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Quantum Dot Photonic Crystal Light Sources

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DOI: 10.1109/JPROC.2005.853555 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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Quantum Dot Photonic Crystal Light Sources
PALLAB BHATTACHARYA, FELLOW, IEEE, JAYSHRI SABARINATHAN, MEMBER, IEEE,
JURAJ TOPOL’ANČIK, SWAPNAJIT CHAKRAVARTY, PEI-CHEN YU, AND
WEIDONG ZHOU, MEMBER, IEEE

Invited Paper

The control and manipulation of light on a planar IC similar to environmental sensors to detect hazardous compounds or
that achieved for electrons in semiconductor chips on submicrom- to sample and analyze nanoscopic volumes of biological
eter and nanometer scales is an area of very active research today. fluids with high speed, accuracy, and cost effectiveness, or
While electronic device miniaturization is close to reaching its max-
ultracompact low-cost high-speed communication devices,
imum possible potential, photonic devices have unique properties
that have yet to be exploited. With increasing advances in nanofab- will be realized only when we can sufficiently manipulate
rication techniques and the understanding of optical properties of light (photons) on the submicrometer scale similar to what
semiconductors, several optical devices such as lasers, detectors, has been achieved for electrons in semiconductor devices.
interferometers, and waveguides have been constantly shrinking in Photonic crystals (PCs)—or photonic bandgap (PBG) struc-
size. We have achieved very high speed integrated optical devices tures, as they are also called [1]–[3]—have emerged as
at 10–100-m length scales. However, there is a need to further re- feasible solutions to answer this need for a wide range of
duce the size of devices to make them competitive in size and cost to
devices including single-photon sources, lasers, detectors,
existing electronic devices and to utilize their potential and unique
properties in a wide range of applications ranging from communi- filters, waveguides, sensors, and optical interconnects. They
cations, displays to sensors. Photonic crystals have emerged as one provide both unique optical properties as well as great
of the best potential candidates that can achieve the goal of compact flexibility in the design, fabrication, and integration of these
miniaturized photonic chips. In this paper, we describe the current devices in various configurations as required for diverse
efforts and advances made in the photonic crystal microcavity light photonic and optoelectronic applications.
sources and their future prospects. PCs in the optical regime are periodic dielectric structures
Keywords—Edge-emitting device, electrically injected, en- with variations in the refractive index on length scales of the
hanced spontaneous emission, integrated optoelectronics, micro- order of the wavelength of light (a few hundred microme-
cavity laser, photonic bandgap (PBG), photonic crystal (PC), ters). Bragg diffraction in these periodic arrangements results
Purcell effect, quality factor, quantum dots (QDs), quantum well
in light interference manifested in photonic bandgaps, where
heterostructure, stimulated emission, surface-emitting light source,
waveguide. propagation of certain frequencies of electromagnetic radia-
tion is inhibited [see Fig. 1(a)]. Introducing point and line
defects in the periodic photonic lattices give rise to local-
I. INTRODUCTION ized modes within the bandgaps and hence allow us to con-
The vision of miniaturized photonic devices, which fine and manipulate the flow of light in these structures. This
function in a wide range of applications such as portable behavior is analogous to that seen in crystalline semicon-
ductors thereby making PCs excellent candidates for PBG
and defect engineering. Since PCs were first described by
Manuscript received March 8, 2005; revised March 15, 2005. This work Yablonovitch [1] and John [2] in 1987, extensive advances
was supported in part by the Army Research Office (ARO), in part by the in micro- and nanofabrication have allowed us to construct
Office of Naval Research (ONR), and in part by the Defense Advanced Re- PCs with bandgaps in the optical regime.
search Projects Agency (DARPA).
P. Bhattacharya, J. Topol’ančik, S. Chakravarty and P.-C. Yu are with the
PC structures with their multiparameter design flexibility
Solid State Electronics Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering have been the subject of intense research and development
and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2122 over the past decade. The recent notable contributions of
USA (e-mail: [email protected]). PCs to improvement of the existing conventional semi-
J. Sabarinathan is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B9, Canada. conductor light sources include, for example, replacement
W. Zhou is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of of the cleaved laser facets with PCs [4], enhancement of
Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019-0016 USA. vertical extraction efficiency in LEDs [5], reduction of
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JPROC.2005.853555 refractive index in vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers

0018-9219/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 93, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005 1825
 (a)

(b)

Fig. 1. (a) Calculated 3-D bandstructure of a PC formed by triangular lattice of air holes in dielectric slab of 0:6a thickness. The simulation shows a complete
PBG for TE modes. (b) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of an single-cell microcavity (H1) supporting a doubly degenerate dipole mode.

