Using relia and pictures to improve upon learners poor practices of food hygiene among basic

eight pupils of Mankessim basic school

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The school environment is one of several settings that can influence children food choices

and eating habits. Schools can ensure that the available food and beverages options are

healthy, clean and help young people eat food that meet dietary recommendations for fruits,

vegetables, whole grains, and non-fat dairy products (Center for Disease Control, 2023).

Millions of children are affected by serious, yet easily treatable and preventable illness,

which inhibit their ability to learn across the developing world. Particularly school children

are at risk due to the neglect of basic food and personal hygiene practices (Save the Children

report, 2023).Unsafe food poses global health threats, endangering everyone. Infants, young

children, pregnant women, the elderly and those with an underlying illness are particularly

vulnerable. Food borne and waterborne diseases kill an estimated 2 million people annually,

including many children and particularly in developing countries (WHO, 2023).

Food safety is critical for public health, socioeconomic stability, and international trade

(Nivethitha et al., 2019). As such, food taken into the body should be safe from

contamination that may cause illnesses. Food contamination may result from improper

cooking or handling of food. In line with this, the safety of food should be ensured before

consumption at any point in time. Food safety is defined by the Codex Alimentarius as the

assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared, served, and

eaten according to its intended use (Codex, 2011). It is also defined as the degree of

confidence that food will not cause harm or sickness to the consumer when it is prepared,

served, and eaten according to its intended use (WHO, 2003, as cited in Al-Shabib et al.,
2016). According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) (2014), food safety includes

actions that should be taken to ensure that food is safe for consumption. Over the past decade

awareness of the significance of food safety has increased due to the rise in the occurrence of

foodborne diseases and its associated media reporting (Osei-Tutu & Kolson, 2018).

Foodborne diseases, an increasing public health problem, are responsible for considerable

morbidity and mortality globally (Linscott, 2011). A foodborne disease outbreak occurs when

two or more people get sick from eating the same food or from the same food source. This

sometimes results in the hospitalization of the sick. Foodborne diseases encompass a wide

spectrum of illnesses and are a growing public health problem worldwide. They are the result

of ingestion of foodstuffs contaminated with micro-organisms and chemicals. Schools have

been implicated as one of the sources contributing to foodborne disease outbreaks (Ababio

and Lovatt, 2015; Gillespie et al., 2005; Kunadu et al., 2016; Soon et al., 2012, 2011). The

risk factors identified for these outbreaks of foodborne diseases include improper

time/temperature control, improper food handling practices, and poor personal hygiene (Khor

et al., 1998; Tutu and Annison, 2017; Wu et al., 2018). These risk factors can however be

controlled or managed when food handlers receive food hygiene training and certification,

and ultimately put the knowledge into practice (Hislop and Shaw, 2009; Lee and Greig,

2010). Thus, the training of food handlers in schools have been recommended as one of the

means for ensuring food safety (Finch and Daniel, 2005; Kunadu et al., 2016). This is

because students purchase cooked foods from all sorts of vendors in basic schools without

being aware of the hygienic conditions under which the foods have been prepared.

Consequently, the eating environment becomes the basis for determining whether an

establishment provides safe food or not (Worsfold and Worsfold, 2008).

Education about food safety is a critical component of the overall food safety program. In this

regard, food safety awareness must begin at an early age in educational institutions especially
in the basic school level. It should be made clear that foodborne infections cannot be

decreased without an awareness of food safety and correct handling practices (Nivethitha et

al., 2019).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In Ghana, many studies have focused on food vendors in the street. There is no consistent

knowledge on the poor practices of learners’ food hygiene in Ghanaian Basic Schools as well

as schools in the Mankessim Municipality. Studies have reported that foodborne illness have

been occurring over the years among university students in Ghana. For instance, Adam et al.

(2014) reviewed that in July of 2013, school children in Goa, India died from eating poisoned

food. In 2007, thirty students at the University of Ghana, Legon were rushed to the hospital

after they had consumed “waakye” a local meal of rice and beans sold by food vendors on

campus (Ghanaweb, 2007). The University of Cape Coast hospital in 2010 reported that most

of the students that reported to the hospital sick had food-related diseases including

abdominal pains, diarrhea, vomiting, and typhoid fever (Duodu, 2012). Furthermore, a

cholera outbreak in the University of Cape Coast in 2016 had heightened concerns that a lack

of food safety awareness and practices could create a health threat for students. This epidemic

demonstrated unequivocally that the university might be facing significant food safety

awareness and practice difficulties, as well as poor hygienic behavior among students, all of

which should be thoroughly investigated and documented (Prah, 2018).

