining the nth roots of number z0 .

Hence we call any solution Z of the equation (16) an nth root of the
complex number z0 .
Definition
The roots of the complex polynomial equation z n = a are called nth roots
of a.
If a = 1, they are called nth roots of unity.

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Definition
Let z0 = r(cos θ+i sin θ) be a complex number with r > 0 and θ ∈ [0, 2π),
then the number z0 has n distinct nth roots given by the formulas
√
 
n
θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
Zk = r cos + i sin (17)
n n

where k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1

Alternatively
If we had considered z = reθi , the roots should have been
√
n
θ+2kπ
i θ θ
zk = re n ; − ≤k<− + n, k ∈ Z (18)
2π 2π

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Let us find the third roots of the number z = 1 + i
Solution The polar representation of z = 1 + i is
√
z = 2 (cos π/4 + i sin π/4)
The cube roots of the number z are
√
    
6 π 2π π 2π
Zk = 2 cos +k + i sin +k ; k = 0, 1, 2
12 3 12 3
or in explicit form as
√
6
 π π
Z0 = 2 cos + i sin
 12 12 
√
6 3π 3π
Z1 = 2 cos + i sin
4 4
√
 
6 17π 17π
Z2 = 2 cos + i sin
12 12
Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration
 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Exercise
Find the argument and the standard form of the fourth roots of a =
2π 2π
cos + i sin .
3 3
Solution  
π 4π 7π 10π
arg(z) = , , ,
6 6 6 6

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

The nth roots of unity

The roots of the equation Z n − 1 = 0 are called the nth roots of unity.
Since 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0, from the formulas for the nth roots of a complex
number we derive that the nth roots of unity are
2kπ 2kπ 2kπ
zk = cos + i sin =e n i k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1 (19)
n n

Thus 2(n−1)
2 4
z0 = 1, z1 = e n πi , z2 = e n πi , . . . , zn−1 = e n
πi
(20)
are the nth roots of unity.

Also the nth of equation (19)

z n = e2kπi k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1 (21)

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Outline of Presentation

1 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers

The power of a complex number

2 Roots of Complex Numbers

3 Complex Logarithm

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Complex Logarithm

Consider z = rei(θ+2kπ) . By assuming that ln z exists, use the properties

of the logarithm function to simplify ln z.

We get
ln z = ln(rei(θ+2kπ) ) = ln r + i(θ + 2kπ).
Definition
The complex logarithm of a complex number z = rei arg(z) is defined as
ln z = ln r + iθ where θ is the argument of z that lies in the range [ −π, π) .

In general, we use Ln(z) = ln r + i(θ+2kπ).

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
π π
Ln(−i) = Lne−iπ/2 = ln 1 − i( + 2kπ) = − i
2 2
5iπ/3 5π 5π π
Ln(3e ) = ln 3 + i( +2kπ) = ln 3 + i( −2π) = ln 3 − i.
3 3 3

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Find the trigonometric form of z = 2i and z 0 = i2i+3

• Ln(z) = Ln(2i ) = iLn(2) = i ln 2 implies

z = eLn(z) = ei ln 2 = cos ln 2 + i sin ln 2.
• Ln(z 0 ) = (2i + 3)Ln(i) = (2i + 3)i( π2 ) = −π + i( 3π
2 ) implies

0 3π 3π
z 0 = eLn(z ) = e−π ei( 2
)
= e−π ei( 2
)
(22)
or
 π 2i+3
z 0 = i2i+3 = e 2 i (23)
π 3π π 3π
= e−2 2 + 2 i = e−2 2 e 2 i (24)
 
−2 π2 3π 3π
=e cos + i sin . (25)
2 2

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Exercise
1 Find the square and cubic roots of the following complex numbers:

1 z =1+i
2 z=i √ √
3 z = 1/ 2 + i/ 2
2 Find the fourth roots of the following complex numbers:
1 z=√ −2i
2 z = 3+i
3 z = −7 + 24i
3 Solve the equations:
1 z 3 − 125 = 0
2 z 4 + 16 = 0
3 z 7 − 2iz 4 − iz 3 − 2 = 0;

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Exercise
1 Find the polar coordinates for the following points, given their cartesian

coordinates
1 M1 = (−3,√3);
2 M2 = (−4 3, −4);
3 M3 = (0, −5);
2 Find the cartesian coordinates for the following points, given their
polar coordinates:
1 P1 = (2, π/3)
2 P2 = (3, −π)
3 P3 = (1, π/2)
3 Find polar representations for the following complex numbers
√
1 z1 = 6 + 6i 3
2 z2 = −4i
3 z3 = cos a − i sin a, a ∈ [0, 2π)

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration

Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

END OF LECTURE
THANK YOU

Dr. Joshua Kiddy Kwasi Asamoah Integration