(VCSELs) to improve the optical mode lateral confinement quantum computation [18], quantum cryptography [19], and
[6], development of practical mid- and far-IR PC-based quantum teleportation [20].
quantum cascade lasers [7] for gas detection, etc. Equally
important are the applications of PCs in the development II. SEMICONDUCTOR OPTICAL MICROCAVITES
of low-loss planar waveguides with sharp bends [8], [9], Spontaneous emission rate can be attributed to interaction
PC fibers [10], and nonlinear dispersive waveguiding and
of the dipole of the emitter (atom, molecule, or QD) with the
resonant mode-filtering components [11]. When integrated
with submicrometer-scale light emitters and detectors, these surrounding vacuum electromagnetic field fluctuations. As
components could eventually lead to the realization of such, the emission rate can be altered and controlled through
functional ultrasmall high-density optoelectronic circuits modifying the electromagnetic environment parameters, for
for sensing and wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) example, by introducing an optical microcavity that supports
applications [12], [13]. a single (or a few) resonance. The spontaneous emission rate
In this paper, we will focus on perhaps the most significant can change depending on the overlap between the dipole and
application of two-dimensional (2-D) PCs as a platform for the cavity resonances. Recent advances in semiconductor mi-
a variety of microcavity light sources. We will discuss PBG crofabrication have allowed for sensitive cavity adjustments
defect mode engineering combined with the technology of in the optical regime by lithographical tuning, which has led
self-organized quantum dots (QDs) as a means to develop ad- to microcavity resonators used to modify the spontaneous
vanced light emitters with single-mode operation, higher ef- emission properties of matter through the Purcell effect [21],
ficiency, lower thresholds, higher bandwidths, and increased
[22]. The enhancement in spontaneous emission for a partic-
output directionality. The evolution of microcavity optical
resonators could advance toward PC nanolasers with a single ular cavity mode is given by
embedded QD [14] that would provide many of the desired
properties of advanced photon sources and eventually be-
come the ultimate single photon turnstile sources capable (1)
of generating photons on demand [15]. The intensive devel-
opment of such devices is propelled mainly by the prospect
of studying strong-coupling cavity quantum electrodynamics where is the Purcell factor, is the quality factor of the
(CQED) [16], [17] phenomena in semiconductor systems as particular cavity mode, is the effective modal volume,
well as a variety of promising applications in linear-optics and is the wavelength of the resonant cavity mode in

1826 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 93, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
the medium with refractive index . The Purcell factor has for building microcavity light sources. Optically pumped
become a very useful figure of merit for a microcavity and PCs have been used successfully to control the spontaneous
in determining the strength of the cavity–emitter interac- emission rate of QDs [39], [40]. Several single-cell micro-
tion. The development of optical microcavities is therefore cavity designs [41], [42] with sufficiently large theoretical
driven by the desire to obtain the highest possible and the values for QED experiments have been proposed, but
smallest possible modal volume for maximum enhance- have not yet been successfully fabricated and experimentally
ment of light–matter interaction. demonstrated. The recent report by Englund et al. [43] on
Several types of semiconductor optical microcavities in- the observation of fivefold enhancement of spontaneous
cluding silica microspheres [23], toroid microcavities [24], emission rate of QDs placed in an optimized high- 2-D
microdisks [25]–[27], micropillar resonators [28], [29], PC microcavity represents the first experimental demonstra-
Fabry–Pérot resonators [30], and cylindrical and oxide-con- tion of on demand single photon emission from an optical
fined microcavities [31] with various emission sources in the microresonator. Techniques are currently being developed
cavity have been investigated to study single-photon gen- to obtain a single InAs/InP self-assembled QD in a chosen
eration [24], strong- [23], [24] and weak-coupling CQED location on the substrate [44] or position the PC cavities to
[25]–[29], and spontaneous emission enhancement (sup- single InAs QDs [45]. Further advances which incorporate
