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MISHRA., M.; SEN, S.

Provenance, tectonic setting and source-area weathering of Mesoproterozoic Kaimur Group, Vindhyan
Supergroup, Central India
Geologica Acta: an international earth science journal, vol. 10, núm. 3, septiembre, 2012, pp. 283-293
Universitat de Barcelona
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Geologica Acta, Vol.10, Nº 3, September 2012, 283-293
DOI: 10.1344/105.000001759
A v a i l a b l e o n l i n e a t w w w. g e o l o g i c a - a c t a . c o m

Provenance, tectonic setting and source-area weathering of

Mesoproterozoic Kaimur Group, Vindhyan Supergroup, Central India

1, 2 1
M. MISHRA and S. SEN

1 Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi-221005

2 Presently at School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University

New Delhi-110068. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The siliciclastic of the Upper Kaimur Group of the Vindhyan Supergroup in Central India have been geochemically
studied in order to understand their provenance, paleoweathering conditions and tectonic conditions. A-CN-K
(Al2O3-CaO-K2O) ternary diagram and chemical index of alteration (CIA) values suggest that the granitic source
rocks underwent moderate to high degree of chemical weathering under moderate weathering conditions for an
extended period of time, or under humid weathering for shorter periods of time. Similar CIA values in all textural
types indicate that recycling processes homogenized the shale and sandstone compositions. Various geochemical
discriminants and elemental ratios such as K2O/Na2O, Al2O3/TiO2, SiO2/MgO, La/Sc, Th/Sc, Zr/Sc, Th/Cr, [Gd/
Yb]N and pronounced negative Eu anomalies indicate the rocks to be the product of post-Archean, Proterozoic
granitic source, with minor granodioritic input and substantial sediment recycling. The geochemical signatures
corroborate their deposition in a subsiding foreland basin over Bundelkhand craton with provenance from south,
south westerly Chotanagpur granite gneiss.

KEYWORDS Kaimur Group. Vindhyan Supergroup. Siliciclastic. Geochemistry. Proterozoic granite. Foreland basin.

INTRODUCTION setting, paleoweathering conditions and paleoclimate of

the clastic sedimentary rocks (Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia and
Mineralogical and chemical compositions of Crook, 1986; Roser and Korsch, 1986, 1988; McLennan
terrigenous sedimentary rocks are the products of several and Taylor, 1991; Johnsson and Basu, 1993; McLennan
variables such as provenance, weathering conditions, et al., 1993; Condie, 1993; Nesbitt et al., 1996; Fedo et
transport, diagenesis, climate and tectonism (Johnsson and al., 1997; Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000, 2002; Bhatt and
Basu, 1993). In geochemical studies, the major elements Ghosh, 2001).
and the selected trace elements like Th, Sc, Co, Cr, Zr, Hf,
Y including rare earth elements (REEs) and their elemental The Vindhyan basin is the largest (presently exposed
ratios are sensitive indicators of the source rocks, tectonic area 104,000km2) of the Precambrian sedimentary basins

283
M. MISHRA and S. SEN Geochemistry of Kaimur sediments from central India

in India (Fig. 1). It comprises a thick (4000m in the GEOLOGICAL SETTING

thickest parts) sequence of largely unmetamorphosed and
undeformed succession of shales, sandstones, limestones, The Vindhyan basin is the repository of the thickest
dolostones with subordinate, felsic volcanics and Proterozoic succession in India. The basin overlies the
volcaniclastics. They were deposited from before 1.7Ga stable Bundelkhand craton of Archean-Early Proterozoic
until shortly after 1Ga (Soni et al., 1987; Sarangi et al., age (Roy, 1988; Chakraborty and Bhattacharya, 1996; Bose
2004; Gregory et al., 2006; Chakraborty, 2006; Malone et al., 2001; Achharya, 2003). The Vindhyan Supergroup is
et al., 2008). Kajrahat limestone yielded a Pb–Pb age of broadly divided into four Groups—Semri, Kaimur, Rewa
1721±90Ma (Sarangi et al., 2004). Rasmussen et al. (2002) and Bhander—from bottom to top. The Kaimur Group with
and Ray et al. (2002) have published consistent U–Pb a thickness up to 400m lies unconformably over the tilted,
ages of 1630 and 1631Ma from the Deonar/Porcellanite mildly deformed and partially eroded Rohtas Limestone of
Formation. Thus the sedimentation in the basin (particularly the Semri Group. The outcrops of the Semri and Kaimur
in the Son valley) started sometime prior to 1721Ma and Groups are exposed in the Son valley area, bounded by
continued up to ~650Ma. However the upper limit of the Bundelkhand Granitic Complex (BGC) to the north
Vindhyan sedimentation has been bracketed down to 1Ma and by the Mahakoshal Group and Chotanagpur Gneissic
by Malone et al. (2008). Complex in the southern margin (Fig. 2).

The Lower Vindhyans/Semri Group constitutes Age constraints for the Kaimur Group, derive from the
the dominant carbonate deposit while the overlying Rb/Sr dating of a kimberlite pipe that intrudes the Kaimur
Kaimur Group is majorly a siliciclastic deposit (Table 1). Group at Majhgawan: Crawford and Compston (1970)
Therefore, the geochemical signatures of the siliciclastic reported 1140+247Ma. Kumar et al. (1993) reported
Kaimur Group provide strong evidences of the changing 1067+31Ma; more recently Gregory et al. (2006) reported
depositional environment, climatic conditions, tectonics 1073.5+13.7Ma 40Ar/39Ar on phologopite in the pipe. The
and weathering conditions during the Mesoproterozoic Kaimur Group has been divided into Lower Kaimur Group
era. The purposes of this paper are: i) to report the results and Upper Kaimur Group. The Lower Kaimur Group is
of geochemical analysis of sandstone and shales from the further divided into the Sasaram Formation, the Ghurma
Upper Kaimur Group of the Vindhyan Supergroup and ii) to Shale and the Markundi Sandstone. While the Upper
interpret these data in relation to source rock composition, Kaimur Group comprises three Formations: Bijaigarh Shale
weathering history and tectonic setting of the depositional being the lowermost, followed by the Scarp Sandstone
basin. and the Dhandraul Sandstone (Auden, 1933; Prakash and
Dalela, 1982) (Fig. 2).