Yet, a significant number of studies regarding food safety practices issues have been

conducted (Al-Shabib et al., 2016; Nivethitha et al., 2019; Chellaiyan et al., 2018), but most

of these works were conducted outside Ghana and particularly the University of Cape Coast

campus except for Adam et al. (2014) study. Nonetheless, with the rising and alarming issues

of cholera and several other foodborne illnesses contracted by pupils in the basic school
community in Mankessim over the past three years leading to some death cases (Prah, 2018),

there is a need to delve into the issues of food safety awareness and practices in these basic

school communities.

It is upon this background that this study focuses on providing adequate research on the use

of relia and pictures to improve upon learners poor practices of food hygiene among basic

eight pupils of Mankessim Basic School.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

This study seeks to determine the use of relia and pictures to improve upon learners poor

practices of food hygiene among basic eight pupils of Mankessim Basic School.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1. Assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of food safety measures among basic

eight pupils of Mankessim Basic School

2. Determine the knowledge and practice of teachers using relia and pictures to improve

upon learners poor practices of food hygiene among basic eight pupils

3. To determine the effects of using relia and pictures in teaching food hygiene on the

academic performance of basic eight pupils

1.5 Research Questions

1. What are the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of food safety measures among basic

eight pupils of Mankessim Basic School?

2. What is the knowledge and practice of teachers using relia and pictures to improve

upon learners poor practices of food hygiene among basic eight pupils?

3. What are the effects of using relia and pictures in teaching food hygiene on the

academic performance of basic eight pupils?

1.6 Significance of the Study

It is necessary to ascertain food hygiene situations in basic schools as food sold and prepared

in these schools form part of the integral diet of these school children. Therefore, this study

will be relevant for development of food safety interventions in educational institutions and

for public health protection. This study will also serve as an eye opener especially in the area

of school Health Education Programme (SHEP) as there is no recent data or research

available on the use of relia and pictures in teaching food hygiene in the basic schools at

Mankessim Municipality.

1.7 Delimitation of the Study

This study is delimited to the use of relia and pictures to improve upon learners poor practices

of food hygiene among basic eight pupils of Mankessim Basic School.

1.8 Organization of the Study

This study is organized into five chapters. The first chapter, being the introductory chapter

consists of the background, problem statement, purpose of the study, objectives and

significance of the study. Following this chapter is chapter two, which contains the literature

review. The third chapter describes the methodology. The fourth chapter presents the results

or findings and analysis. The final chapter provides a summary, conclusion and

recommendations.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 An Overview of Food Hygiene

Food safety is a global public health concern. The problem of food safety not only affects

human health but also causes the economic damage of nations. Annually, Health Canada

estimates 2.2 million cases of foodborne illness in Canada, bringing about $1.3 billion of

social cost annually (Harris, 1997). In United States, foodborne infection affects between 6.5

and 33 million people, with medical costs and productivity losses that have been calculated at

around 9.3 to $12.9 USD billion (Busby et al, 1996). In 1996, it is estimated that at least

9,578 inhabitants that children are in the majority suffered from serious Escherichia coli

infections related to white radish sprouts in a Japanese epidemic (Caroline et al, 2005).

Additionally, approximately 700,000 people die of water and food safety related reasons in

the mere Asia-Pacific region each year. Furthermore, based on the statistics of Vietnam food

administration (VFA), food poisoning affects more than 3,187 people in the only first half of

2013. It is obvious that the developing countries and the developed nations all suffer

foodborne diseases and the incidence of those infections is increasing (Redmond et al, 2003).

In the United State, estimation of food borne disease may result in 76 million illnesses,

325,000 hospitalization and 5000 deaths each year (Mead, et al, 1999) while in England and

Wales, food borne diseases resulted in an estimated of 1.3 million cases, 21,000

hospitalizations and 500 deaths yearly (Adak et al, 2002). It is of good concern that World

Health Organization (WHO, 2007) reported in the year 2005 that 1.8 million people died

from diarrhoea one of vary foodborne diseases. For this reason, foodborne diseases have

captured public awareness worldwide in recent years. The Ministry of Health Malaysia