pression) phenomena [23]–[27]. Excellent comprehensive such a single QD into a PC microcavity can be used to
reviews of optical microcavities in the context of CQED are create single-photon sources for studying CQED processes
available [32]–[35]. in semiconductor systems such as strongly coupled dots and
Strong-coupling phenomena in optical microcavities single dot lasing.
have been observed by Hood et al. on cesium atoms
strongly coupled to electromagnetic fields in an ultrahigh- III. SELF-ASSEMBLED SEMICONDUCTOR QDS
Fabry–Pérot cavity [30]. Experimentally demonstrated ul- Semiconductor QDs [46] with their high atom-like den-
trahigh factors of microspheres 8 10 [23] and sity of states, narrow emission linewidths, and size of the
toroid microcavities 10 [24] make these structures order of a de Broglie wavelength offer distinct advantages
potential candidates for CQED experiments. Alternative over quantum wells and bulk semiconductors. Self-organized
versions of semiconductor optical microresonators such as QDs grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) or metal–or-
micropillars have so far failed to deliver sufficiently high ganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) have proven to be the
values for CQED, but have found an important application best approach to obtain the desired properties of QDs [47],
in triggered single-photon sources [28], [29], [36]. Since [48]. The self-organized growth techniques produce confined
the idea was proposed by Gérard et al. [37], QDs with electronic islands of various shapes with fluctuations in size
their atom-like density of states have gradually become the and composition. An atomic force microscopy (AFM) image
preferred emitter used in the more recent demonstrations, of a layer of MBE-grown self organized InAs QDs and a
since, unlike neutral atoms, QDs can be confined in the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of a single
high field density regions within the semiconductors. The InGaAs dot are shown in Fig. 2(a). Growth optimization to
demonstrated semiconductor single mode micropost devices achieve control of dot size and hence emission wavelength,
with an embedded QD provide experimental evidence of uniformity, and density is an area of active research. Fig. 2(b)
weak coupling [28], [29] and up to 32-fold enhancement shows an example of narrow photoluminescence spectra of
in spontaneous emission [38]. These results present several InAs QDs with high size uniformity.
practical advantages such as single mode operation, narrow QDs exhibit lower absorption than bulk and quantum
wells and hence contribute minimally to the degradation
emission linewidth, lower (and potentially zero) threshold
of the surrounding optical cavity, which is significant for
lasing, and higher collection efficiency when microcavity
microcavity applications. Much progress has already been
resonators are used as light emitters. The major challenge
reported on applications of self-organized QDs in semicon-
in obtaining high microcavities in the optical regime
ductor IR lasers that have shown lower threshold currents
with the above techniques is that radiative losses increase
and low temperature sensitivity [49]. While the quantum
with decreasing volume of the cavity. Such microcavities yield of the quantum well devices is relatively low, the
also routinely suffer from losses at the surfaces (hence lower emission efficiency due to effective charge carrier capture,
). Furthermore, when the horizontal width of the cavity no defects within the dot, and lower nonradiative recom-
is reduced to approximately 1–2 m (i.e., as the volume bination from the QDs has already proved to be sufficient
is reduced), the cavity varies widely even with slight to observe single-photon phenomena [50]. Other notable
geometry variations, and it is difficult to obtain repeatable QD features include high oscillator strength, large dipole
performance. Finally, these techniques offer limited flexi- moments, optical nonlinearities, and elimination of photon
bility in designing the cavity mode profiles. shelving [51].
PC-based optical cavities have numerous advantages When applied as active emitters in light sources, QDs
including superior mechanical stability, relaxed fabrication provide three–dimensional (3-D) confinement for electrons
tolerances, and possibility of electrical excitation, over the while a 2-D PC slab microcavity provides 3-D confine-
above devices and have emerged as the preferred technology ment of photons. The advantages of both systems are