Delhi The traverse was taken along Markundi-Ghat and

Aravalli Study Area Churk sections in the district of Sonbhadra (Fig. 2), where
B
the Upper Kaimur Group (Dhandraul Sandstone, Scarp
Vindhyan Basin Sandstone and Bijaigarh Shale) is exposed and Lower
5
Kaimur Group has been cut by the Markundi-Jamwal Fault
4
(Prakash and Dalela, 1982). Thus Bijaigarh Formation
t Singhbhum
Narmada Son rif M
ah
an 3 Kolkata
directly rests over the Semri Group. The relevant details
20O N ad
Bastar 2 iR pertaining to the stratigraphy, lithology and structure of the
Mumbai
ift
N
Upper Kaimur Group exposed in the study area are given in
Go

MB
da

EG Table 1. The depositional environments for the Dhandraul

va
ri
Ri

Sandstone include fluvio-eolian interactive systems; the

ft

2
war
Dhar rn
Easte

Lower Kaimur and Bijaigarh Formations and the Scarp

We arwa
Dh

Sandstone of Upper Kaimur are interpreted to have been

ste r

2 Deccan Basalt
Chennai
rn

Bangalore
Clospet Granite
deposited in marine environments, by the earlier workers
Cratons
10O N Southern Gneiss granite (Auden, 1933; Morad et al., 1991; Chakraborty and Bose,
Granulitic Transistion
Thrust mapped
1992; Bhattacharya and Morad, 1993; Chakraborty, 1993,
Terrain
and inferred
study area
1996; Bose et al., 2001; Paikaray et al., 2008; Mishra and
80OE
70OE Sen, 2008, 2010).

FIGURE 1 Major cratons and structural features of India (after Naqvi Dhandraul sandstone
and Rogers, 1987). Major structural features are: 1) Small thrusts in
western Dharwar craton; 2) Eastern Ghat front; 3) Sukinda thrust; 4)
Singhbhum thrust; 5) Son Valley; and 6) Great Boundary fault. EGMB: It comprises white, supermature and coarse-grained
Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt. sandstone. The beds are mostly tabular and laterally con-

Geologica Acta, 10(3), 283-293 (2012) 284

DOI: 10.1344/105.000001759
M. MISHRA and S. SEN Geochemistry of Kaimur sediments from central India

TABLE 1 Stratigraphy of Vindhyan Supergroup showing details of Upper Kaimur Group (after Prakash and Dalela, 1982) with special reference to
Table -1 Stratigraphy of Vindhyan Supergroup showing details of Upper Kaimur Group (after Prakash and Dalela, 1982) with special
lithology, structure and samples analyzed
reference to lithology, structure and samples analyzed. Thickness in meters.
Group Formation Lithology Structures Samples analysed
Dominantly Large scale cross bedding, MR-1, MAR-1, MR-2,
Bhander Dhandraul Sandstone arenaceous (medium through bedding ripple marks MAR-2, MAR-16,
(139-580) (120m) to coarse grained) SPC-13
texturally coarsening
upward sequence
Upper Rewa Upper Scarp Sandstone Medium grained Cross bedding, fault gouge MAR-11, MAR-12,
Vindhyan (360-3000) Kaimur (150m) sandstone variegated and breccia, water seepages, MAR-13, MAR-14,
colours (pink to gray) seepages, drag fold, ripple MAR-15, SPC-1,
sublitharenite marks, clay galls SPC-3
Kaimur Bijaigarh Shale Heterogeneous Wavy laminations, Wavy MAR-4, MAR-10
(8-400) (25m) lithology, reddish pyritiferous laminae, microbial SPC-6, MAR-22
brown to buff colour mats, mud cracks, ripple and SPC-7, MAR-25,
shale ranging from wrinkle marks, flute casts, MR-6
silstone to mudstone. rain prints, adhesion marks
Carbonaceous shales
Markundi Sandstone Lowe kaimur formations are omitted by Markundi-Jamwal fault (Prakash
Lower Ghurma Shale & Dalela, 1982
Kaimur Sasaram Sandstone
~~Faulted/Normal contact~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Lower Vindhyan/ Semri Group
(760-3055m)

tinuous for tens to hundreds of meters with sharp bounda-

ries. The Dhandraul Sandstone exhibits sedimentary struc-
tures like large scale cross bedding with long, low-angle
foresets which alternate with cosets of parallel laminated
sandstone, intersecting trough bedding and ripple marks.
The Dhandraul Sandstone is petrographically quartz aren-
ite. The modal analyses data of Dhandraul Sandstone plot
in the quartz arenite field and with few in the subarkose field
(Sen, 2010) of Folk’s (1980) classification. The grains are
very well sorted with a high degree of sphericity and round-
ness. Monocrystalline quartz dominates the polycrystalline
variety. Zircon and tourmaline among the heavy minerals,
chert and lithic fragments are also present. Lithic fragments
often exhibit plutonic igneous textures like granophyric,
graphic and perthitic.

Scarp sandstone

This sandstone is of variegated color and medium-

grained. It is defined by planar, laterally impersistent
erosional surfaces which are invariably carpeted by
lensoid bodies of conglomerates consisting of flattened
and angular red shale pebbles of intraformational origin.
Trough and planar cross bedding are the most prominent
sedimentary structures observed. Scarp Sandstone mainly
comprises fine to medium sized angular to subangular
quartz grains of monocrystalline and polycrystalline
nature. Both ferruginous and siliceous cement are present.
Quartz grains exhibit moderate sorting, low degree of
sphericity and etched surfaces. Chert and lithic fragments
and detrital grains of muscovite, zircon and tourmaline FIGURE 2 Detailed geological map of the Vindhyan Supergroup in the
are also observed. The modal analyses data of the Scarp Son valley area (modified after Auden, 1933).

