Research Methods &

Ethics

Source: Inthinking
Essential Understanding

● Research is described in terms of its aim, procedure, results and findings.

● The type of sample that is used affects the value of a study.
● Psychologists must follow ethical guidelines when carrying out research in
order to protect their participants.
● A study is valid when your findings truly represent the phenomenon you are
claiming to measure.
● A study is reliable when it can be replicated and produces stable and
consistent results.
Ethics in Research
● Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research.
Psychologists have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from
physical and psychological harm.
● Many of the early studies in psychology involved causing brain damage in animals,
exposing people and animals to electrical shocks, or rather incredible acts of
deception.
● All research needs to be conducted in a way that respects the dignity of the
participants - whether they are animals or human participants. Psychological
associations around the world have come up with sets of guidelines that
psychologists must use in carrying out psychological research.
Ethics in Research
● Protection from undue stress or harm : It is important to make sure that no harm is done
to participants. It is not permitted to humiliate a participant or force them to reveal private
information. And it is important that there is nothing done to the participant that will have
a permanent effect on their physical or psychological health.
● Informed consent: Participants must be told about the nature of the study and agree to
participate. They must also be told what rights they have, including the right to withdraw
from the study at any time. Informed consent also means that the participant must
understand what the research is about and any potential issues that may arise. In
biological research, this is often complicated as many people do not really understand
genetic or biochemical terminology.
Ethics in Research
● Deception can either be misinformation or it may be not telling the participant the
complete goal of the study. Deception should generally not be used; however, slight
deception, which does not cause any stress to the participant, may be used in some
cases. However, before deception may be used, the psychologist proposing the
study must justify why it is necessary and an ethics board should approve the study.
● Right to withdraw : If they wish to withdraw from the study, they should feel no
pressure or coercion from the psychologist to remain and their data must be
withdrawn from the study.
Ethics in Research
● Debriefing: at the end of the study, the true aims and purpose of the research
must be revealed to the participants. Any deception must be justified. All
participants should leave the study in the same physical and psychological state
in which they arrived.
● They also should be guaranteed that all information that is obtained in the study
will be anonymized - that is, their identities will not be revealed in the publication
of the study or any other use of the data thereafter.
 Describing Studies
● Aim : is the purpose of a study, indicates which behaviour or cognitive process will be
studied within a specific population.
● Procedure: step-by-step process used by the researcher to carry out the study, the
procedure is always written in a way that makes it possible for others to understand
how the data were collected.
● Results: the numerical or descriptive data that is obtained and processed.
● Findings: state how the researcher interpreted the data that were collected. Research
findings are always open to discussion and debate. Maybe the researcher has
interpreted the results in a way that is biased, or perhaps there were flaws in the
procedure.
 Participants
● Participants : People who take part in a psychological study.
● Target population : a specific group of people whom they are interested in for their study.
● Sample : Group of participants who are chosen from the target population to take part in
the study. The goal in sampling is to obtain a sample that is representative of the target
population.
● Representative sample: Researchers often try to obtain a sample that represents a
population. When the sample is not representative of the target population - lacks
population validity.
● Goal of research is to generalize results to the target population.
● External validity : The extent to which a study can be generalized to the target population.
 Sampling Techniques
● Self-selected sampling : Also know as a volunteer sample. People that sign-up are
usually motivated and are less likely to drop out of the research. However, that may
lead to a sample that is not representative of the target population.
● Opportunity sampling : Also known as a convenience sample. When you use a
pre-existing sample. It is an easy way to get participants because they are readily
available. The groupings often tend to be relatively homogeneous. However, they are
also not usually representative of a target population.
● Purposive sampling : looking for people with a very specific set of traits. This is often
accomplished by a self-selected sample.
 Sampling Techniques
● Snowball sampling : Also known as a network sample. Type of purposive sampling, but
network sampling is used when you are looking for participants from a specific group
which would not respond to an ad in a paper. For example, former drug addicts, people
engaged in illegal activities or victims of domestic violence. It could also be because you
think that a participant could help you find people more efficiently.
● Random sampling: a sample in which everyone in the target population had the same
probability of being chosen. This is often seen as an ideal sampling technique, but if the
target population is too large, then random sampling is not really possible. In addition, if
the target population is very heterogeneous, then random sampling could still generate a
biased sample.
 Sampling Techniques
● Stratified sampling : attempts to make a sample that reflects the sub-groups within a
target population. The sample matches the make-up of the population. Participants
from within various subgroups of the population are randomly selected.
● For example, a school consists of 50% native speakers of English, 30% non native
speakers of English, and 20% "ESL still getting language support" - and a study in which
the entire sample was made up of native speakers, the study would not be
representative of our school community.
● A stratified sample of 40 participants should be made up of 20 native speakers, 12
non-native speakers and 8 ESL students who are still receiving support. Ideally, the
participants are randomly selected from each "stratum."
Discussing Research : Procedures