BHATTACHARYA et al.: QUANTUM DOT PHOTONIC CRYSTAL LIGHT SOURCES 1827

Fig. 2. (a) AFM image of self-organized MBE-grown InGaAs QDs and a TEM image of a single dot. (b) Photoluminescence spectra of highly uniform InAs
QDs grown by MBE.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic of a surface-emitting electrically injected device with 2-D PC horizontal confinement. The cavity is formed by a single defect in the
2-D PC. (b) SEM images of top view of a fabricated InP-based device with top electrical ohmic contact surrounding the PBG with the single defect magnified
in the inset and cross-sectional image of the 2-D PBG slab.

simultaneously exploited to obtain greater enhancement regime. While QDs provide intrinsically better performance
in spontaneous emission rate, higher Purcell factors, and than quantum wells, only a small fraction of QDs in a cavity
enhanced light-matter interaction in the strong coupling actually contributes to the gain and spontaneous enhance-

1828 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 93, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
ment as the cavity is increased. A better control of the
size, position, and number of QDs and higher cavities are
needed to achieve the maximum potential of this system.

IV. OPTICALLY PUMPED PC MICROCAVITIES

There are two methods of achieving excitation of the
active material inside the cavity—optical pumping and elec-
trical injection. Devices requiring optical pumping require
relatively simple heterostructure design, are easier to fabri-
cate, and provide clear comparisons with theoretical mode
simulations. Two-dimensional PCs formed of a triangular
lattice of air-holes in free-standing semiconductor slabs
[52]–[54] have become most popular systems used to study
PC microcavity effects due to their ability to accommodate
an appropriate photoluminescent material within the high
field regions. By selectively removing one or more air-holes
and thereby introducing a defect mode(s) in a 2-D photonic
lattice, or modifying the region near the cavity, a microcavity
with a wide range of tailored modes excitable by the active
material within the cavity can be created. Although these
structures provide only quasi-3-D light confinement with
the horizontal confinement provided by the PBG and the
vertical confinement by total internal reflection provided by
the cladding (air, oxide, or DBR), they are rather capable of
confining light within small cavities with significantly high
factors.
Ideally, a 3-D PC with a defect microcavity formed by a
missing period in the lattice would provide the best confine-
ment for a light emitter placed inside the cavity, due to the
PBG confinement in all spatial dimensions. While there are
interesting results on 3-D PCs in different material systems
[55], it is practically difficult to fabricate cavities with suffi-
ciently high in semiconductor-based 3-D PCs and, at the
same time, incorporate a suitable active emitter within those
cavities.
Two-dimensional PC defect microcavities can provide
both sufficiently high as well as ultrasmall modal vol-
umes ( ) and hence a very high ratio—a necessary
Fig. 4. (a) L–I characteristics of a single-defect GaAs-based quantum
condition for achieving a high spontaneous emission rate well device at 300 K in pulsed mode showing “soft” threshold current of
enhancement. The quasi-3-D nature of these structures 300 A. (b) Spectral characteristics of the device under different current in-
allows for mode coupling to the radiated modes in the ver- jection levels.
tical direction, which establishes a significant radiation loss
mechanism and reduction in the cavities. A simple cavity resulted in the highest reported for a Si-based 2-D PC slab
in triangular lattice formed by removing one air-hole sup- of 45 000 [52]. This was achieved by cautiously confining
ports doubly degenerate dipole modes with a rather modest light in short linear cavities and by tuning the cavity di-
of a few hundreds. The can be improved by splitting the mensions to achieve the lowest radiation mode losses while
mode degeneracy by modifying the size or position of the PC slightly increasing modal volume. More systematic algo-
holes around the cavity. Extensive numerical design work rithmic -optimization studies of PC microcavities using
using 3-D finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulation the inverse-problem approach replacing previously used the
tools performed by Scherer et al. at Caltech led to optimized trial-and-error methods have been applied by Geremia et al.
single cell cavity designs in air-clad semiconductor slabs [61].
with large ( ) factors [41], [56], [57]. These and similar Gradual improvement of free-standing 2-D PC
studies performed by other groups involved the optimization slab-based optical microcavities led to the development
of the slab thickness [58], and modification of sizes and ge- of submicrometer-scale low-threshold lasers. These ideally
ometries of cavities embedded in both square and triangular “thresholdless” lasers described by Yokohama [62] behave
lattice PCs [59], [60]. It should be noted that such flexibility rather differently from their Fabry–Pérot counterparts, as
in designing the geometry of optical microcavities is only they essentially eliminate the distinction between sponta-
offered by PCs. Similar work performed by Noda et al. neous and stimulated emission. In an ideal microcavity, all

BHATTACHARYA et al.: QUANTUM DOT PHOTONIC CRYSTAL LIGHT SOURCES 1829

 (a)

(b)

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic representation of a bottom emitting PC QD device

with the p-metal contact placed directly above the PC microcavity. (b) De-
vice heterostructure grown by MBE.
Fig. 5. (a) Device heterostructure grown by MBE with an n-type lower
GaAs/Al Ga As DBR mirror, an undoped -cavity ( = 1:04 m) incorporate them in the gain region of PC optical microcav-
region with five layer InAs/GaAs QDs active region, and p-type AlGaAs and ities. Early promising results reported by Yoshie et al. [72]
contact layers on the top. (b) L–I characteristics in pulsed-mode (1 s with
1% duty cycle) of PC two- (H2) and five-defect (H5) period microcavity; were followed by attempts to design and fabricate QD PC
inset shows the near-field image of two-defect period microcavity 1.38 mm lasers [73]–[76] and optical microcavities for strong-cou-
surface diameter under 7.15 mA injection measured at a distance of 4 mm pling CQED [40], [77]. Many of the demonstrated devices
from the device surface.
exhibit QD spontaneous emission enhancement, but, to the
best of our knowledge, to this date there is no experimental
the photons are emitted into a single microcavity resonant demonstration of strongly coupled QDs in PC microcavities
mode and the loss to the free space is eliminated. As the or single-cell microcavity lasers. Lasing action has, however,
excitation power is increased, there is no mode competition, been demonstrated by Scherer et al. in coupled cavities in
and the single emission gradually shifts from spontaneous square lattice PCs [78]. In this work, coupled cavity design
to stimulated without a sharp turn-on. was employed to increase optical gain of QDs. The diffi-
The first optically pumped single-mode PC microcavity culties associated with demonstration of QD nanolasers are
laser with emission at 1.55 m was reported by Painter et al. mostly attributed to the relatively low optical gain of QDs
in 1999 [53]. The active region in this device was provided by due to lower emitter density and inhomogeneous emission
compressively strained InGaAsP quantum wells enclosed in broadening due to dot size variations and insufficient exper-
a single missing defect microcavity with split dipole degen- imental factors of fabricated PC microcavities.
eracy. Similar quantum well devices with improved micro-
cavity designs, higher factors, and lower lasing thresholds
were demonstrated by the same group at Caltech [63] and V. ELECTRICALLY INJECTED PC MICROCAVITY
others [64]–[68]. Several authors have reviewed the design LIGHT SOURCES
and fabrication of PC microcavity lasers [69]–[71]. Several electrically injected lasers using the concept of
Recognizing the advantages of QDs over quantum wells PCs have been demonstrated [79]–[82]. The first 1.55- m
in microcavity applications several groups attempted to electrically injected laser was reported by Imada et al. [79]

1830 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 93, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
 (a)

(b)

