CHAPTER 1: The Human Organism

Anatomy
• Investigates body structure
• Anatomy means to dissect

Physiology
• Investigates processes and functions
• Human Physiology:
o Studies the human organism

Systematic Physiology
• Studies body organ-systems
Cellular Physiology
• Studies body cells
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
❖ To understand how the body:
 Responds to stimuli
Major Organs of the Body
 Environmental changes
 Environmental cues
 Diseases
 Injury
Types of Anatomy
Systemic
• Studies body organ-systems
Regional
• Studies body regions (medical school)
Surface
• Studies external features, for example, bone
projections
Anatomical Imaging
• Using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI)
Structural and Functional Organization
Six levels from chemical to organism:
1. Chemical Integumentary System
➢ Smallest level
➢ Atoms, chemical bonds, molecules
2. Cellular
➢ Cells: basic units of life
➢ Compartments and organelles
➢ Examples are mitochondria nucleus
3. Tissues
➢ group of cells with similar structure and function
plus extracellular substances they release
➢ four broad types:
o Epithelial
o Connective
o Muscular
o Nervous
Skeletal System
4. Organs
➢ Two or more tissues types acting together to
perform function(s)
➢ Ex.: stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney
5. Organ-System
➢ Group of organs contributing to some function
➢ For example, digestive system, reproductive
system
6. Organism
➢ All organ systems working together
➢ Includes associated microorganisms such as
intestinal bacteria
Muscular System Characteristics of Life
Organization
• Functional interrelationships between parts
Metabolism
• Sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining
an organism
• Ability to acquire and use energy in support of these
changes
Responsiveness
• Ability to sense and respond to environmental
changes
• Includes both internal and external environments.
Growth
• Can increase in size
Development
• Changes in form and size
Nervous System • Changes in cell structure and function from
generalized to specialized – differentiation.
Reproduction
• Formation of new cells or new organisms
• Generation of new individuals
• Tissue repair
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
• Maintenance of constant internal environment
despite fluctuations in the external environment.
Variables
• Measures of body properties that may change in
value
Examples of variable: body temp., heart rate, blood
Endocrine System pressure, blood glucose levels, blood cell counts, respiratory
rate.
Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease around
a set point.
Set point: normal, or average value of a variable
Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point.
Set points for some variables can be temporarily adjusted
depending on body activities, as needed:
Ex.: Common cause of damage
Body temperature fever
Heart rate, blood pressure exercise
respiratory rate

Negative feedback is the main mechanism used in

homeostatic regulation.
• A negative feedback response involves:
Detection: of deviation away from set point and
Correction: reversal of deviation toward set point
Cardiovascular System and normal range.
Components of feedback:
1. Receptor
• detects changes in variable.
2. Control center
• receives receptor signal
• establishes set point
• sends signal to effector
3. Effector
• directly causes change in variable.

(Figure 1.5 in textbook)

Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the initial
stimulus further stimulates the response
• system response causes progressive deviation away
from set point, outside of normal range
• not directly used for homeostasis
• some positive feedback occurs under normal
conditions. Ex.: childbirth
• generally associated with injury/disease
• negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain
homeostasis.
Comparison of negative and positive feedback

Terminology and the Body Plan

Anatomical position
• standing erect, face and palms forward
• all relational descriptions based on the anatomical
position, regardless of body orientation.
Superior: above
Note: in four-legged animals, the
Inferior: below
terms ventral (belly) and dorsal (back)
Anterior: front (also: ventral) correspond to anterior and posterior
Posterior: back (also: dorsal) in humans.

Medial: close to midline

Lateral: away from midline
Proximal: close to point of
attachmant.
Distal: far from point of
attachment
Superficial: structure close to
the surface
Deep: structure toward the
interior of the body.

Body Planes Body Cavities

Sagittal plane: separates nody Thoracic Cavity
into right and left • space within chest wall and diaphragm
Median Plane: along the midline, • contains heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus,
equal halves trachea
Transverse plane: horizontal Mediastinum
plane separates the body into • space between lungs
superior and inferior. • contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
Frontal plane: vertical plane that Abdominal cavity
separates the body into anterior • space between diaphragm and pelvis
and posterior parts. • contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas,
kidneys
Body Regions Pelvic cavity
Upper limbs: upper arm, • space within pelvis
forearm, wrist, hand • contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, part
Lower limbs: thigh, lower leg, of large intestines
ankle, foot Serous Membranes
Central region: head, neck, trunk Like trunk cavities, cover organs
Structure:
• visceral serous membrane covers organs
• parietal serous membrane is the outer membrane
• Cavity – fluid-filled space between the membranes.
Three sets of serous membranes and cavities:
Membrane Cavity
Pericardium Pericardial cavity
(around heart)
Pleura Pleural cavity
(around lungs)
Peritoneum Peritoneal cavity
(Around abdominopelvic
Cavity and its organs)

Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity

Pericardium
• Visceral pericardium covers heart
• Parietal pericardium thick, fibrous
• Pericardial cavity reduces friction
Pleura
• Visceral pleura covers lungs
• Parietal pleura lines inner wall of thorax
• Pleural cavity reduces friction; adheres lungs to
thoracic wall
Peritoneum
• Visceral peritoneum covers, anchors organs; double
layers called mesenteries.
• Parietal peritoneum lines inner wall of
abdominopelvic cavity
• Peritoneal Cavity reduces friction