(MOH, 2007, 2009, 2010) reported that the incident rate for food poisoning was 26.04, 62.47
and 36.17 per 100,000 populations in 2006, 2008 and 2009 respectively. In line with such

report, there was in fact an increase in number of episodes of foodborne outbreak reported by

various states in Malaysia commonly outbreaks occurring in schools (Zain and Naing, 2002;

WHO, 2008; Sharif and Al-Malki, 2010). Besides, an epidemiology study found out that

since 1997, foodborne outbreaks increased 66.5% among school age group in Malaysia

(Meftahuddin, 2002; Naing et al, 2007). Centre Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2000)

identified five risk factors of food handling that add to foodborne illnesses which include

improper cooking procedure, temperature abuse during storage, lack of hygiene and

sanitation by food handlers, cross contamination between raw and fresh ready to-eat foods.

Nowadays, in spite of general knowledge about the importance of hygiene, the incidence of

food borne illness is high. A FAO/WHO assessment in 1983 said that consumption of

infected food caused most of the illnesses and the biggest expense around the world (Haapala

& Probart, 2004). National and international surveys show that people still do not have

appropriate knowledge of food safety. As a result, more and more countries organize

educational courses to improve skills and knowledge regarding food safety (Haapala &

Probart, 2004). Inadequate food safety laws, weak regulatory systems, lack of financial

resources to invest in safer methods of cooking, inadequate knowledge of food borne diseases

and their causes, improper handling of food and unhygienic environments among others have

been identified as some of the causes of food borne diseases (Adebukola et al, 2015). Quick

et al, 2013 reported that Middle schoolers had insufficient food safety knowledge even

though most reported washing their hands before making a snack and washing fruits and

vegetables before eating them. Food safety knowledge and behavior among young adults

have been studied in different parts of the globe. The result revealed that these groups of

consumers are engaged in food safety behavior that put their health at risk for food borne

diseases. A recent study showed that over 50% of the Saudi college students consumed raw
eggs and raw white cheese and 34% believed that there is no risk of disease from eating

cooked food kept at room temperature for one day if covered. About one third of the

American college students reported eating fried eggs with soft yolks and about half reported

eating raw cookie dough, and undercooked chicken and hamburger. In Turkey, more than

half of young consumers (Chapman et al, 2010) did not know that internal temperature of the

food is the safest way to know if the meat was cooked well (Osaili et al, 2011). Knowledge is

defined as the capacity to acquire, retain and use information. It is also a mixture of

comprehension, experience, discernment and skill (Ibrahim, 1995). It is a complicated

construction characterized by the structure and the content of the information stored in the

memory (Brucks, 1986). Practice is regarded as the application of rules and knowledge that

leads to action (Ibrahim, 1995). Food safety knowledge is important to prevent food borne

illness (Chapman et al, 2010). Vladimirov (2011) point outs the correlation of positive

behaviour, attitudes and continued education of food handlers towards the maintenance of

safe food handling practices. Earlier studies conducted on adults have also indicated that food

safety knowledge tends to increase with age and practice: females have higher scores than

males, and younger respondents show the greatest need for additional food safety education

(Bruhn & Schutz, 1999; Byrd-Bredbenner et al., 2007; Rimal et al., 2001; Unusan, 2007).

The need for enhanced food safety education started to be recognized in developed countries

with the launch of national initiatives to find ways to educate consumers effectively,

especially youngsters and adults who prepare food (Haapala & Probart, 2004). Better

educated consumers often recognize the importance of food safety and younger respondents

have shown the greatest need for additional education on food safety (Bruhn & Schutz, 1999;

Li-Cohen & Bruhn, 2002; Sudershan et al., 2007). Learning about basic knowledge and

practices of young consumers is essential for the development of effective health education

programs in Nigeria. An efficient and continuous food safety education will enable
consumers (children, youth, adults and the elderly) to learn the methods for preventing health

threatening food safety problems and change their misguided habits (Sanlier, 2009).

2.2 Instructional Media

The organized combination and utilization of materials, equipment’s and people facilitates

the presentation of content for the realization of the stated objectives. Richet, (2008) in John,

(2010) describes visual instructional materials as any device, piece of equipment, graphic

representation and illustration designed and used to assist the learners to learn

comprehensively. Also, Egunjobi, (2009) is of the view that, visual instructional materials are

anything that can be used by the teacher and learners before, during and after the lesson to

ease the realization of instructional objectives. In other words, instructional materials are

tools that facilitate the transmission, understanding and appreciation of concept. Silver (2010)

asserted that, visual instructional material are written or published textbooks and related core

materials, (including those specific materials which are used by teachers for classroom

instruction needed by a state or local education authority or any agency for use in primary,

post primary and post-secondary schools instruction including, specifically requested teachers

edition of such materials. He further lamented that, teaching aids or instructional materials

consist of carefully plan and select an instructional resource that facilitates teaching - learning

process. Egunjobi, (2009) states that, visual instructional materials, facilities, aids are

materials which make it easier for the teacher to impact knowledge and skills to the learners.