○ Controlled laboratory setting - have the advantage that the situation can
be controlled. This allows the researcher to make sure that the variable
that is being studied is not influenced by outside factors.
○ Field Study : carry out their research in a naturalistic setting. Field
studies have the advantage of observing behaviour in "real life."
Discussing Research : Nature of the study

● Retrospective Study : means that the researcher is asking the participant about past
behaviour. If a researcher wants to study brain damage, domestic violence or winning
the lottery has affected one's behaviour, a retrospective approach is the only
reasonable way to carry out the research. We are reliant on the participants'
memories- human memory is not always reliable. Also, it is often not possible to
verify the information that the participant shares.
Discussing Research : Nature of the study

● Prospective study : the researcher measures a variable at the beginning of a

study and then watches the effect of this variable over time. In a study of
fitness, the researcher may measure middle school students' level of fitness
and cardiovascular health - and then measure these variables again every five
years for as long as they will stay in the study. In this way, the researchers are
not dependent on the participants' memories of their level of physical activity in
their early teens. However, prospective studies take a lot longer to carry out and
there is always the possibility that many of the participants will drop out of the
study over time.
 Discussing Research : Nature of the study

● Longitudinal Research : When a study involves repeated observations of the same

variables over long periods. The value of longitudinal studies is that we are observing the
change in individuals over time.
● Cross-sectional research: in which a researcher analyzes data collected from a
population at a specific point in time. These are more efficient than longitudinal studies -
they take less time to carry out and they have a lower risk of participants dropping out. .
Discussing Research : Findings

● Application: is how a theory or empirical study is used. Assess whether the study
has any practical applications.
● Validity : whether the research does what it claims to do
❏ Internal validity : how well an experiment is done, especially whether it avoids
the influence of outside or extraneous variables on the outcome of the study.
For internal validity - it is important that we can agree on what is being
measured. For example, how can psychologists measure one's intelligence, or
one's level of tolerance? If the concept that is being studied has an
agreed-upon definition and can be measured, then we can say that it has a high
level of construct validity.
Discussing Research : Findings

❏ External validity : the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized
to other situations and to other people
★ Population validity is a type of external validity that describes how well
the sample used can be generalized to a population as a whole.
★ Ecological validity is a type of external validity that looks at the
experimental environment and determines how much it influences
behavior.
Discussing Research : Findings

Ecological validity:

❖ Mundane realism - the level to which the situation represents a real-life situation.
Representativeness of the testing situation can help ecological validity, but it is
not a guarantee.
❖ Generalizability of the study to other settings or situations outside of the
laboratory. If an experiment has been carried out in a laboratory and was so well
controlled that normal influences on behaviour were eliminated, this may lead to
low ecological validity. If a study lacks ecological validity, it means that what was
observed in the laboratory does not necessarily predict what will happen outside
the laboratory
 Discussing Research : Findings

Reliability :

● If a study is reliable, it means that the results can be replicated.

● Usually, reliability is used in reference to experimental study because the procedure
is standardized and, theoretically, if another researcher uses exactly the same
procedure, it should give the same results.
 Research Methods

QUANTITATIVE METHODS QUALITATIVE METHODS

● Experiments ● Interviews ( Unstructured,
● Field Experiment Semi-structured, focus-group)
● Quasi- Experiment ● Observations
● Natural Experiment ● Case-Study
● Correlational Research
● Surveys
 Experiments
https://youtu.be/ApoYwEeDNrc

● Determine whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between two variables.