Fig. 7. (a) SEM image of the fabricated device before the passivaton and Fig. 8. (a) IR image of the output spot of a larger cavity H3 showing the
p-metal deposition. (b) Etched PC cross section. light being emitted from the resonant cavity region. The biased device is il-
luminated from the top with a white light source and the image is taken from
with InGaAsP/InP multiquantum well system using wafer fu- 2
the bottom using 100 lens focused on the polished substrate. (b) Spectral
characteristics of a H3 device showing multiple cavity resonances.
sion techniques. Lasing action was also observed in electri-
cally injected PC cavity coupled edge emitters [80], and PC crocavity light source with multiquantum well emission at
VCSELs [81]. The progress on electrically injected PC mi- 0.9 m [84]. The approach to electrical injection pursued
crocavity light sources [83] has been hampered mainly by by our group involves using oxide clad structures and DBRs
difficulties associated with carrier injection into a small ac- with doped posts for current injection defined under the PC
tive region and elimination of surface-state recombination. microcavity. This configuration generally leads to lower
Various practical applications including device integration factors due to the reduced refractive index contrast, but pro-
require high- PC microcavities that can be pumped elec- vides better mechanical stability and thermal conductivity.
trically. Major challenges facing electrical injection include The device heterostructure, grown by MOVPE, consists of an
the complex heterostructure, difficult 3-D mode calcula- undoped n thick cavity gain region with a pair of 70-
tions, and relatively large etch depths compared to optically compressively strained In Ga As GaAs quantum
pumped PC free-standing slab structures. However, the most wells and p-type Al Ga As and contact layers on the top.
important consideration in designing electrically pumped N and p-type Al Ga As layers were added for lateral
microcavity light sources is the position of the electrical oxidation to improve carrier injection into the microcavity
contacts. Unlike some other types of optical microresonators region. The device configuration shown in Fig. 3(a) is similar
such as micropillars and microdiscs, PCs possess the neces- to that of an oxide-confined VCSEL without the top mirror
sary stability to allow for a relatively straightforward carrier [85]. The single-cell microcavity was designed with a 2-D
injection scheme used usually in VCSELs [Fig. 3(a)]. How- PBG for TE-like modes encompassing the quantum well
ever, this standard injection method allows for significant photoluminescence peak at 0.94 m. We used calculations
carrier loss mechanisms, and many of the devices demon- based on plane-wave expansion and effective index method
strated so far routinely suffer from high carrier losses in the to obtain the final design parameters of 0.4 m for the
surface states as the carriers have to transverse the etched lattice period and 0.13 m for the hole diameter. The –
surfaces of the PC to reach the active region [83]. measurement results and spectral characteristics obtained
from this device shown in Fig. 4 indicate a gradual turn-on,
A. Quantum Well Devices or a “soft” threshold, typical of optical microcavity devices
To the best of our knowledge, our group demonstrated with a few modes or a single mode [85]. The maximum
the first electrically injected surface-emitting 2-D PC mi- measured output power in these devices is 14.4 W, and

BHATTACHARYA et al.: QUANTUM DOT PHOTONIC CRYSTAL LIGHT SOURCES 1831

Fig. 9. (a) Emission spectra of a single missing defect cavity with a split dipole degeneracy showing a 3-nm-broad microcavity resonance at 1063 nm. (b)
L–I characteristics of a modified H1 single-cell microcavity.

we observed 15-fold enhancement of spontaneous emission cently by Park et al. [87]. The demonstrated device is based
due to the Purcell factor. The emission spectra at different on an air-clad free-standing PC slab supported by a micro-
injection currents are shown in Fig. 4(b). Using a similar post that is used for carrier injection, heat dissipation, and
configuration, an InGaAsP/InP-based multiquantum well mode selection. The laser exhibits many desirable properties
emitter was also fabricated and tested showing slightly lower of microcavity light sources such as single-mode operation,
light output (0.8 W) [86]. The SEM micrographs of the small modal volume with high 2500 , large sponta-
fabricated device shown in Fig. 3(b). It is worthwhile to note neous emission and Purcell factors (389), and
that we obtained large values of spontaneous emission fac- low threshold current 260 A . The device represents a
tors corresponding to the fraction of spontaneous emission significant step toward electrically pumped PC microcavity
coupled to the microcavity resonant mode, namely, lasers suitable for CQED studies.
for the GaAs-based microcavity device and for the
InP-based device. These values, though less than unity, are B. QD Devices
significantly larger than conventional semiconductor lasers
10 10 . We have attempted to incorporate QDs in the active region
A significant experimental landmark in the pursuit of elec- of electrically pumped PC optical microcavities [88]. The
trically injected optical microresonators has been reached re- QD heterostructure used in this device is shown in Fig. 5(a),

1832 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 93, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
Fig. 10. (a) SEM image of the fabricated PC 6 m cavity device (H15) coupled to a three-missing defect waveguide. (b) Measured spectral characteristics
showing spontaneous emission coupled to the waveguide.