He further stressed that, teaching materials and facilities saves time, make learning more

effective and promote interest for both teachers and the learners. Ricardo, (2008) view visual

instructional materials as tools used to supplement the written or spoken words in the

transmission of knowledge, attitude, and idea to emphasize, clarify or vitalize the instruction.

It is in view of this, Olu and Okoye, (2008) lamented that, visual instructional materials are

all the tools that can be used by a teacher to provide help and encouragement to learners and
learning activities such materials, brings together, human and materials in a systematic co-

operation to effectively solve educational problems, Adesanya, (2011), understands that

chalkboard, models, conic charts and other non-projected tools will bring about efficacy and

efficiency in the teaching and learning process and invariably, promotes and enhance the

achievement of instructional objectives. Visual instructional materials include all the

materials a teacher could use during the lesson to aid learning and retention. He further

lamented that, in order to meet individual differences in the classroom settings (Adeyemi,

2010).Visual instructional materials simply means all those instructional resources used to

supplement the normal learning process of listening seeing, reading and writing (Abdullahi,

2012). Abirnbade (2012) re-affirms that, visual instructional materials are those devices

which facilitates teaching and learning. It is a general term referring to communication,

experiment, equipment and materials used for communication of instruction in which more

than one sense is use in learning and retention.

2.2.1 Types of Instructional Materials

Schools should be properly and uniformly equipped to promote sound and effective teaching

learning process. Instructional materials can be classified into three major categories; Visual

materials, Audio materials, and Audio-visual materials (Shuaibu, 2011).

Visual Materials: These involve the use of visual perception in the development of skills and

understanding which includes: Three dimensional materials, objects, models and specimen

Printed materials that is, textbooks, workbooks, journal, magazines, newsletter etc. Boards,

chalkboards, bulletin, flannel boards. Still pictures, non-projected (photographs illustrations)

and graphics, maps, posters, diagram.

Audio Materials: Audio materials convey messages through sound production which include

the following; radio, tape recorder, record player, MP3.

Audio-Visual Materials: Audio-visual materials which includes television, computer, video

tapes, CD, DVD players etc.

Ughamadu (1992), classify instructional materials into printed media i.e. textbooks, reference

books, journal, posters and non-printed media i.e. models, 16mm film projector,

transparencies and overhead projectors. We also have audio-visual media which include;

instructional television, 16mm and 8mm sound film (Obeka, 2010). Another classification is

that of hardware e.g.( audio cassette recorder, video recorder, slide and film strip projector

overhead projector, motion pictures projector and software include audio tapes, video tapes,

slide films transparencies, motion picture) hardware transmit and retrieve information (Udo,

2006).

2.3 Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Food Safety Measures among Basic Schools

Each and every year a considerable number of foodborne disease outbreaks and an increased

number of victims are reported primarily due to the usage of contaminated food or water.

Statistics from the World Health Organization reported that nearly two million people are

killed annually due to diarrheal diseases and a clear majority of them represent children in

developing and underdeveloped countries (World Health Organization [WHO], 2020). In the

past decades, there has been an increase in the outbreak of many foodborne diseases

worldwide due to weak and inadequate food safety regulations and the absence of proper

education, training and skills among people who are involved in food preparation (Sharma,

Srivastava, Banerjee, & Shaili, 2018). Often, food becomes unhealthy for consumption once

it is exposed to biological, physical or chemical hazards (Fung, Wang, & Menon, 2018;

Kamboj, Gupta, Bandral, Gandotra, & Anjum, 2020; Kwol, Eluwole, Avci, & Lasisi, 2020).

Every food has a vulnerability to getting contaminated at any phase during food handling.

Incorrect time and temperature control associated with food during the supply chain, unsafe
food processing/handling, inadequate cooking, cross contamination and improper personal

hygiene practices were often described as causes for foodborne disease outbreaks (Ali &

Immanuel 2017; Sani & Siow, 2014; Webb & Morancie, 2015). Severe cases of

hospitalization and death that occurred as a result of food contamination highlight the danger

of foodborne diseases. Furthermore, these extreme cases suggest that the individuals must

possess adequate food safety knowledge, from childhood in order to minimize the risks

associated with foodborne disease outbreaks. School-aged children are one of the most

important and sensitive social categories, who are often susceptible to food-related risks.