● Quantitative research : generates numerical data, can be statistically tested for
significance in order to rule out the role of chance in the results.
● Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
● Dependent variable - the variable that is measured by the researcher. It is assumed
that this variable changes as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.
● Controlled variables - variables that are kept constant in order to avoid influencing the
relationship between the IV and the DV.
 Experiments
● Operationalization - Both IV & DV- they need to be written in such a way that it is clear
what is being measured.
● Standardized procedure - the idea that directions given to participants during an
experiment are exactly the same. This is the most basic form of "control" for a study.
● Random allocation to conditions: In a true experiment, participants are randomly
allocated to conditions in order to avoid sampling bias.
 Experiments
https://youtu.be/dy75GtKsOAw

● Lab experiment: an experiment done under highly controlled conditions.Does not necessarily
in an actual lab
● Field experiment: an experiment done in a natural setting. There is less control over
variables. IV is actually manipulated
● True experiment: An IV is manipulated and a DV measured under controlled conditions.
Participants are randomly allocated to conditions.
● Quasi experiment: no IV is manipulated and participants are not randomly allocated to
conditions. Participants are grouped based on a trait or behaviour eg. Age, Gender, Culture
● Natural experiment: An experiment that is the result of a "naturally occurring event." IV is
environmental in nature and outside of the control of the researcher.
 Experiments
Lab Experiments :

● allows the researcher to control for extraneous variables - this is, other variables
that may influence the results of the study
● if we control a situation in an experiment- it may not reflect what happens in real life
: low ecological validity.

Field Experiments :

● They cannot control for extraneous variables

● cannot be easily replicated
● Ethical Concerns
 Experiments
● The experimental method is based on hypothesis testing.
● Hypothesis : predicts how the independent variable affects the dependent variable.
● Experimental hypothesis/ Research Hypothesis/Alternative Hypothesis predicts
the relationship between the IV and the DV - that is, what we expect will come out of
the manipulation of the independent variable.
● A null hypothesis :states that there will be no relationship between the independent
and dependent variable
● Alternative hypothesis (research hypothesis) : clearly predicts the relationship
between the independent and dependent variable.
 Experiments
● Null hypothesis (H0) : Individuals show no significant difference in the mean number
of words that students recall from a list of 40 unrelated words when in a quiet room
than when listening to music.
● Alternative hypothesis (H1) : Participants will memorize more words from a list of
40 unrelated words when they are in a quiet room than when listening to the radio.
● Two -tailed Hypothesis : Does not state direction
● There will be a difference in the number of words that participants will memorize from
a list of 40 unrelated words when they are in a quiet room than when listening to the
radio.
 Experiments
● The researcher wants to reject the null hypothesis to show that the predicted
cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and the DV actually exists.
● Sometimes, we have to accept the null hypothesis.
● Our goal is either to-
○ Accept the null hypothesis : means that we have found that there is no
relationship between two variables
○ Reject the null hypothesis: means that there is some type of relationship
between the two variables.
 Research Designs
● Refers to the overall strategy that a researcher chooses to investigate the
research problem and test their hypothesis.

○ Repeated measures design

○ Independent samples design
○ Matched pairs design
 Repeated Measures Design
● One sample of participants that receives each condition of an experiment.
● Strengths : Participant variables are controlled - individual is only compared to him or herself
● Fewer participants are needed.
● Limitations: May demonstrate what is called order effects. For example, boredom, fatigue, or
practice effect. Practice effect is when they get better at something just because they keep
doing it. If they are given a memory test four or five times, they may just get better because
they are developing strategies through practice.
● Participants may demonstrate demand characteristics - expectancy effect/ screw you effect.
● It is often not possible to use the same materials for both conditions- confounding variable -
lowers the internal validity of an experiment, making it less clear whether it was actually the
independent variable that influenced the dependent variable.
 Independent Samples Design
● Members of the sample are randomly allocated to one condition of the experiment.
● Strengths : order effects are controlled for since each participant only experiences one
condition.
● Demand characteristics are less likely as the participants will most likely not guess the
hypothesis.
● Same materials can be used for all conditions.
● Limitations: participant variability may influence the results of the study.
● More participants are required.
 Matched Pairs Design
● Is an independent samples design in which participants are not randomly allocated to
condition- They are usually pre-tested with regard to the variable.
● In this way, the researchers guarantee that each condition has the full range of ability.
● Lessen the chance that participant variability will affect the results. It could also be that they
are "matched" based on a trait - for example, years speaking English, whether they do regular
exercise or if they are a smoker.
 Evaluating Experiments
Demand characteristics occur when participants act differently simply because they know
that they are in a study.