Geologica Acta, 10(3), 283-293 (2012) 285

DOI: 10.1344/105.000001759
M. MISHRA and S. SEN Geochemistry of Kaimur sediments from central India

Sandstone plot in the sublitharenite and quartz arenite the Bijaigarh Shale. A higher K2O/Na2O ratio (2.5 to 97)
fields (Sen, 2010) of Folk’s classification (1980). indicates dominance of the feldspar, illite and mica. Bearing
in mind that Al2O3 resides in feldspars, while TiO2 in mafic
Bijaigarh shale minerals, the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio of 10.6–27 indicates these
rocks come from a felsic source. This is also supported by
This Formation exhibits lithological heterogeneities; the low values of MgO. TiO2 is present in rutile. However,
dominantly made up of shales with wavy laminations a relatively high concentration of Fe2O3 (0.8-5wt%) in the
and intercalated fine-grained sandstone. Sedimentary Scarp sandstone and Bijaigarh shale could be attributed to
structures like ripple marks, wrinkle marks and polygonal the presence of ferruginous cement.
mudcracks are commonly observed. The shaly siltstones
comprise subangular to subrounded quartz grains with Using the geochemical classification diagram
ferruginous cement (usually pyritiferous) and subordinate of Herron (1988), the Dhandraul Sandstone, Scarp
clayey matrix. Sandstone and Bijaigarh Shale of the Kaimur Group
can be compositionally described as quartz arenite,
Thus, the siliciclastic of the Upper Kaimur Group exhibit litharenite, sublitharenite and subarkose and shale
an increase in maturity, both texturally and mineralogically respectively (Fig. 3). Roddaz et al. (2006) have
from the Bijaigarh shale at the bottom to the Dhandraul recommended Herron’s classification, suggesting it
sandstone at the top, in a coarsening-upwards sequence. to be a useful additional tool when applied to clastic
sedimentary rocks. However, a solid petrographic linkage
to chemical parameters in Kaimur siliciclastic has been
SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES corroborated with modal analyses data by Sen (2010).

Fresh representative samples were carefully selected on Trace elements

the basis of textural and compositional variations and other
distinguishing characteristics from the Markundi-Ghat and Ni does not show much variation although Cr (30 to
Churk section. A total of 21 samples were analyzed for 63ppm) shows an almost two-fold increase in value from
major oxides, trace elements and REE data; eight were from shales to arenites. Ba (22-351ppm) and Rb (13-145ppm),
the Bijaigarh Shale, seven from the Scarp Sandstone and six which are concentrated in K-feldspars and phyllosilicates,
from the Dhandraul Sandstone (Table 1). The geochemical are depleted relative to PAAS (average post-Archean
data was obtained from Activation Laboratories Ltd., Australian average shale) (Condie, 1993) as well as to
Ancaster, Ontario, Canada using ICP-OES (inductively average Proterozoic granite. However the Rb values are
coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer) (Model: comparable to average granodiorite. Sr (25-47ppm) is
Thermo-Jarret Ash ENVIRO II) for major elements, also greatly depleted when compared with PAAS, average
whereas ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma-mass granite and granodiorite. Th (3.3-15ppm) is depleted with
spectrometry) (Model: Perkin Elmer Sciex ELAN 6000)
was used to determine trace and REE concentrations. The
precision is <5% for all analyzed elements when reported
Bijaigarh Shale
at a 100X detection limit. Several standards, such as SY-3, 2.0
Mangesar Sandstone
W-2, DNC-1, BIR-1 and STM-1, were run along with the Dhandraul Sandstone
sandstone and shale samples of the Kaimur Group to check 1.4
accuracy and precision. Major, trace element and REE data H
Log (Fe2O3/K2O)

I
for the shales and sandstones from the three stratigraphic 1.0
A
units of the Upper Kaimur Group are tabulated in Tables I
0.5
and II ( Electronic Appendix, available at www.geologica- G F D
B
acta.com) respectively.
0.0
E
-0.5 C
GEOCHEMICAL RESULTS
-0.1
Major elements 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Log (Sio2/Al2O3)
As expected, the sandstones have a higher SiO2wt%,
and correspondingly a lower Al2O3wt%, than shales FIGURE 3 Plot showing classification of terrigenous sandstones and
shales of Upper Kaimur Group. A: Quartz arenite, B: Sublitharenite, C:
(Table I). All the major elements except SiO2 increase Subarkose, D: Litharenite, E: Arkose, F: Wacke, G: Shale, H: Fe-Shale,
in their concentration from the Dhandraul Sandstone to I: Fe-sand. Various fields are according to Herron (1988).

Geologica Acta, 10(3), 283-293 (2012) 286

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M. MISHRA and S. SEN Geochemistry of Kaimur sediments from central India

respect to PAAS (14.6ppm) and average granite (18ppm). U

Bijaigarh Shale
(0.9-4.7ppm) is comparable to PAAS (3.1ppm). Zr, Ti, Nb,
1000 Scarp Sandstone
Hf and Y are preferentially partitioned into melts during Dhandraul Sandstone
fractional crystallization and anatexis (Feng and Kerrich, Proterozoic Granite
1990) and, as a result, they are enriched in felsic rather Proterozoic Sandstone