According to some recent research, if children possess adequate food safety knowledge and

proper hygienic practices, many foodborne illnesses can be prevented or minimized

(Wanniarachchi, Abeysundara, & Peiris, 2021a, 2021b). Thus, having an overview of the

food safety KAP of school children is important to researchers in the fields of public health

and food safety.

A good attitude is one of the key factors in the conversion of knowledge into proper food

handling practices (Da Cunha, Stedefeldt, & De Rosso, 2014). About 6 out of 10 studies have

directly evaluated the school children’s attitude on food safety through the questionnaire

(Byrd‐Bredbenner, Abbot, & Quick, 2010; Cheng et al., 2017; Majowicz et al., 2015;

Majowicz et al., 2017; Moghaddam et al., 2020; Ovca et al., 2014). Of the 6 studies which

addressed students’ attitudes toward food safety, only one study reported students to possess

a favourable attitude toward food safety. Furthermore, these studies revealed, the need for

school children to receive, further education on food safety (Byrd-Bredbenner et al., 2010;

Cheng et al., 2017; Majowicz et al., 2015; Majowicz et al., 2017; Osaili et al., 2011; Ovca et

al., 2014).

Byrd-Bredbenner et al. (2010) revealed that many middle schoolers tend to believe that

preparing food alone can cause food poisoning, owing to the reasons like lack of previous
food preparation experiences, poor knowledge or due to poor food handling practices.

Therefore, in such cases upgrading their knowledge as well as confidence regarding food

safety-related aspects is a must to ensure food safety. Researchers pointed out, the need for a

synergetic endeavor among different parties such as school children, their parents, food safety

professionals and educators to improve food safety awareness among them (Getty, 2014;

Horikawa, Akamatsu, Horiguchi, & Marui, 2013). The above results are further backed up by

a recent study carried out in Sri Lanka, where the majority (92.4%) of the school children

were self-assured that their current level of knowledge on food safety could be further

improved by the provision of proper education. The same study revealed parents, teachers

and doctors as pioneer food safety educators in the Sri Lankan context (Wanniarachchi,

Abeysundara, & Peiris, 2021c).

2.3.1 Food Safety Knowledge of School Children

In order to assess food safety knowledge, areas such as microbial contamination of kitchen

countertops and utensils, prevention of cross contamination, temperature regulation to ensure

microbial safety of food, common food sources of food borne-diseases, the application of

proper heat treatment, monitoring food before consumption, basic disinfection procedures

and knowledge about basic food safety principles and personal hygiene were tested. Of the 10

studies considered, 8 studies reported students to have poor or average food safety

knowledge. Only 2 out of 10 studies demonstrated students to have good knowledge on food

safety (Cheng et al., 2017; Norazmir et al., 2012). School children who participated in the

studies reported poor knowledge with regard to proper temperature control on microbial

growth and survival, the shelf life of food and common foodborne pathogens (Moghaddam et

al., 2020; Osaili, et al., 2011; Ovca et al., 2014). Meantime, students were knowledgeable

about maintaining personal hygiene while preparing food (e.g., basic hand washing),

disinfection procedures, averting cross-contamination during food preparation and handling)

(Abushelaibi et al., 2016; Osaili et al., 2011; Ovca et al., 2014). Since the majority of studies

did not show, adequate food safety knowledge among students, it creates a need to improve

awareness among them regarding basic principles of safe food handling. School children’s

knowledge with regard to proper temperature control on microbial growth and survival and

common foodborne pathogens needs to be improved. For this, the authors of the present study

suggest, that educational programs and training programs be conducted in school settings

where children are more attentive to learning with peers. And also, the responsible authorities

regarding school children’s education can pay attention to including the relevant content

about food safety in their school curricula to make them more familiar with the content (Ovca

et al., 2014).

2.3.2 Food safety practices of school children

Only 3 out of 10 studies reported students to be engaged in appropriate and safe food

handling practices (Majowicz et al., 2015; Norazmir et al., 2012; Tutu et al., 2020). In the

articles under review, 3 to 16 statements were used to evaluate food safety practices among

school children. Food can become contaminated at any stage of the food handling process.