○ Expectancy effect: the participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypotheses with the
goal of "helping" the researcher. This may result in acting in a certain way or giving the "right
answer."
○ Screw you effect: the participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypotheses, but only in
order to destroy the credibility of the study.
○ Social desirability effect: This is when the participant answers in a way that makes him/her look
good to the researcher.
○ Reactivity : participants simply act differently because they are being observed. The change may
be positive or negative depending on the situation.
 Evaluating Experiments
Controlling for demand characteristics

● Use an independent samples design. By not being exposed to both conditions, participants
are less likely to figure out the goal of the experiment.
● During the debriefing, be sure to ask the participants if they know what was being tested.
If they answer yes, this may have an influence on the results.
● Deception is often used in experiments in order to avoid demand characteristics; however,
this may lead to ethical problems if the deception leads to undue stress or harm of the
participant.
 Evaluating Experiments
Order Effects : changes in participants' responses that result from the order (e.g., first, second,
third) in which the experimental conditions are presented to them- repeated measures design

○ Fatigue effects: when asked to take part in several conditions of the same experiment,
participants may get tired or they may get bored, may lose motivation to try their best or their
concentration may be impaired, influencing the results.
○ Interference effects : This is when the fact that you have taken part in one condition affects your
ability to take part in the next condition.
○ Practice Effects : When participants do a task repeatedly, they improve as a result of practice
effects.
 Evaluating Experiments
Controlling for order effects :

● Counter-balancing : when you vary the order in which the conditions are tested. For example, in
condition A, participants are asked to recall a list of twenty words without music. In condition B, they
are tested with music. Participants are randomly allocated to group 1 or 2. Although this is still a
repeated measures design, group 1 is tested first with condition A and then condition B. In group 2,
they are tested first with condition B and then with condition A. If order effects did not play a role in the
research, then the results should be the same for both groups.
● There needs to be a long enough pause between conditions.
● Filler task : in order to clear the "mental palette" of the participants. This controls for interference
effects. For example, after being shown the first list of words without music, the participants are asked
to recall as many words as possible. The researcher then has the participants count backwards by 3
from 100. Then the second condition is administered.
 Evaluating Experiments

● Researcher bias is when the experimenter sees what he or she is looking for. In
other words, the expectations of the researcher consciously or unconsciously
affect the findings of the study.
● Participant variability is a limitation of a study when the characteristics of the
sample affect the dependent variable. This can be controlled by selecting a random
sample and randomly allocating the participants to the treatment and control
groups.
 Evaluating Experiments
Controlling for Researcher bias

● Researchers should decide on a hypothesis before carrying out their research. They should not go back
and adjust their research hypothesis in response to their results, but instead run another experiment to
test the new hypothesis.
● Confirmation bias : researchers can use researcher triangulation to improve inter-rater reliability.
● A double-blind control is the standard control for researcher bias. In a double-blind control, the
participants are randomly allocated to an experimental and a control group. The participants are not
aware which group they are in. In addition, a third party knows which participants received which
treatment - so the researcher who will examine and interpret the data does not who received which
treatment.
 Evaluating Experiments
● Construct validity: The degree to which a study consistently measures a variable. For example, if
a researcher develops a new questionnaire to evaluate respondents’ levels of aggression, the
construct validity of the instrument would be the extent to which it actually assesses aggression
as opposed to assertiveness, social dominance, or irritability.
● Ecological validity: The degree to which results obtained from research or experimentation are
representative of conditions in the wider world. Ecological validity is influenced by the level of
control in the environment (hence, ecological).
● Internal validity: When an experiment was conducted using appropriate controls so that it
supports the conclusion that the independent variable caused observed differences in the
dependent variable.
 Correlational studies
● Correlation is the measurement of the extent to which pairs of related values of two
variables tend to change together or co-vary.
● when one variable changes, another variable changes as well.
● Positive correlation is when both variables are affected in the same way.
● Negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