Rock/Chondrite
than mafic rocks. Bijaigarh Shale exhibits a considerable 100 PAAS
enrichment of Zr (3.2 fold), Y (4.5 fold), Hf (3 fold), Nb
(8.3 fold) and Ti (7.4 fold) in comparison to Dhandraul
Sandstone. Zr and Hf behave coherently as attested by 10
their high correlation coefficient (r=+0.70). Interestingly,
the Zr/Hf ratio value for the Bijaigarh Shale (40.7) is
almost identical to that in Dhandraul Sandstone (39.2). 1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
The behavior of trace elements is similar to that of major
elements and they are also affected by quartz dilution, from REE with increasing atomic number
Dhandraul Sandstone to Bijaigarh Shale.
FIGURE 4 Chondrite normalized average REE patterns for Upper Kai-
mur Group siliciclastic, compared with PAAS, Proterozoic granite and
Additionally, they are thought to reflect provenance Proterozoic Sandstone (Condie, 1993; Taylor and McLennan, 1985).
composition because of their immobile behavior (Taylor
and McLennan, 1985). Zr/Hf ratios for PAAS and average
granite are 42 and 34 respectively. Y (3-37ppm) and Nb (1- GEOCHEMICAL INTERPRETATION
15ppm) is more comparable to average granodiorite than
PAAS or average granite. Various trace element ratios such The chemical record of clastic sedimentary rocks is
as Zr/Sc and Th/Sc have been utilized further to determine influenced by factors such as source rocks, weathering/
the provenance of these rocks. recycling, grain-size sorting during transport and
sedimentation, and diagenesis and metamorphism (Taylor
Rare earth elements and McLennan, 1985; McLennan et al., 1990, 1993;
Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000, 2002; Lahtinen, 2000).
REE abundances of sandstones and shales from the Thus care must be taken in interpreting the geochemistry
Upper Kaimur Group; vary systematically in relation to of clastic sediments to indicate source composition, as
lithology and stratigraphy (Table II, Fig. 4). A gradual well as to identify the tectonic setting and paleoweathering
decrease in ∑REE abundance is observed from the conditions.
Bijaigarh Shale and Scarp Sandstone to the Dhandraul
Sandstone, though with similar REE patterns. ∑REE Weathering intensity-implication for source area
abundance of Bijaigarh Shale (141-198ppm) is similar composition
to PAAS. Bijaigarh Shale exhibits REE fractionation
with [La/Yb]N=7.4 and [Gd/Yb]N=1.27. Eu/Eu*(0.64) The most widely used chemical index to assess the
is similar to PAAS(0.66). The Scarp Sandstone has a degree of chemical weathering in the source area is the
lower ∑REE abundance (102-122ppm) than the Bijaigarh Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) proposed by Nesbitt
Shale and a PAAS with a very similar pattern (Fig. 4). and Young (1982). This index can be calculated using
The REE pattern for the Scarp Sandstone appears more molecular proportion:
fractionated, with [La/Yb]N=8.6 and [Gd/Yb]N=1.4 as
compared to that of the Bijaigarh Shale. The Dhandraul CIA=[Al2O3/(Al2O3+CaO+Na2O+K2O)]*100
Sandstone is extremely depleted in REE (31.4–91.2ppm)
due to the dilution effect of quartz. It has a considerably CIA values of sandstones and shales of the Upper
fractionated REE pattern with [La/Yb]N=9.93 and enriched Kaimur Group range from 72 to 87, which is significantly
HREE [Gd/Yb]N=1.6, in comparison to the underlying greater than PAAS (70). This suggests that the source
Scarp Sandstone and Bijaigarh Shale. The negative Eu rocks of these sedimentary rocks were subjected to intense
anomaly (Eu/Eu*=0.52-0.72) in these rocks is attributed weathering conditions under a warm humid climate,
to the Eu-depleted felsic igneous rocks, i.e. granites and for a shorter period or moderate degree of chemical
granodiorite, in the source region. Thus, the overall REE weathering for an extended period of time. The ternary plot
fractionation (i.e., [La/Yb]N) and HREE enrichment CaO+Na2O-Al2O3-K2O (Fig. 5) is a graphic representation,
increases upwards towards the Dhandraul Sandstone. in order to evaluate the extents of chemical weathering,
The REE pattern of the Dhandraul Sandstone and the where unweathered rocks plot along the left side of the
abundances completely match with those of Proterozoic plagioclase-K-feldspar line (Nesbitt and Young, 1984).
cratonic sandstones (Condie, 1993). In this plot, the data clusters are found near the A-K

Geologica Acta, 10(3), 283-293 (2012) 287

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M. MISHRA and S. SEN Geochemistry of Kaimur sediments from central India

edge, along illite composition, indicating a high extent of These ratios for Upper Kaimur sandstones and
weathering of the source rocks. shales (Table 2) have values comparable to average
Proterozoic granite (La/Sc-9.6, Th/Sc-3.6, Zr/Sc-
The determination of source rock composition is an 48, Rb/Sr-1.3, La/Ni-3.2, Zr/Hf-34 and [La/Yb]N-9.8,
additional advantage of this ternary plot. This could be Condie, 1993) as compared to those of PAAS and UCC
obtained by backward projection of the weathered sample, (Taylor and Mc Lennan, 1985; Rudnik and Gao, 2003).
parallel to the A-CN line. The point of intersection provides
an idea about the plagioclase: K-feldspar ratio of the source Th/Sc–Zr/Sc diagram (McLennan et al., 1993)
rock. Interestingly, samples of all three formations cluster at shows that the samples of the Bijaigarh Shale, Scarp
one point (Fig. 5) indicating their similar extents of chemical Sandstone and Dhandraul Sandstone are clustered
weathering. The extrapolation of the line from the weathered around average granite with a minor contribution from
sample points indicate the provenance of the rocks of the granodiorite, confirming a dominantly granitic source
Upper Kaimur Group to be from average granite. (Fig. 6). La and Th are more concentrated in felsic than
in mafic igneous rocks, whereas, Co, Sc and Cr are
Provenance composition-trace elements more concentrated in mafic than in felsic igneous rocks.
Zirconium is mostly concentrated in zircons, which
The siliciclastic sediments of the Upper Kaimur Group accumulate during sedimentation while less resistant
have been subjected to a severe extent of weathering, with phases are preferentially destroyed. The Zr/Sc ratio
sediment recycling and post-depositional K-metasomatism therefore can be used as a tracer for zircon or heavy
(Mishra and Sen, 2010). Depending solely on major mineral concentration (Taylor and McLennan, 1985).
element chemistry to infer provenance would be unreliable, In first-cycle sediments, Th/Sc ratios show an overall
therefore trace elements have been used as the major tool positive correlation with Zr/Sc, depending on the nature
in this respect. Among trace elements, REEs, Th, Sc and of the source rock, whereas Zr/Sc ratios in mature or
high field strength elements (HFSEs) are especially useful recycled sediments display considerable variation with
for monitoring source area composition (Taylor and little change accompanying in Th/Sc ratio (McLennan
McLennan, 1985; Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2002). These et al., 1993), indicating zircon addition due to sediment
elements have very short residence times in the water recycling (Fig. 6). Figure 7 shows the distribution
column, and thus are transferred (almost) quantitatively of selected trace and rare earth elements in Kaimur
into the sedimentary record. The ratios between relatively sandstones and shales normalized to that in Proterozoic
immobile elements such as La/Sc, Th/Sc and Zr/Sc, that Granite (Condie, 1993). They show similar patterns but
are good indicators of provenance. varying abundances due to the dilution effect of quartz.
This would favor a weathered crystalline ‘‘granitic”
source terrain. Thus from the above discussion we can
Bijaigarh Shale infer that the siliciclastic of the Upper Kaimur Group
Mangesar Sandstone are derived from a single or similar Proterozoic granitic
Dhandraul Sandstone
Average Granodiorite
Kaolinite, Gibbsite, Chlorite
sources, along with a considerable amount of sediment
G Average Granite recycling.
B Average Basalt

Pass
Implications for tectonic settings
Weathering trend Muscovite

Various workers (Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia and Crook,