and the device schematic is similar to quantum well emit- Placing the p-metal contact directly above the PC micro-
ters discussed in Section V-A. The PBG in normalized fre- cavity presents a promising way of improving the carrier
quency range is between 0.39 and 0.43. The normalized injection efficiency of PC emitters. We have attempted to ad-
frequency at mid-gap is chosen for our design dress this issue with a bottom emitting device with oxide clad
encompassing the peak emission of the QDs at m active region and additional pairs of GaAs/Al Ga As
and fill factor . The final design values for the PC DBRs above and below the active region for improved
with a hexagonal unit cell are m and m. vertical mode confinement is shown in the device schematic
QDs offer a significantly lower gain when compared with and QD heterostructure in Fig. 6(a) and (b), respectively.
quantum wells, which results in significantly lower output Although considerably degrading the factors of resonant
powers 0.17 W even from larger multicell cavities H2. modes, this method provides superior stability and thermal
It is estimated that there are 500 dots in the PC microcavity. conductivity to the alternative free standing structures [87].
Due to extremely low output power from these devices, we The oxide cladding that improves both carrier and optical
were unable to study output spectral characteristics, but we mode confinement is created by selective wet oxidation of
did observe a consistent increase of light output as the cavity 85 nm Al Ga As layers surrounding the active GaAs
size decreases, which we attributed to improved output direc- region with embedded QDs. The PC pattern defined by elec-
tionality due to microcavity effects. The – characteristics tron beam lithography was transferred on a silicon nitride
of H2 and H5 hexagonal microcavities are shown in Fig. 5(b). mask that served as an etch mask for the deep GaAs elec-
The near-field image of the output, shown in the inset, con- tron cyclotron resonance (ECR) reactive ion etch. We have
firms photon emission from the PC microcavity and not the investigated microcavities of various sizes and geometries
patterned area around it. such as short linear cavities, single-cell cavities with split

BHATTACHARYA et al.: QUANTUM DOT PHOTONIC CRYSTAL LIGHT SOURCES 1833

degeneracies, and larger hexagonal cavities. The top view of
the PC microcavity before the silicon oxide passivation and
interconnect deposition is shown in Fig. 7(a) and the device
cross section in Fig. 7(b). The devices were characterized
in pulsed mode (5% duty cycle) at room temperature, and
the output light was observed through the polished semi-in-
sulating substrate. The IR image of the biased device with
a H3-microcavity illuminated with a white-light source ob-
tained with a 100 lens (numerical aperture ) shows
light emitted from the resonant cavity region surrounded by (a)
PC region [Fig. 8(a)]. Emission spectra of PC microcavities
with different sizes and geometries clearly show narrow
resonances corresponding to individual modes supported
by microcavities. Figs. 8(b) and 9(a) show such resonances
observed in a hexagonal H3 and a single-cell modified
H1 microcavity, respectively. It is estimated that there are
on average 50 QDs confined in the H1 microcavity. The
linewidth of these microcavity resonances is dictated by the
microcavity factor. For the case of H3 microcavity, we
observed a single 3-nm broad peak, and for a modified
H1 cavity we observed 1.5-nm multiple resonances at the
QD electroluminescence peak, which corresponds to cavity
cold factors of 350 and 700, respectively. It should be
noted that these values are considerably smaller than those
observed in free-standing electrically injected structures
2500 [87], which is due to low vertical of our (b)
low-index contrast structures. Due to the limited detector
Fig. 11. (a) Schematic of a PC edge emitter based on a twin-guide het-
sensitivity, we do not observe any indication of a threshold erostructure that avoids the reabsorption in the waveguide region. (b) Spec-
in the – curve for the H1 device, shown in Fig. 9(b). Such tral characteristics of a 50-m PC resonant cavity coupled to a three-missing
defect waveguide and electroluminescence of an unpatterned sample. Indi-
behavior is characteristic of ideal single-mode microcavity vidual cavity resonances can be distinguished in the spectra.
devices [85]. If there is, however, a measurable threshold
below the detection sensitivity of our germanium detector, it
is considerably lower than any value in electrically pumped
been done on design of unique PC coupled cavity waveg-
PC microcavity devices reported so far. The demonstrated
uides [90] and on coupling of PC missing defect waveguides
H1 device is a near-perfect single-mode light emitter diode
[91], [92] to PC resonant microcavities [93]. Ultrasmall mi-
(or microcavity laser), and it represents a considerable crocavity resonant add/drop filters have been realized [13],
improvement over our previous QD electrically injected and complex integration schemes have been demonstrated
microcavity devices with low-index contrast vertical con- using cavity/waveguide and coupled cavity designs on ac-
finement [88]. By further reducing the QD density and/or tive quantum well and QD PC slabs [94]. We have attempted
reducing the cavity size while preserving the high , it is to address the in-plane device integration issues and demon-
conceivable that a single dot will be successfully embedded strated electrically injected 2-D PC-based light sources cou-
in an electrically injected high-Q PC nanocavity in the near pled to PC-based waveguides [95]. The top view SEM of a
future. Further improvements in vertical cavity factor are fabricated PC resonant cavity to a three-missing defect wave-
achievable through introducing more DBRs in the vertical guide (W3) is shown in Fig. 10(a). The observed spectra con-
direction. Currently available state-of-the-art chemically tain little evidence of coherent photon exchange between the
assisted ion beam etching (CAIBE) technology approaches resonant cavity and the waveguide as it mainly reflects the
the aspect ratios necessary to etch through such structures dispersion properties of the W3 PC waveguide [Fig. 10(b)].
[89]. This could lead to efficient electrically injected PBG It should be noted that reabsorption in the QD external
VCSELs with ultralow thresholds, exceptional mode con- waveguide layer increases the waveguide losses and consid-
finement, and superior mechanical and thermal stability. erably limits the size and complexity of the optical circuits.
As an important step toward practical devices, we have
VI. DEVICE PLANAR INTEGRATION explored multilayered waveguide structures that avoid light
reabsorption in the waveguide region without applying MBE
Various optoelectronic applications including small-scale regrowth on patterned substrates [96]. The device shown
sensors and optical communication systems require integra- schematically in Fig. 11(a) consists of an active cylindrical
tion of PC-based microstructures. Significant progress has cavity for light oscillations and the external waveguide in