● No independent variable is manipulated, so no cause-and-effect relationship can be

determined.
● Bidirectional ambiguity: it is impossible to know if x causes y, y causes x, if they interact to
cause behaviour, or whether it is just coincidental and the results are actually due to a third
variable.
 QUALITATIVE METHODS
Interviews ( Unstructured, Semi-structured, focus-group), Observations , Case-Study

● The aim of qualitative research is to gain insight into psychological processes, therefore the
research takes place in natural settings.
● Qualitative research projects are normally guided by one or more research questions
● Inductive approach: researchers do not normally define variables in advance, but first gather the
data and then see what these could mean.
● Goal is not to identify cause-and-effect relationships- to describe the meanings attributed to
events by the research participants themselves.
● In qualitative research, it is acknowledged that participants’ and researchers’ interpretations of
events should be taken into account in the research process; therefore, prediction of outcomes is
not a meaningful goal for qualitative researchers.
 INTERVIEW

● Interview schedule: a plan for conducting the interview. The structure of the interview may
follow a tight interview schedule with structured questions or take the form of an informal
conversational interview with open-ended questions.
● Interviewer should have people skills And verbal skills because it is important to establish a
positive relationship with the interviewee
● Interviewer effects could be responses to the sex, age, or ethnicity of the interviewer.
● A well-planned research interview will take factors such as these into account, and the
researchers will also keep in mind that people often adjust their responses to what they think is
appropriate for the interviewer.
● social desirability bias.
 INTERVIEW

● Structured interview: the interview schedule states exactly what questions should be
asked, as well as the order of the questions. The interview procedure is thus highly
controlled.
● The data gathered in a structured interview are easy to analyze and compare with the
data from other interviewees who have been asked the same questions. Because it is
highly standardized, it is reasonable to have a large sample size.
● May appear somewhat artificial in that the interviewer is bound to the interview schedule.
The questions that they ask may also seem impersonal or irrelevant to an interviewee.
 UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW

● The interview schedule only specifies the topic and the available time. It is open to the interests
and motivation of the interviewee, so they can reveal more about themselves than in a
structured interview.
● The results of the interview may be seen as more valid than a highly structured interview.
Carrying out interviews with a larger sample, the data may be more difficult to analyze.
● Requires planning- prepare an interview guide that lists themes that should be explored during
the interview. This guide helps to ensure that the same information is obtained from all the
participants in the study. There is a great deal of flexibility in that the order of the questions and
the actual wording of the questions are not determined in advance.
 SEMI - STRUCTURED INTERVIEW

● Semi-structured interviews : the interview does follow a schedule. The semi-structured

interview schedule involves a set of open-ended questions that permit the respondent to
answer more freely while maintaining the focus of the interview. Interviewers may also
ask additional questions if they feel that there is something of interest that should be
explored in more detail.
 SEMI -STRUCTURED INTERVIEW

● Most of the questions posed to the participants in the semi-structured interview are
open-ended and non-directive because the purpose of the interview is to get insight into
people’s personal experience of the phenomenon under investigation. The interview will
often appear to be informal and rather conversational because the semi-structured
interview encourages two-way communication.
● The interview may take place as a face-to-face interview, but there are many other ways
to collect data - for example, via Skype or other forms of social media - or by telephone.
Sometimes the data from the interview are supplemented with diaries or other pieces of
writing that can be used in the analysis.
 FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW

● Used to study what a specific group of people think or feel about a topic.
● Group size usually ranges from eight to twelve people. If there are more, it may be difficult for
everyone to participate actively.
● The members of a focus group often have a common characteristic that is relevant for the
topic of investigation, which is why purposive sampling is often used.
● From the researcher's point of view, focus groups also save time as several people can be
interviewed in a shorter period of time.
● Group processes can help people to explore and clarify their views in ways that would be
difficult to achieve in one-to-one interviews. Focus groups use open-ended questions that
encourage the participants to explore the issues of importance to them. This enables the
participants to talk freely and to generate further questions.
 FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW

● Participants in a focus group are supposed to interact with each other as they would do
outside of the research context.
● The researcher has the role of facilitator - that is, someone in charge of making progress in the
group and keeping the discussion focused on the topic.
● The facilitator introduces the group members to each other, establishes the topic of the
research, and monitors the group discussion - for example, bringing the group back on track,
asking group members to respond to issues raised by others, or identifying agreements and
disagreements among group members. It is also the facilitator who sets the time limits for the
discussion.
 OBSERVATIONS
● Naturalistic Vs Lab Observations
○ The observer collects data from participants’ in their natural environments without any
deliberate manipulation of the setting
○ The researcher may record qualitative ‘field notes’, describing behaviours of interest while
diagrams and sketches may also be used.
○ Researchers also perform observations in laboratories.
● Covert Vs. Overt
○ Covert observation: participants are unaware of the observer, data collected will be more credible
as behaviour will be less inhibited and unaffected by demand characteristics or evaluation
apprehension.
○ Overt: participants give consent to being observed. Although the environment is not manipulated
by the researcher, demand characteristics, or "reactivity" may affect the participants' behaviour.
 OBSERVATIONS
● Participant Vs. Non-participant
○ In a participant observation the researcher becomes actively involved within the community
or group that he or she is studying; this facilitates a unique perspective that would not have
been otherwise possible.
○ In a non-participant observation, the researcher remains separate from the activities of the
group and does not interact with participants while conducting the observation; this lack of
involvement means that the researcher is free to focus entirely on the data collection,
arguably leading to a more accurate record of events.
 Evaluation - Participant Observations
● Provides very detailed and in-depth knowledge of a topic, which cannot be gained by other
methods.
● One of the best methods to avoid researcher bias because the researchers seek to understand
how and why the social processes are the way they are, instead of imposing their own reality on
the phenomenon.
● Provides a holistic interpretation of a topic, because the researcher takes into account as many
aspects as possible of that particular group of people, in order to synthesize observations into a
whole. The researcher uses material from the participants themselves to generate “theory” and
tries to explain one set of observations in terms of its relationship with others.
● Difficult to record data promptly and objectively.
 Evaluation - Participant Observations