Biotite
1986; Roser and Korsch, 1986, 1988; McLennan et al.,
Plagioclase
G
K-Feldspar 1990) have used the chemical compositions of sandstones
UCC to discriminate tectonic settings. On the discrimination
B diagram of Roser and Korsch (1986) plotting K2O vs.
Na2O–SiO2, Upper Kaimur sandstones and shales plot
in the passive margin field, PM (figure not shown here).
According to Roser and Korsch (1986), PM sediments
are largely quartz-rich sediments derived from plate
interiors or stable continental areas and deposited in
CN K intra-cratonic basins or on passive continental margins.
The plot of Bhatia’s (1983) first and second discriminant
FIGURE 5 A-CN-K diagram for Upper Kaimur siliciclastic. A, C, N, K, functions (DF1 vs. DF2) also favours a passive margin
represent molecular proportions of Al2O3, CaO, Na2O and K2O respec-
tively. Average values of G: granite, B: basalt, PAAS and UCC taken setting (Fig. 8). Collective petrographic and geochemical
from Taylor and McLennan (1985) and Condie (1993). data strongly suggests that the siliciclastic from Upper

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M. MISHRA and S. SEN Geochemistry of Kaimur sediments from central India

Table-2
TABLE Range of
2 Range of elemental
elemental ratios
ratios of
ofUpper
Upper Kaimur
Kaimursiliciclastic
siliciclastics compared
sediments to average
compared to Proterozoic
average Proterozoic granite, average Proterozoic sandstone
and Upper granite, average
continental Proterozoic
crust. sandstone
Values taken from; a)and upper
Taylor continental
and McLennancrust.
(1985); b) Condie, (1993); c) Rudnik and Gao (2003)

Elemental ratios Range of Upper Kaimur Average Upper Average Proterozoic Average Proterozoic PAASa Upper continental crustc
siliciclastics Kaimur siliciclastics graniteb sandstoneb
La/Sc 3.3-10.9 6.9 9.6 4.2 2.37 2.2

Th/Sc 1.1-3.6 2.4 3.6 1.7 0.91 0.75

Th/U 1.2-6.3 3.6 4 3.5 4.7 3.9

Rb/Sr 0.12-4.4 2 1.3 1.2 0.8 0.25

La/Ni 0.5-3.9 2.2 3.2 0.91 0.69 0.65

Cr/Th 2.9-36 6.9 1 2.2 7.5 8.76

Zr/Sc 20.7-68.4 50.2 48 37 13.1 13.7

Zr/Th 9.6-38.5 21.2 13.3 21.1 14.4 18.3

Zr/Hf 27.8-40 37.4 34.2 35.6 42 36.4

Eu/Eu* 0.52-0.72 0.63 0.37 0.68 0.66 0.72

[La/Yb]N 5.5-12.97 8.5 9.8 8.6 9.2 11.2

a
Taylor and McLennan (1985); bCondie (1993); cRudnik and Gao (2003)

Kaimur were deposited in a passive margin or stable DISCUSSION

intracratonic basin.
The Upper Kaimur Group comprising the Bijaigarh
DF1=0.303–0.0447SiO 2 –0:972TiO 2 +0.008Al 2 O 3 – Shale, Scarp Sandstone and Dhandraul Sandstone,
0.267Fe2O3+0:208FeO–3.082MnO+0.14MgO+0.195CaO petrographically and geochemically, range from litharenite
+0.719Na2O–0.032K2O+7.51P2O5 and sublitharenite to quartz arenite. Due to the gradational
behaviour of the geochemical signatures from Bijaigarh
DF2=43.57–0.421SiO 2 +1.988TiO 2 –0.526Al 2 O 3 – Shale to Dhandraul Sandstone, they should be considered
0.551Fe2O3–1.61FeO+2.72MnO+0.881MgO–0.907CaO– as a single sequence, irrespective of the established field,
0.177Na2O–1.84K2O+7.244P2O5 stratigraphy, although they have been defined as different
members (Prakash and Dalela, 1982). CIA values for the
In addition, the Eu/Eu* values for these rocks is less shales and sandstones range from 72-88. These values
than 0.85, characteristic of sediments recycled from upper suggest moderate to high extents of chemical weathering
continental crust. The sediments with pronounced negative
Eu anomalies <0.85 and [Gd/Yb]N ratios (1.2-1.9)<2.0
are characteristic of the rocks from the post–Archean
period (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Slack and Stevens, 10

1994) (Fig. 9). Compositions of the samples overlap each G

other, well within the field that depict their Proterozoic source. Sediment recycling
Therefore, the rocks of the Upper Kaimur Group represent a (Zircon addition)
1
Proterozoic source which was directly exposed to erosion of GT

basement granite and processed through sedimentary recycling.

Th/Sc

FV

In Th–Sc–Zr/10 discriminant plot (Bhatia and Crook,

1986), Upper Kaimur sandstones and shale samples fall 0.1

within the passive margin field (Fig. 10). Bhatia and Crook, Bijaigarh Shale
Mangesar Sandstone
(1986) considered that the sedimentary rocks deposited Dhandraul Sandstone
on passive margins, platforms and cratonic basins are
characterized by enrichment of LREE over HREE and 0.01
1 10 100 1000
the presence of a pronounced Eu anomaly on chondrite Zr/Sc

normalized plots. The crustal source is indicated by the plot

FIGURE 6 Th/Sc–Zr/Sc diagram (McLennan et al., 1993) shows that
positions of average Proterozoic granite (Condie, 1993) sandstone and shale cluster around average granite with minor contri-
relative to the discriminant fields and the composition of bution from granodiorite. Values of G: granite, B: basalt, GT: granodio-
the Upper Kaimur Group (Fig. 10). rite and FV: felsic volcanic are after Condie (1993).

Geologica Acta, 10(3), 283-293 (2012) 289

DOI: 10.1344/105.000001759
M. MISHRA and S. SEN Geochemistry of Kaimur sediments from central India

high Rb/Sr ratios (>0.5) suggest their derivation from

Proterozoic Upper continental crust (PUCC), which
constituted the old stable craton (McLennan et al.,
1990).