The risk factors include improper time/temperature control, improper food handling practices,

inadequate cooking, contaminated raw foods and poor personal hygiene etc. (Medeiros,

Hillers, Kendall, & Mason, 2001). The extent to which safe food handling practices are

followed, during food purchasing, handling and preparation determines the probability of

such events taking place. Participants in some studies often reported some risky behavioural

approaches to preventing cross-contamination, storing and reheating leftovers in day-to-day

life and personal hygiene (e.g., cooking in the presence of open wounds in hands and washing

hands after using the washroom) (Abushelaibi et al., 2016; Ovca et al., 2014). In most cases,

these risks can be eliminated, by following proper food handling practices (Fischer & Frewer

2009).
2.4 The Knowledge of Teachers in Using Relia and Pictures in Teaching Food Hygiene

Relia refers to objects or activities used to relate classroom teaching to the real life especially

of peoples studied (Rocser, 2005). According to Rocser, education consists of two

components input and output. Input consists of human and material resources while outputs

are the goal and philosophy of the educational process. Both the input and output form a

dynamic organic whole and if one want to investigate and assess the educational system in

order to improve its performance, effects of one component on the other. Pictures and relia

are some of the instructional materials which are among the educational input that play a vital

role in the teaching and learning process (Saima, 2008). For teaching purposes, we can bring

fragments of the physical world into the classroom in the form of objects carefully

represented in their realistic background "these fragments of the physical world can be

termed Relia.

Relia are objects from real life used in the classroom instruction by educators to improve

students understanding of other culture and real life situation. These objects are part of

instructional kits. Relia are also used to connect learners with the key focal point of a lesson

by allowing tactile and multidimensional connection between learned materials and the object

of the lesson (Azikiwe, 2011). Relia is sometimes used philosophically to distinguish real

things from theories. Genesce, (2000) noted that, relia is a term for real things, concrete

object that are used in the classroom to build background knowledge and vocabulary. Relia is

used to provide experiences on which to build and provide students with opportunities to use

all the senses in learning while, using relia in the classroom is not always possible, it is

usually the best choice if the student is to learn all they can about a topic, relia allows student

to see, feel, hear, and even smell the object being explored. If the real things are not available

the teacher must move down the continuum from the concrete (real thing) to a replica such as

models, to a semi concrete object such as photograph or illustrations.

Genesce, (2000) identified the following sequential steps in implementing the use of relia in

the classroom. Identify opportunities to use relia, be aware of opportunities to include relia in

lesson as you plan. Proof read any story to be read aloud or used for reading instruction to

identify vocabulary that may be unfamiliar to the students and locate relia that will be helpful

to their understanding. Begin to collect items that can be stored in the classroom and organize

them so that, they can be easily accessed for instruction. Plastic tubes, plastic bags are often

used for this purpose. Some items will be used with only one theme or book and should be

stored. Chris, (2011) Relia means using real items found in everyday life as an aid to

teaching. Using relia helps to make lessons memorable by creating a link between the object

and the word or phrase they represents using relia stimulates the mind, and is one way of

encouraging creativity by involving the senses. Relia saves time, as recognition of an object

is immediate and so cut out the need for lengthy explanation and drawing funny pictures on

the board. Using relia stimulates the mind, encourages creativity by involving sense, relia

saves time, and relia makes lessons to be memorable. Ricardo, (2008) defines visual

instructional materials as tools used to supplement the written or spoken word in the

transmission of knowledge, attitude and idea and to emphasize or clarify the instruction. Olu

and Okoye, (2008) opined that, visual instructional materials are all the tools that can be used

by the teacher to provide encouragement to learner and learning activities. Adeyemi, (2010),

States that, visual instructional materials include all the materials a teacher could use during

the lesson to help learning and retention. He further said that, in order to meet individual

differences in the classroom, the teacher should employ various types of teaching techniques

and aids that would appeal to different senses. Adesanya, (2011) affirms that, the use of

visual instructional materials like textbooks, chalkboard, and models in the classroom brings

about efficacy and efficiency in the teaching and learning process and invariably, promotes

and enhances the achievement of instructional objectives. Abdullahi, (2012), refers visual
instructional materials to mean all those resources used to supplement the normal learning

process of listening, seeing, reading and writing. Tukur, (2012) stated that, people generally

remember 10% of what they read,20% of what they hear,30% of what they see,50% of what

they hear and see,70% of what they say,90% what they say and do. Brown, (2011) asserted

that, teachers are like medical doctors and other professional workers, they need essential

tools and equipment's to do their work at best. The fundamental factors in any learning

situation are always the students and teachers. Thus, the organized combination and

utilization of materials facilitates teachers' presentation of content for the realization of the

stated objectives. Richard, (2008) In Edward, (2011) claims that, the more senses contributed

in a lesson through the use of visual instructional materials, the more reality is stimulated.