● Time-consuming and demanding. The researcher needs to be physically present and try to live
the life of the people he or she is studying. This takes time - as does data analysis - if the
researcher is to arrive at an account that is reasonably objective and contextually sensitive. This
is not possible for short-term projects.
● Risk that researchers lose objectivity. Researchers are supposed to immerse themselves, or “go
native” - that is, be able to see the world from the point of view of the participants. This may
present problems in terms of objectivity. In participant observation, there is a delicate balance
between involvement and detachment.
 Evaluation - Naturalistic Observations
● High ecological validity : The collection of data takes place in the participants' natural environment and
it is assumed that the participants behave as they usually do, in contrast to research in laboratories.
This, of course, means that internal validity is low.
● They can be used to collect data in cases where it would be impossible or unethical to do so
otherwise—for example, research on people with Alzheimer’s disease.
● There is the risk that people do react to being observed - that is, there may be reactivity involved.
● If the researcher collects the data alone, there may be problems in checking the data. However, multiple
observers in the same field can compare data to ensure a match of the data (sometimes called
inter-observer reliability). The researcher can also document the fieldwork extensively and explain how
he or she arrived at the conclusions reached, in order to promote credibility.
● There are ethical considerations concerning the appropriateness of observing strangers without their
knowledge. The researcher should always be careful not to violate the privacy of the participants.
 Questionnaires & Surveys
● Questionnaire is any written set of questions. The goal of the questions is to collect
qualitative data with regard to a person's opinions and/or attitudes. Questionnaires are
sometimes referred to as "written interviews."
● Questionnaires are easy to administer and they can generate a lot of data.
● Questionnaires lead to rich, qualitative data. Surveys ask participants to make choices. This
means that they may choose the "best answer" that may only partially reflect what they think.
● Questionnaires are more difficult to analyze than surveys. Usually, researchers use either a
deductive or inductive content analysis, looking for trends in the responses. This process is
time-consuming and may be open to researcher bias.
● The validity of a questionnaire can be compromised due to social desirability.
 Questionnaires & Surveys
● Survey is both a set of questions and the process of collecting, aggregating, and analyzing the
responses from those questions. One of the most common examples of surveys is the Likert
Scale. The Likert scale is a five (or seven) point scale that is used to allow the individual to
express how much they agree or disagree with a particular statement. Surveys produce
quantitative data that can be analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics.
● Likert Scales allow for degrees of opinion, and even no opinion at all.
● Quantitative data is obtained, which means that the data can be analyzed using statistical
methods.
● The validity of the Likert scale attitude measurement can be compromised due to social
desirability.
● There are cultural differences in the approach to Likert Scales.
 Case-studies
● The researcher observes the behaviour of an individual or a group of individuals, such as a school
class or social group.
● The data gathered in case studies are often holistic. The case study is often concerned with
descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings, or thoughts about a topic under investigation
(qualitative data), but it may also include measurements, such as blood testing, IQ scores, or
survey data (quantitative data).
● The case study is not a research method itself, but rather an approach to the study of something
unique - the case. Researchers use a number of data collection methods to generate material
suitable for analysis( Method triangulation) - for example, qualitative techniques (semi-structured
interviews, participant observation), personal artifacts (e.g. letters, diaries, photographs, notes),
or official documents (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports).
 Case-studies
● It is not possible to replicate the findings of a case study because of the uniqueness of the case
being studied.
● Since the study cannot be replicated, the reliability of the data is said to be low. Generally, it is not
possible to generalize the results of a unique case to the general population, since the individual
studied is not representative.
● However, if the findings of one case study are corroborated by the findings of other case studies,
it could be argued that it is possible to make some generalization.
● Case studies are usually longitudinal, taking place over a significant period of time.
● Case studies may be retrospective, e.g. collecting data about childhood experiences, or they may
be prospective, looking at what will happen to a case from this point forward.
 Qualitative Research
● Qualitative research is based on an interpretation approach that is more subjective than quantitative
research.
● Qualitative research cannot be generalized to the same extent as quantitative research.
● Although ethical considerations are the same for quantitative and qualitative research, there are some
differences in the key concerns.
● Sampling for qualitative research is purposive.
● It is essential for researchers to establish credibility for their research and to reflect on how their own
personal biases may have affected the interpretation of their research
 Qualitative Research - Strengths & Limitations
● Provide rich data - in-depth descriptions of individual experiences based on concepts, meanings,
and explanations emerging from the data.
● Particularly useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues, such as coping with illness,
human sexuality, homelessness, or living in a violent relationship.
● Explain phenomena - go beyond mere observation of phenomena to understand what lies behind
them. (e.g. Why do people become homeless?)
● Identify and evaluate factors that contribute to solving a problem. (e.g. What initiatives are needed
to successfully resettle people who are homeless?)
● Generate new ideas and theories to explain and overcome problems.
● People are studied in their own environment, which increases validity.
● It can be very time-consuming and generate a huge amount of data.
● Data analysis can be difficult because of the amount of data and no clear strategy for analysis.
● Interpretation of data may be subjective.
 Paper 3 - Question 2 (Ethics)
Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and
explain if further ethical considerations could be applied. (6)

OR

Describe the ethical considerations in reporting the results and explain

additional ethical considerations that could be taken into account when
applying the findings of the study. (6)
 Questions 1(a), 1(b), 1(c) = 9 marks

a) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method. (3
marks)

b) Describe the sampling method used in the study. (3 marks)

c) Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for

your choice. (3 marks)
Research Methods in IB
 Question 1(a)- Identify the Method

A) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method. (3 marks)
● State the research method used in the stimulus (1 mark)
● Outline two characteristics of the method (2 marks)
Example :
This study was an experiment (true/laboratory).
A true experiment tests causal relationships between and IV and a DV (the IV in this study
was the type of posing and there were three DVs, including sense of power, hormone levels
and confidence). They often take place in controlled environments and random allocation is
possible (random allocation was used in this study).
Question 1(b)- Describe the sampling method

B) Describe the sampling method used in the study. (3 marks)

The sampling method will be one of the following:

● purposive
● random
● volunteer/self-selected
● convenience/opportunity
● snowball sampling
 Question 1(b)- Describe the sampling method

Example :

Sampling method = self-selected (volunteer) sampling.

Two characteristics are:
● Participants are the ones that approach the researchers to volunteer to participate in the
study.
● There is typically some form of marketing that calls for volunteers. In this case, they were
responding to an advertisement in a school magazine