The Vindhyan basin accumulated chemogenic

sediments in the lower part (Semri Group) and siliciclastic
in the upper part (Kaimur Group). After deposition of the
Rohtas Limestone, the Vindhyan basin was affected by the
gradual regression of the Vindhyan Sea. This was followed
by the initiation of siliciclastic Kaimur sedimentation,
which led to the deposition of the Lower Kaimur Quartzite
in a tidal flat environment and carbonaceous Bijaigarh
FIGURE 7 Multielement plot for Upper Kaimur sandstone and shales Shale in a shallow subtidal and lagoonal environment
normalized with Proterozoic granites values from Condie (1993). (Chakraborty and Bose, 1992; Bose et al., 2001).

The Vindhyan basin covers a large part of the northern

Indian shield (Fig. 1, 2) and rests on a wide variety of
under moderate conditions for an extended period of time basement rocks including the Banded Gneissic Complex
or intense weathering under hot humid climate for shorter in southeastern Rajasthan, and the Bundelkhand Granite,
periods of time. The similar CIA values in all three textural Bijawar Group, Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss and
types indicate that the recycling processes homogenized Mahakoshal Group in central and southeastern India (Nair
the shale and sandstone compositions. et al., 1995). The Bundelkhand Gneissic Complex (now
in the north of Vindhyans, Son Valley, and basement for
Various major element ratios like K2O/Na2O, Al2O3/TiO2, the Vindhyan sediments and Mahakoshal metasediments)
SiO2/MgO and relatively immobile elemental ratios such as La/ suffered N-S directed compression due to the northerly
Sc, Zr/Sc, Th/Sc imply source rock to be dominantly granitic. subduction of the Bhandara-Bastar craton beneath the
The signatures for addition of zircon perhaps through sediment Bundelkand craton (Roy and Prasad, 2003; Bhowmik
recycling are also evident (Fig. 6). The geochemical data and Dasgupta, 2004; Roy et al., 2004; Mall et al., 2008;
suggests that the sediments of the Upper Kaimur Group Naganjaneyulu and Santosh, 2010). However, it is argued
were derived from a post-Archean, Proterozoic granitic that sedimentation in the Vindhyan basin initiated at the
source rock deposited in a passive margin type of tectonic end of the Delhi-Satpura orogeny as a post-orogenic
setting. Relatively uniform composition, evolved major (post–collision) foreland basin on the Bundelkhand
element compositions (e.g., high SiO2/Al2O3, K2O/Na2O), craton, receiving sediments from uplifted fold belts to
enrichments of normally incompatible over compatible the south and west (Acharyya, 2003; Chakrabarti et al.,
elements, LREE enrichment, high Th/Sc, La/Sc and 2007; Paikaray et al., 2008). Paleocurrent directions in
the Vindhyan sediments are mostly northerly (Banerjee,
1974; Prasad, 1984; Chakraborty, 2006) suggesting that
the evolving Satpura orogen might have served as the
source for the Vindhyan basin sediments. Chakrabarti et al.
(2007) indicate changes in provenance with sediments in
the Kaimur and Bhander Groups being derived from more
juvenile sources compared to the Semri and Rewa Groups,
respectively. This is also supported by changes in TDM and
fSm/Nd across these boundaries.

The paleocurrent directions in the Vindhyan

sediments are mostly northerly and north-westerly
(Banerjee, 1974; Prasad, 1984; Bose et al., 2001). Bose
et al. (2001), based on detailed observation of facies
distribution and paleocurrent patterns of the Vindhyan
succession in the Son Valley area, have inferred that the
sediments were supplied from the southeastern side of the
FIGURE 8 Discrimination function plot of the Upper Kaimur sandsto- Vindhyan outcrops. The Paleoproterozoic Mahakoshal
nes and shales (after Bhatia, 1983). volcanosedimentary belt and the Chotanagpur Gneiss

Geologica Acta, 10(3), 283-293 (2012) 290

DOI: 10.1344/105.000001759
M. MISHRA and S. SEN Geochemistry
Th of Kaimur sediments from central India

10 Bijaigarh Shale Th
Archaean Scarp Sandstone
Bijaigarh
Dhandraul Sandstone
Mangesar Sandstone
1
Dhandraul Sandstone
PG
C
Eu/Eu*

0.1 Bijaigarh
B
Proterozoic Archaean Mangesar Sandstone
Dhandraul Sandstone
D PG
A C
0.01
Sc Zr/10
B
0.001
1 10 100 D
[Gd/Yb]N A

FIGURE 9 Eu/Eu* vs [Gd/Yb]N diagram indicates the rocks of Upper Sc Zr/10

Kaimur Group to have been derived from Proterozoic provenance.
Fields are after Taylor and McLennan (1985), Slack and Stevens FIGURE 10 Ternary Th-Sc-Zr/10 discrimination plot after Bhatia and
(1994).
Crook (1986). A) Oceanic island arc; B) Active continental margin; C)
Continental island arc; D) Passive margin. Values for PG-Proterozoic
granite are taken from Condie (1993).
Complex are situated on the southern and southeastern
side of the Vindhyan basin exposures. These seem
to be the most likely candidates for the source rocks
of the Kaimur group. Therefore, Paleoproterozoic– belt and Chotanagpur Gneiss Complex are situated on
Mesoproterozoic granite, granodiorite and gneisses of the southern and southeastern side of the Vindhyan basin
the Mahakoshal Group and Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss exposures and they seem to be the potential candidates
(Ghose and Mukherjee, 2000; Singh, 2001) dominantly for the source rocks of the Kaimur group, later to Satpura
contributed to the sediments of the Kaimur Group later orogeny.
than the Satpura Orogeny in an intracratonic type of
tectonic setting.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CONCLUSIONS MM is grateful to University Grants Commission, New Delhi

for financial assistance under the Grant No. F. 31-196/2005 (SR).
The provenance of the Kaimur siliciclastic of Son The authors are thankful to Profs. Robert Cullers, Kansas State
Valley has been assessed using geochemical studies University, U.S.A., Abhijit Basu, Indiana University, U.S.A and an
corroborated with petrographic studies. This approach has anonymous reviewer for their critical comments and suggestions on
revealed that the Kaimur sediments were primarily derived an earlier version of the manuscript. SS is thankful to the Council
from felsic continental sources typical of a craton interior. of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi for the financial
The CIA values of Upper Kaimur siliciclastic suggest that support rendered to her in the form of CSIR-JRF.
the source rocks of these sedimentary rocks were subjected
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 TABLE I Major oxide and trace element composition of sandstones and shales from Upper Kaimur Group
Table- A1 Major oxide and trace element composition of shales and sandstones from Upper Kaimur Group

