I.

The Basics of Job Analysis:

Job analysis – The procedure for determining the duties and skill requirements of
a job and the kind of person who should be hired for the job by collecting the
following types of information: work activities; human behaviors; machines, tools,
equipment, and work aids; performance standards; job context; and human
requirements.
Job description – A list of a job’s duties, responsibilities, reporting
relationships, working conditions, and supervisory responsibilities – one product
of a job analysis.
Job specification – A list of a job’s “human requirements”: the requisite
education, skills, knowledge, and so on – another product of a job analysis
A. Uses of Job Analysis Information:
1. Recruitment and Selection – Job descriptions and job specifications are
formed from the information gathered from a job analysis, which help management
decide what sort of people to recruit and hire.
2. Compensation – The estimated value and the appropriate compensation for each
job is determined from the information gathered from a job analysis.
3. Training – The job description lists the job’s specific duties and requisite
skills.
4. Performance Appraisal – Managers use job analysis to determine a job’s
specific activities and performance standards.
5. Discovering Unassigned Duties – Job analysis can help reveal (( ‫فشك‬
unassigned duties .

B . Steps in Job Analysis

1. Decide how the information will be used because that will determine what data
will be collected and how it should be collected.
2. Review relevant background information, such as organization charts, process
charts, and job descriptions.
3. Select representative positions to analyze because there may be too many
similar jobs to analyze, and it may not be necessary to analyze them all.
4. Analyze the jobby collecting data on job activities, required employee
behaviors, working conditions, and human traits and abilities needed to perform the
job.
5. Verify the job analysis information with job incumbents and supervisors to
confirm that it is factually correct and complete.
6. Develop a job description and job specification from the information.
Increasingly, these steps are being streamlined through the use of collaboration
software.
II. Methods for Collecting Job Analysis Information
A. Some Job Analysis Guidelines Five guidelines are given, as practical
considerations for conducting the job analysis.
1) Conducting the job analysis usually involves giant effort by a human resources
specialist, the worker, and the worker’s supervisor.
2) Job analysis data is usually collected from employees and supervisors familiar
with the job (subject matter experts,) using interviews and questionnaires.
3) The data is then averaged, taking into account the departmental context of the
employees, to determine how much time a typical employee spends on each of several
specific tasks.
4) It is important to make sure that surveys and questions are clear and
understandable
5) Ensure that respondents are observed and questioned early in the process to
allow time for adjustments, if needed. (feedback)
A. The Interview
The three types of interviews managers use to collect job analysis data are:
individual (to get the employee’s perspective on the job’s duties and
responsibilities).
group (when large numbers of employees perform the same job).
supervisor (to get his/her perspective on the job’s duties and
responsibilities).
1. The Pros & Cons: of using an interview are that it is: simple, quick, and
more comprehensive because the interviewer can unearth activities that may never
appear in written form. The main problem is distortion ((, which may arise from the
jobholder’s need to impress the perceptions of others.
2. Typical questions: “What is the job being performed?” “In what activities do
you participate?”“What are the health and safety conditions?” Figure 4-3 gives an
example of a job analysis questionnaire.
3. Structured Interviews; “This is a checklist format with a series of detailed
questions. Both interviewers and job analysts can use this.
4 Interviewing guidelines:
a) the job analyst and supervisor should identify the workers who know the job
best and would be objective
b) establish a rapport with the interviewee
c) follow a structured guide or checklist;
d) ask worker to list duties in order of importance and frequency of occurrence
e) review and verify the data.
B. Questionnaires
Structured or unstructured questionnaires may be used to obtain job analysis
information.
Questionnaires can be a quick, efficient way of gathering information from a large
number of employees.
But, developing and testing a questionnaire can be expensive and time consuming.
C. Observation
Direct observations are useful when jobs consist of mainly observable physical
activity as opposed to mental activity.
Reactivity can be a problem with direct observations, which is where the worker
changes what he/she normally does because he/she is being watched. Managers often
use direct observation and interviewing together.
D. Participant Diary / Log
The employee records every activity he/she engages in, in a diary or log along with
the amount of time to perform each activity to produce a complete picture of the
job. Pocket dictating machines can help remind the worker to enter data at specific
times, and eliminates the challenge of trying to remember at a later time what was
done.
E. Quantitative Job Analysais Techniques (Position Analysais Questionnaire
(PAQ))
1. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a questionnaire used to collect
quantifiable data concerning the duties and responsibilities of various jobs on
five basic activities:
a) having decision-making/communication/social responsibilities
b) performing skilled activities
c) being physically active
d) operating vehicles/equipment
e) processing information.
F. Internet-Based Job Analysis
Standardized questionnaires are frequently distributed, with instructions, via the
Internet or Intranet. The danger is that important points may be missed or
misunderstood, clouding results. This method is still not widely used in most Arab
countries, because many HR departments don’t yet use the internet in their
activities.
G. A Final Point: Using Multiple Sources of Information
Job analysis is a major requirement for the success of companies like Abu Dhabi
National Oil Company (ADNOC). Where possible, collect job analysis data using
several types of collection techniques and respondents. Potential inaccuracies in
peoples’ judgments could lead to inaccurate conclusions