Savory, (2004) added that, a well-planned and imaginative use of visual aids in lessons

should do much to supplement the inadequacy of books as well as arouse student interest by

giving them something practical to see and do and at the same time helping to train them to

think individually. Savory, (2004) suggested a catalogue of useful visual aids that are good in

teaching basic technology that is models, pictures (motion) charts. The researcher lamented

that, the selection of visual instructional materials which are related to the basic content of a

course or a lesson, helps greatly in understanding of such a lesson by the student in that they

make the lesson attractive thereby, arresting their attention and thus, motivating them to

learn. Wale, (2006) is of the opinion that, the use of visual instructional materials would go a

long way in enhancing student performance in basic technology. Acikgoz, (2005) advocates

that, the use of pictures and relia will help children to improve on their thoughts and feelings.

The scholar further states that, pictures are used as alternatives to real objects. Abayomi

(2008) postulated that, Visual instructional materials like models, posters, photograph in

teaching and learning process, will enhance the interest of individual student and also help to

the quality of teachers' presentation. It is also very vital to have competent and adequate
human resources in terms of teachers' quality for the teaching of not only Basic Technology

but all subjects in the school. Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004) states that, schools should

be properly and uniformly equipped to promote sound and effective teaching. Suitable visual

aids, qualified teachers, libraries should be adequately provided for schools. Absence of these

visual instructional materials according to Rocser, (2005) will serve as constraints to

educational system from responding more fully to new demand in educational process. To

improve the quality of education, its efficiency and productivity, despite the role of pictures

and relia as instructional materials in teaching basic technology, there is shortage of it in

schools or teachers are not effectively utilizing them in teaching. This could be due to costly

nature of the material, or lack of technical abilities of using it during the lesson.

2.5 Effects of using relia and pictures in teaching food hygiene on the academic

performance of basic school pupils

Using relia and pictures helps teachers to focus attention to motivate learners’ interest, to

reinforce verbal and visual message, to elucidate verbal concepts, to save teachers time for

presentation, to make learning more practical, exciting and lively (Bola & Umoh, 2009).

Instructional materials which offer content e.g. charts, graphs, audio recording, and tools,

implement print materials of all kinds of maps, painting and resources in the community

instructional aides are essential for effective instruction. The teacher should know how to

prepare and use instructional aides and should recognize their values in fostering good

instruction. The greatest value of instructional aides lies in:

(i) Their appeal to trained senses of perception,

(ii) Their ability to attract and hold trainees attention and interest

(iii) Helps trainees and understand the relationship between different concepts or ideas

a good instructional aid should promote certain desirable result.

It should stimulate interest, command attention, be easily understood and promote a positive

reactor on the part of the trainee visual instructional aid should be complete, have some

explanation in the form of a table, and finally be as simple as possible. Teachers therefore,

have no excuse to avoid using such available visual instructional materials in their teaching

and learning process. Dubey, (2009), noted that teachers should exhibit skills and

understanding in the use of some instructional materials for maximum result.

The practical use of a few would be described for the purpose of this study as follows:

Print Materials: These are also referred to as reading materials, individuals go through them

to gather information about people, places, process and event in the class, and they can be

used to provide general class discussion. However, the nature of basic technology requires

broad and current knowledge therefore, the teacher needs to expose the learner to other print

materials such as news magazine, poem, supplementary readers’ dictionary and Pamphlets. In

using them, teachers should turn the class into reading session through developing skills is

important. According to John, (2008) these materials should be used to provide organized

subject matter for learners to study, Solves identified problems and suggest rational solution,

Stimulates thinking and interest, develop the skills of identifying needed informant on a

variety of issues and process, create awareness of current matters of national and international

importance. However, for these purpose to be achieved teachers must ensure that the content

of such materials are authentic and accurate suitable to the learners and environment free

from destruction and bias. Also, materials should be checked for good illustration, clear print

and durability. Furthermore, the teachers should combine the use of reading materials with

other categories of materials to practically illustrate and demonstrates process.