Bijaigarh shale Scarp Sandstone Dhandraul Sandstone

Major Element (Wt%)
MR-6 MR-8 22-mar SPC 7 MAR-4 MAR25 SPC 6 MAR-10 MAR-11 SPC 1 SPC 3 MAR-13 MAR-12 MAR-15 MAR-14 MAR-16 SPC-13 MR-1 MR-2 MAR-1 MAR-2
SiO2 62.1 65.2 72.5 72.5 74.8 78.4 81.7 81.9 82.5 84.5 86.1 86.3 88.3 88.4 93.8 94.1 96.3 96.5 97.2 98.6 99.4
TiO2 0.66 0.66 0.56 0.53 0.61 0.45 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.34 0.35 0.28 0.24 0.23 0.31 0.21 0.12 0.05 0.10 0.04 0.04
Al2O3 17.7 16.0 13.7 13.1 12.1 10.2 9.7 8.6 7.95 8.61 7.58 6.1 5.96 6.46 3.29 3.51 3.28 1.2 1.84 0.61 0.36
M. MISHRA and S. SEN

Fe2O3(T) 3.8 5.0 3.5 4.7 3.3 4 2.23 3.6 3.79 1.10 2.36 3 1.72 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.9 0.4 0.3
MnO 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.025 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.014 0.01 0.02 0.004 0.002
MgO 2.2 3.1 1.2 1.2 0.7 0.91 0.92 0.4 0.88 0.64 0.78 0.21 0.27 0.15 0.09 0.1 0.15 0.05 0.28 0.02 0.009
CaO 1.2 1.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.14 0.11 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.04 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.02
Na2O 0.5 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.11 0.14 0.04 0.05 0.10 0.1 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.009 0.009
K2O 4.5 3.5 3.8 3.6 3.4 2.5 2.7 2.2 2.51 2.17 1.89 1.64 1.64 1.38 0.74 0.97 0.33 0.2 0.49 0.18 0.11
P2O5

DOI: 10.1344/105.000001759
0.1 0.04 0.1 0.1 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.013 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03
LOI nd nd 3.9 4.0 3.6 3.56 2.28 2.72 1.96 1.49 1.28 1.71 1.58 1.68 0.85 0.74 0.4 nd nd 0.08 0.03
Total 92.7 95.2 95.7 96.1 98.6 96.7 97.98 100.1 100.3 97.56 99.34 99.38 99.88 99.18 100.1 100.1 100.68 98.38 100.93 100 100.3
CIA 74.3 75.2 77 77 77.2 78.9 76.5 78.8 75 78.6 78.3 78.1 77.5 81.9 80.8 77.7 87 78.9 75.4 74.5 72.1
SiO2/Al2O3 3.5 4.1 5.3 5.5 6.2 7.7 8.5 9.5 10.4 9.8 11.4 14.2 14.8 13.7 28.5 26.8 29.4 80.4 52.8 162 276
K2O/Na2O 8.9 4.2 31.5 26 48.4 22.5 19.4 55.5 50.2 21.7 19 54.7 82 69 74 97 3.7 2.5 7 20 12.2

Geologica Acta, 10(3), 283-293 (2012)

K2O/Al2O3 0.25 0.22 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.24 0.28 0.26 0.32 0.25 0.25 0.27 0.28 0.21 0.22 0.28 0.10 0.17 0.27 0.30 0.31
Al2O3/TiO2 26.9 24.2 24.5 24.8 19.8 22.6 23.0 19.8 18.0 25.3 21.7 21.6 24.9 27.7 10.6 17.0 27.3 24.0 18.4 13.9 8.8

Trace elements (ppm)

Ba 435 350 437 446 342 282 301 217 259 167 186 92 110 99 71 45 21 18 19 16 17
Sr 65 55 59 40 51 34 26 30 36 39 41 49 44 64 60 40 19 24 28 17 25
Zr 255 240 259 180 231 274 233 244 309 219 228 217 172 129 135 141 58 68 58 49 73
Y 32 32 31 32 31 37 30 21 27 24 23 18 16 17 13 10 7 7 6 3 6
Ni 16 19 13 21 20 26 10 20 20 6 8 20 20 20 20 20 11 10 25 20 20
Cr 59 59 nd nd 60 nd nd 60 70 nd nd 50 60 80 70 90 nd 80 70 90 50
Hf 5.2 5.1 9.3 6.1 6.2 10.8 7.3 6.3 8.3 5.9 5.6 5.5 4.5 3.1 3.5 3.7 1.6 1.5 1.2 2.1 2.2
Sc 9.3 9.1 7.2 8.7 10.2 6.7 6.8 7.1 6.2 3.2 2.9 4.1 4.2 4.1 2.2 2.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1
Nb 15.2 15.3 15.2 14.3 11.1 11.7 11.3 8.2 8.1 8.7 9.2 5.2 4.3 4.3 5.1 3.2 2.2 1.4 1.3 0.9 0.9
Th 20.3 10.2 21.6 18.7 13.8 14.1 11.2 11.5 13.1 10.1 10.3 8.2 7.3 8.3 6.3 8.2 1.5 2.5 2.9 2.5 2.3
U 7.1 5.3 5.7 3.8 3.5 4.3 6.2 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.7 2.3 1.9 2.3 1.5 1.3 1.3 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.7
Rb 169 155 180 158 151 123 115 106 113 90 84 74 73 59 31 38 14 8 9 7 3
Th/Sc 2.22 1.11 3.08 2.15 1.38 2.10 1.62 1.64 2.18 3.38 3.60 2.00 1.83 2.08 3.00 4.10 1.50 2.5 2.9 2.5 2.3
Th/U 2.86 2.00 3.8 5.0 3.9 3.5 1.8 4.3 4.5 3.1 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.6 4.0 6.3 1.2 3.13 3.63 4.2 3.3
Th/Cr 0.34 0.17 nd nd 0.23 nd nd 0.19 0.19 nd nd 0.16 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.09 nd 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.05
ELECTRONIC APPENDIX