III. Writing Job Descriptions
A. Job Identification – contains the job title, date, and possible space to
indicate who approved the description, the location of the job, the immediate
supervisor’s title, salary and/or pay scale.
B. Job Summary – should describe the general nature of the job, and includes only
its major functions or activities.
C. Relationships – occasionally a relationships statement is included. It shows
the jobholders’ relationships with others inside and outside the organization.
D. Responsibilities and Duties – The job analysis itself will provide information
about what employees are doing on the job. This section may also define the limits
of the job holder’s authority, including his or her decision-making authority,
direct supervision of other personnel, and budgetary authority.
E. Using the Internet for Writing Job Descriptions - Internet sites such as
www.jobdescription.com are useful Web tools for developing job descriptions. In the
Arab countries, websites like bayt.com are designed to help employers and job
candidates.
IV. Writing Job Specifications:
A. Specifications for Trained Versus Untrained Personnel Writing job
specifications for trained employees is relatively straightforward
because they are likely to focus on traits like length of previous service, quality
of relevant training, and previous job performance. Writing job specifications for
untrained employees is more complex because they are more likely to specify
qualities such as physical traits, personality, interests, or sensory skills that
implysome potential for performing or being trained to perform on the job.
B. Job Specifications Based on Judgment
1. Job specifications may come from educated guesses or judgments, or from
competencies listed in web-based job descriptions like those listed at
www.jobdescription.com.
2. Research Insight – One researcher found that regardless of the job, the
following are some examples of generic job-related behaviors: industriousness;
thoroughness, schedule flexibility, attendance, off-task behavior (reverse),
unruliness (reverse), and theft (reverse).
C. Specifications Based on Statistical Analysis
1. Basing job specifications on statistical analysis is more defensible, but a
more difficult approach than the judgmental approach.
2. The aim of the statistical approach is to determine statistically the
relationship between
1) some predictor or human trait such as height, intelligence, or finger
dexterity, and
2) some indicator or criterion of job effectiveness.
3. The five steps in statistical analysis are:
a) analyze the job and decide how to measure job performance
b) select personal traits like finger dexterity that you believe should predict
successful performance
c) test candidates for these traits
d) measure these candidates’ subsequent job performance
e) statistically analyze the relationship between the human trait and job
performance
V. Job Analysis in a "Jobless" World
A. A (Very) Brief History: From Specialized to Enlarged Jobs
1. A “job” as we know it today is largely an outgrowth of the industrial
revolution’s emphasis on efficiency.
2. Job enlargement involves assigning workers additional same-level activities,
thus increasing the number of activities they perform.
3. Job rotation is systematically moving workers from one job to another.
4. Job enrichment involves redesigning jobs in a way that increases the
opportunities for the worker to experience feelings of responsibility, achievement,
growth, and recognition.
B. Why Managers are De-jobbing Their Companies
De-jobbing refers to broadening the responsibilities of the company’s jobs, and
encouraging employees not to limit themselves to what’s on their job descriptions.
1. Flatter Organizations – With three or four levels of management, these are
becoming more prevalent than the traditional pyramid-shaped organizations with
seven or more layers of management.
2. Self-Managed Work Teams – Tasks organized around teams and processes rather
than aroundspecialized functions, are being used increasingly more by
organizations.
3. Reengineering – This refers to fundamentally rethinking and radically
redesigning business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in performance
measures.
C. Competency-Based Job Analysis (characteristics)
Employers are shifting towards newer approaches for describing jobs, such as
competency-based analysis to support the flexibility needed in high performance
work environments where employers need workers to seamlessly move from job to job
and exercise self-control.
1. What are Competencies? – Competencies are defined as demonstrable
characteristics of the person that enable him/her to do the job. They are
observable and measurable.
2. Three Reasons to Use Competency Analysis – First, traditional job descriptions
may actually backfire if a high-performance work system is the goal. Second,
describing the job in terms of skills, knowledge and competencies needed is more
strategic. Third, measurable skills, knowledge, and competencies are the heart of
any company’s performance management system.
3. Examples of competencies – These can include general competencies (such as
reading, writing, and mathematical reasoning), leadership competencies (leadership,
strategic thinking, teaching others) and technical competencies (specific technical
competencies required for specific types of jobs).
4. Comparing Traditional Versus Competency-Based Job Analysis –Competency based
analysis is more measurable, where some of the job’s essential duties and
responsibilities are expressed ascompetencies.
5. How to Write Job Competencies-Based Job Descriptions – The process is similar
in most respects to traditional job analysis, interviewing incumbents and their
supervisors, identifying job responsibilities and activities.
D. An Example: BP’s Matrices
A growing number of firms are shifting to HR systems that don’t use job
descriptions. So, what replaces them?This discussion examines what British
Petroleum’s Exploration Division has done. They use a matrix of skills and skill
levels. The major purpose was to shift employees from thinking in termsof “it’s not
my job” to thinking about what new skills they needed to accomplish their goals.
This interesting shift should be one that could generate discussion in the class.
Ask class members questions such as:
“So how do you know if you are doing your job?”
“How would performance appraisals be done?”
“How do you ensure fairness between employees?”
“How do you keep your employee doing what he or she should?”