Chalkboard and charts are common non-electrically operated instructional materials, they are

visual aids. The chalkboard is also a display material which the teacher uses for writing,
sketching, illustration and drawing etc. it is therefore, the focal point of learning in the class

room, the chalkboard should be properly placed for all learners to learn from materials

displayed on them in order to effectively use the chalkboard. Basic Technology teachers

should abide by the following standards Okorie, (2004), In Musa (2010), on entering the

classroom, the teacher should ensure that all materials not relevant to the lesson should be

completely removed. Partition the available space into portion to other and orderly

presentation of materials. Begin writing on the chalkboard from the left to the right, Write

and draw neatly, Write straight not on a standing manner on the chalkboard. After writing on

the board it is a good practice to check materials from the back of the class to ensure clarity

and correct any observed error made.

Charts: These are visual materials that carry instructional materials on a subject matter they

can easily be prepared by the Basic Technology teacher through local available materials.

Tools: They could be diagrammatically represented which combines pictures, graphs, written

materials to give a clear and vivid summary of a vital process, conception set of relationship

there are also cheap and commercial produced charts that can be procured and used to meet

the needs of Basic Technology class. In order to be effective, use the chart as visual

instructional materials teachers need to check and master the subject content and skillfully

use them at the most appropriate time in the lesson as a concept of process is being developed

the need also to be adequately managed for the learners to see and benefits from the

information they carry. It is purposively wrong for the teacher to ask the learners to hold up

charts in their hand, while teacher explains points in the lesson (Okorie, 2004 in Musa, 2009).

Teachers should creatively provide means to hold up charts in the classroom either on the

walls or somewhere provided on the chalkboard, care should be taken so that charts do not

distract the attention of the learners. They should therefore be used to encourage skills of

observation and critical thinking.

 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

According to Kothari (2004), a research design is a blueprint strategy used to investigate

research questions to be able to obtain answers to those questions. This study used a cross-

sectional descriptive survey method with a quantitative approach. A descriptive cross-

sectional survey design was adopted to investigate the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of

using relia and pictures to improve upon learners poor practices of food hygiene among basic

eight pupils of Mankessim basic school. In addition, the study’s quantitative research

approach was used because the data collected was through questionnaires with closed ended-

questions. Students’ opinions on food safety knowledge, attitudes, practices, and perception

which were collected from the field constituted the source of primary data concerning their

actual practice on food safety.

3.2 Population of the Study

The target population for this study is all basic eight pupils of Mankessim basic school. Thus,

the accessible population for the study is all the 90 students of Mankessim basic 7 (A&B)

which is handled by 2 class teachers.

3.3 Data Collection Instruments

Self-administered anonymous questionnaire containing closed ended questions were designed

for the study. The questionnaire was divided into three major sections: Section A contained 7

items focusing on socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents.

Section B contained items focusing on questions related to the knowledge, attitudes, and

practices of food safety measures among basic eight pupils of Mankessim Basic School while

section C contained items focusing on questions related to the knowledge and practice of

teachers using relia and pictures to improve upon learners poor practices of food hygiene

among basic eight pupils and section D contained items focusing on questions related to the

effects of using relia and pictures in teaching food hygiene on the academic performance of

basic eight pupils

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

A simple random sampling technique was employed to select a minimum of 60 pupils out of

the two classes (BS 7, A&B). The two teachers were purposively selected for the study. In

all, a total sample size of 60 was used in analyzing data for the study.

3.5 Data Analysis

The completed questionnaires were collated, analyzed and presented using descriptive

statistics of simple percentages and frequency distribution. All statistical analyses were

performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, Version 22.0 (SPSS, Inc.,

Chicago, IL, USA).

3.6 Ethical Consideration

This study adhered to the various ethics governing research work. Some of which were;

The researcher made sure to keep any information given by the respondents confidential. All

participants in the study were also assured of the confidentiality of information they provide

to the researcher. The confidential issues include the protection of the respondent’s identity

and the information given to the researcher

The researcher in this study did not do anything that adversely affected any respondent

physically, psychologically and emotionally. Questions were basically framed according to

the status of the respondents in the study. Thus, no respondent was compelled to answer any

question that did not relate to him or her.

No single respondent in this exercise was coerced in any form to take part in the study. All

respondents who took part in this study did it voluntarily.

The researcher in this study did not use any deceptive tactics to lure the respondents to

respond to desired questions from them, but instead, the respondents only answered the

questions based on their understanding.

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