Zr/Sc 27.4 26.4 36.0 20.7 22.6 40.8 34.3 34.4 49.8 68.4 79.2 52.9 41.0 31.5 61.4 61.3 48.2 56.7 52.7 40.8 66.4
Rb/Sr 2.6 2.8 3 4.0 3 3.6 4.4 3.5 3.1 2.3 2 1.5 1.7 0.92 0.52 0.95 0.7 0.33 0.32 0.41 0.12
La/Sc 3.3 4.0 5.8 4.4 3.6 5.2 4.4 4.2 5.6 7.8 8.1 5.6 5.4 6.4 9.1 10.9 9.9 9.88 9.7 6.9 9.2
Ba/Sc 48.3 38.9 62.4 51.2 34.2 42.0 44.4 31.0 43.2 55.7 64.7 23.0 27.5 24.8 35.5 22.5 21.0 18 19 16.0 17.0
Ba/Sr 6.69 6.36 7.4 11.2 6.7 8.35 11.58 7.2 7.2 4.3 4.54 1.9 2.5 1.5 1.2 1 1.11 0.75 0.68 0.94 0.68
Zr/Hf 49.0 47.1 27.8 29.8 37.3 25.5 32.1 38.7 37.2 36.9 40.5 39.5 38.2 41.6 38.6 38.1 36.8 45.3 48.3 23.3 33.2
La/Ni 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cr/Th 2.9 5.8 nd nd 4.3 nd nd 5.2 5.3 nd nd 6.1 8.2 9.6 11.1 11.0 nd 32.0 24.1 36.0 21.7
Zr/Th 12.6 23.5 12.0 9.6 16.7 19.4 20.8 21.2 23.6 21.6 22.0 26.5 23.6 15.5 21.4 17.2 38.5 27.2 20.0 19.6 31.7

I
Geochemistry of Kaimur sediments from central India
 TABLE II Rare Earth elements concentrations of sandstones and shales from Upper Kaimur Group
Table A2 Rare earth element data of sandstones and shales from Upper Kaimur Group.

Bijaigarh shale Scarp Sandstone Dhandraul Sandstone

REE (in ppm)
MR-6 MR-8 MAR22 SPC 7 MAR-4 MAR25 SPC 6 MAR-10 MAR-11 SPC 1 SPC 3 MAR-13 MAR-12 MAR-15 MAR-14 MAR-16 SPC-13 MAR-1 MAR-2 MR-1 MR-2
La 29.5 35.8 40.4 38.5 35.6 35.1 29.6 29.7 33.5 23.5 23.2 22.3 21.4 25.6 18.2 21.7 9.9 6.9 9.2 9.882 9.7
Ce 59.8 69.4 82.3 75.6 70 70.4 60 60.6 69.5 46 46.4 43.6 42.7 50.9 38.4 37.5 21.8 13.4 19 21.828 21.9
Pr 6.42 7.85 8.61 8.13 7.83 8.03 6.32 6.43 7.41 4.76 4.81 4.74 4.65 5.63 4.24 3.69 2.17 1.4 1.94 2.167 2.3
M. MISHRA and S. SEN

Nd 24.3 30.1 35.5 33.1 30.2 34 25.8 24.1 28.2 19.2 19.9 17.8 18.1 21.7 16.5 12.4 8.97 5.2 7.3 8.972 9.1
Sm 4.6 5.9 6.9 7 6 7.4 5.5 4.4 5.4 4.8 4.8 3.4 3.5 4.3 3.4 2.1 2.1 1 1.6 2.056 2.1
Eu 0.95 1.3 1.24 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.1 0.84 1 0.71 0.78 0.68 0.69 0.86 0.63 0.39 0.43 0.16 0.27 0.429 0.431
LREE 125.6 150.4 175.0 163.6 150.7 156.4 128.2 126.1 145.0 98.9 99.8 92.5 91.0 109.0 81.4 77.8 45.3 28.1 39.3 45.3 45.5
Gd 4.1 5.6 5.4 6 5.5 6.4 4.4 3.9 5 3.1 3.04 3.3 3 3.8 2.8 1.7 1.6 0.9 1.4 1.61 1.62
Tb 0.9 1 1 1.1 0.9 1.3 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.24 0.2 0.2 0.242 0.243
Dy 4.2 5.2 6.03 6.5 5.1 8.2 4.6 4 5.1 3.1 3 3.4 3.1 3.3 2.6 1.8 1.339 0.9 1.3 1.339 1.41

DOI: 10.1344/105.000001759
Ho 0.95 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.7 0.98 0.8 1 0.64 0.62 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.3 0.25 0.24
Er 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.1 3.3 4.9 3 2.5 3.1 2 1.9 2 1.9 2 1.5 1.1 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.786 0.79
Tm 0.43 0.51 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.12 0.08 0.12 0.116 0.12
Yb 2.8 3.4 3.8 3.7 3.4 4.6 2.8 2.6 3.1 1.9 1.9 2 1.9 2 1.5 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.711 0.71
Lu 0.6 0.53 0.6 0.6 0.52 0.75 0.47 0.4 0.48 0.29 0.31 0.31 0.29 0.31 0.22 0.2 0.1 0.08 0.12 0.111 0.13

Geologica Acta, 10(3), 283-293 (2012)

HREE 16.78 20.84 22.5 23.8 20.3 28.6 17.5 15.3 19.2 11.7 11.5 12.6 11.6 13.0 9.8 6.8 5.2 3.4 5.0 5.165 5.263
LREE/HREE 7.48 7.21 7.8 6.9 7.4 5.5 7.3 8.2 7.6 8.4 8.7 7.3 7.9 8.4 8.3 11.5 8.8 8.4 7.8 8.78 8.65
ΣREE 142.35 171.19 197.5 187.4 171.1 185 145.7 141.4 164.2 110.6 111.4 105.1 102.6 122.01 91.2 84.6 50.5 31.4 44.4 50.50 50.79
[La/Yb]N 7.56 7.55 7.7 7.5 7.5 5.5 7.5 8.2 7.8 9.1 8.9 8 8.1 9.2 8.7 12.97 9.97 9.9 8.25 9.97 9.80
[Gd/Yb]N 1.21 1.36 1.2 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.6 1.5 1.2 1.9 1.5 1.4 1.87 1.89
Eu/Eu* 0.65 0.68 0.62 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.66 0.62 0.59 0.57 0.63 0.62 0.65 0.65 0.62 0.63 0.72 0.52 0.6 0.70 0.69

II
Geochemistry of Kaimur sediments from central India