1834 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 93, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
which the PC resonant cavity and waveguide are defined. [9] C. J. M. Smith, H. Benisty, S. Olivier, M. Rattier, C. Weisbuch,
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He is the Charles M. Vest Distinguished
Lee, “Single-fundamental-mode photonic crystal vertical-cavity
University Professor of Electrical Engineering
surface-emitting lasers,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 80, pp. 3901–3903, and Computer Science and the James R. Mellor
2002. Professor of Engineering in the Department of
[82] A. Talneau, L. LeGratiet, J. L. Gentner, A. Berrier, M. Mulot, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
S. Anand, and S. Olivier, “High external efficiency in monomode at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He
full-photonic-crystal laser under continuous wave electrical injec- is Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Physics D. He
tion,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 85, pp. 1913–1915, 2004. has edited Properties of Lattice-Matched and
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McGurn, “Cavities of crystal light—Electrically injected photonic Quantum Wells and Superlattices (London, U.K.: INSPEC, 1996). He has
crystal microcavity light sources,” IEEE Circuits Devices Mag., also authored the textbook Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices (Upper
vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 25–33, Mar. 2003. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1997). His teaching and research interests
[84] W. D. Zhou, J. Sabarinathan, P. Bhattacharya, B. Kochman, are in the areas of compound semiconductors, low-dimensional quantum
E. Berg, P. C. Yu, and S. Pang, “Characteristics of a photonic confined systems, nanophotonics, and optoelectronic ICs.
bandgap single defect microcavity electroluminescent device,” Prof. Bhattacharya is a Fellow of the Institute of Physics (U.K.) and the
IEEE J. Quantum Electron., vol. 37, no. 9, pp. 1153–1160, Sep. Optical Society of America. He has received the John Simon Guggenheim
2001. Fellowship, the IEEE (EDS) Paul Rappaport Award, the IEEE (LEOS) En-
[85] J. L. Jewell, J. P. Harbison, A. Scherer, Y. H. Lee, and L. T. gineering Achievement Award, the Optical Society of America (OSA) Nick
Florez, “Vertical-cavity surface emitting lasers: Design, growth, Holonyak Award, the SPIE Technical Achievement Award, and the Quantum
fabrication, characterization,” IEEE J. Quantum Electron., vol. 27, Devices Award of the International Symposium on Compound Semiconduc-
no. 6, pp. 1332–1346, Jun. 1991. tors. He has also received the S.S. Attwood Award, the Kennedy Family
[86] J. Sabarinathan, W. D. Zhou, P. C. Yu, P. Bhattacharya, S. Research Excellence Award, and the Distinguished Faculty Achievement
Mogg, and M. Hammar, “Electrically injected 1.55 mInP-based Award from the University of Michigan. He was an Editor of the IEEE
photonic crystal microcavity coherent light source,” in Proc. TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES.
Indium Phosphide and Related Materials Conf. (IPRM) 2002, pp.
425–428.
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Baek, S.-B. Kim, and Y.-H. Lee, “Electrically driven single-cell Jayshri Sabarinathan (Member, IEEE) re-
photonic crystal laser,” Science, vol. 305, pp. 1444–1447, 2004. ceived the B.S.E. degree in electrical engineering
[88] J. Sabarinathan, P. Bhattacharya, P.-C. Yu, S. Krishna, J. Cheng, and engineering physics and the M.S.E, and
and D. G. Steel, “An electrically injected InAs/GaAs quantum Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the
dot photonic crystal microcavity light emitting diode,” Appl. Phys. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1997,
Lett., vol. 81, pp. 3876–3878, 2002. 1999 and 2003 respectively. Her Ph.D. research
[89] K. Avary, J. P. Reithmaier, F. Klopf, T. Happ, M. Kamp, and involved the demonstration of the first electri-
A. Forchel, “Deeply etched two-dimensional photonic crystals cally injected quantum dot photonic crystal (PC)
fabricated on GaAs/AlGaAs slab waveguides by using chemically microcavity light source, novel two-dimensional
assisted ion beam etching,” Microelectron. Eng., vol. 61–62, pp. PC-based microfluidic sensors and single-step
875–880, 2002. epitaxial techniques to fabricate three-dimen-
[90] T. J. Karle, D. H. Brown, R. Wilson, M. Steer, and T. Krauss, sional GaAs-based PCs.
“Planar photonic crystal coupled cavity waveguides,” IEEE J. Sel. She has extensive nanofabrication experience working at the Solid State
Topics Quantum Electron., vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 909–918, Jul./Aug. Electronics Laboratory (SSEL), University of Michigan, and the National
2002. Science Foundation-funded Cornell Nanoscale Science & Technology
[91] M. Lončar, D. Nedeljkovič, T. Doll, J. Vučković, A. Scherer, and Facility (CNF). She is currently with the University of Western Ontario,
T. P. Pearsall, “Waveguiding in planar photonic crystals,” Appl. London, ON, Canada.
Phys. Lett., vol. 77, pp. 1937–1939, 2000. Dr. Sabarinathan is a member of the International Society for Optical En-
[92] A. Talneau, L. Le Gouezigou, N. Bouadma, M. Kafesaki, C. M. gineering (SPIE), the National Electrical and Computer Engineering Honor
Soukoulis, and M. Agio, “Photonic-crystal ultrashort bends with Society—Eta Kappa Nu (HKN), and the Engineering Honor Society—Tau
improved transmission and low reflection at 1.55 m,” Appl. Phys. Beta Pi (TBP). She received the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Lett., vol. 80, pp. 547–549, 2002. Council of Canada University Faculty award (UFA) in 2004.
[93] C. J. M. Smith, R. M. De La Rue, M. Ratier, S. Olivier, H.
Benisty, C. Weisbuch, T. F. Krauss, R. Houdre, and U. Oesterle,
“Coupled guide and cavity in two-dimensional photonic crystal,”
Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 78, pp. 1487–1489, 2001. Juraj Topol’ančik received the B.A. degree in
[94] S. Olivier, C. J. M. Smith, H. Benisty, C. Weisbuch, T. F. Krauss, physics from Berea College, Berea, KY, and the
R. Houdré, and U. Oesterle, “Cascaded photonic crystal guides M.S. degree in applied physics from the Univer-
and cavities: spectral studies and their impact on integrated optics sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1999 and 2002,
design,” IEEE J. Quantum. Electon., vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 816–824, respectively. He is currently working toward the
Jul. 2002. Ph.D. degree in applied physics at the University
[95] J. Topol’ančik, S. Pradhan, P.-C. Yu, S. Ghosh, and P. Bhat- of Michigan.
tacharya, “Electrically injected photonic crystal edge-emitting His current research focuses on photonic
quantum-dot light source,” IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 16, crystal light emitters and microfluidic sensors.
no. 4, pp. 960–962, Apr. 2004.

BHATTACHARYA et al.: QUANTUM DOT PHOTONIC CRYSTAL LIGHT SOURCES 1837

 Swapnajit Chakravarty received the B.E. Weidong Zhou (Member, IEEE) received the
degree in electrical engineering from Jadavpur Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the
University, Calcutta, India, in 2001 and the M.S. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 2001.
degree in electrical engineering from the Uni- He was a lead engineer at CIENA Corpora-
versity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, in 2003. tion, working on active photonic components
He is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree and subsystems for WDM telecommunication
in solid-state electronics, in particular, photonic systems. He joined the faculty of the University
crystal devices, at the University of Michigan, of Texas, Arlington, in 2004. His thesis focus
Ann Arbor. was on novel transmitter research involving
His research interests involve fabrication, pro- microcavity, quantum dot, and photonic crystal
cessing, and characterization of III-V optoelec- devices, which led to over 35 peer reviewed
tronic devices. journal publications, conference presentations, and invited/plenary talks.
His research experience includes areas of semiconductor lasers and re-
ceiver- and transceiver-based optoelectronic ICs (OEICs), and spans from
design and fabrication to characterization. His current research interest
Pei-Chen Yu received the B.S. degree in elec- includes photonic crystal-based semiconductor lasers and detectors, OEICs,
trophysics and the M.S. degree in electrooptical and nanophotonic- and nanoelectronic-based photonic ICs.
engineering from National Chiao-Tung Univer- Dr. Zhou is a Member of Tau Beta Pi. His major awards include Out-
sity, Taiwan, in 1996 and 1998, respectively, standing Student of Beijing City (Beijing, China, 1992), Outstanding Grad-
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering uates Award (Tsinghua University, gold medal, 1993); Rackham Predoctoral
from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in Fellow (University of Michigan, 2000–2001); and 2nd IEEE/LEOS Grad-
2004. Her doctoral research involved the design, uate Student Fellowship award (IEEE/LEOS, 2000).
modeling, fabrication, and characterization of
photonic crystal light sources and detectors.
She is currently with Intel Corporation, Hills-
boro, OR.

1838 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 93, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005

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