ASSIGNMENT OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

BY; UZMA TAJ, FAIZA KAINAT, AAMNA ZAHID

AND VANEEZA SAJJAD
ROLL NUMBERS:
F21-2137
F21-2138
F21-2109
F19-1170
TOPICS:
ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN
LOCALIZATION OF IT’S FUNCTION
NEURAL BASIS OF COGNITION
INFORMATION CODING IN VISUAL CELLS
The Organization of the Brain:
If you open up the skull and look at the brain, one of the first things you’ll like notice is that
anatomically, the “one” brain is really two halves called hemispheres. These two halves are
connected by a large bundle of nerve fibers called the corpus collosum. Structurally, there are
three main divisions of the brain: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Each of these divisions
consists of many substructures that are involved in various behaviors and activity.
The brain is a complex, integrated system. All of its components work together to produce the
complexity of human behavior. The concept of localization refers to the idea that there are
specific parts of the brain for specific components of behaviors. Various parts work together to
produce vision, hearing, speech, and so forth. Neurological techniques such as post-mortem brain
examination, CT (co-axial tomography) scans, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans, and
PET (positron-emission tomography) scans have been used to identify and explore these
systems.

1. Forebrain:
The human forebrain is involved in a wide range of mental processes, including the sensing,
perceiving, and processing of information. It is also involved in thinking, problem solving,
organizing, and language functions. The human forebrain consists of four sections:
 Cerebral cortex:
If you think of the brain as a mushroom, with a top and a stalk, then the cerebral cortex is the top
of the mushroom. It’s divided into two halves, called cerebral hemispheres (the left and the right
— pretty creative, I know). These halves are connected by a bundle of nerve fibers known as the
corpus collosum. Without the corpus collosum, the halves wouldn’t be able to communicate with
each other
The figure shows the four major divisions of the cerebral cortex and their corresponding
functions:
 Frontal lobe:
Planning, organizing, coordinating, and controlling movements (in an area known as the primary
motor cortex), reasoning, and overall monitoring of the thinking process
 Parietal lobe:
Sensation, spatial and somatosensory (bodily) awareness Temporal lobe: Hearing, language, and
other verbal activity
 Occipital lobe: Vision

 Limbic system:
Located on the underside of the mushroom top (the cerebral cortex), the limbic system is
involved in learning, memory, emotional behavior, and mating or reproduction. Basal ganglia:
This part of the brain is involved in controlling movement.
 Thalamus:
This “neural switchboard” is a relay station for the different parts of the brain. However, it is
more than simply a connection. It analyzes inputs to construct organized outputs.
 Hypothalamus:
The hypothalamus takes part in the control of the endocrine system and works with the limbic
system to control behaviors such as aggression, eating, protection, and mating.

1. Mid brain:
Midbrain is involved in the auditory and visual processes and in motor control.
The midbrain consists of the following divisions and their respective areas of responsibility:
 Tectum:
Auditory and visual systems
 Tegmentum:
Movement, sleep, arousal, attention, muscle tone, and reflexes

Hindbrain
The hindbrain is involved in the autonomic functions of the body such as heart rate and breathing
as well as the coordination of movement.
The hindbrain includes two divisions with assigned duties:
 Cerebellum:
Motor movement and its coordination.
 Pons:
The bridge connecting the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
 Medulla:
Vital functions of the body such as the cardiovascular system, breathing, and the movement of
skeletal muscles.

Localization of the Brain Function:

Localization of function is the idea that certain functions (e.g., language, memory, etc.) have
certain locations or areas within the brain. This idea has been supported by recent neuroimaging
studies, but was also examined much earlier, typically using case studies. One such case study is
that of Phineas Gage, who in 1848 while working on a rail line, experienced a drastic accident in
which piece of iron went through his skull. Although Gage survived this ordeal, he did
experience a change in personality, such as l loss of inhibition and anger. This change provided
evidence to support the theory of localization of brain function, as it was believed that the area
the iron stake damaged was responsible for personality. There are four key areas that you need to
be aware of:
 motor
 Somatosensory
 visual
 auditory areas.
Motor Area:
The motor area is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for voluntary movements by
sending signals to the muscles in the body. Hitzig and Fritsch (1870) first discovered that
different muscles are coordinated by different areas of the motor cortex by electrically
stimulating the motor area of dogs. This resulted in muscular contractions in different areas of
the body depending on where the probe was inserted. The regions of the motor area are arranged
in a logical order, for example, the region that controls finger movement is located next to the
region that controls the hand and arm and so on.
Somatosensory Area:
The somatosensory area is located in the parietal lobe and receives incoming sensory information
from the skin to produce sensations related to pressure, pain, temperature, etc. Different parts of
the somatosensory area receive messages from different locations of the body. Robertson (1995)
found that this area of the brain is highly adaptable, with Braille readers having larger areas in
the somatosensory area for their fingertips compared to normal sighted participants.
Visual Area:
At the back of the brain, in the occipital lobe is the visual area, which receives and processes
visual information. Information from the right-hand side visual field is processed in the left
hemisphere, and information from the left-hand side visual field is processed in the right
hemisphere. The visual area contains different parts that process different types of information
including color, shape or movement.
Auditory Area:
The auditory area is located in the temporal lobe and is responsible for analyzing and processing
acoustic information. Information from the left ear goes primarily to the right hemisphere and
information from the right ear goes primarily to the left hemisphere. The auditory area contains
different parts, and the primary auditory area is involved in processing simple features of sound,
including volume, tempo and pitch.
NEURAL BASIS OF CIGNITION
Definition:
The neural bases of cognition refer to our ability to use, manipulate and generalize knowledge
that is acquired over the lifespan to support innumerable verbal and non-verbal behaviors.
Parts in Neural Cognition:
The brain is divided into several different structures, but of particular importance for cognitive
psychology is the forebrain. In the forebrain, each cerebral hemisphere is divided into the Frontal
lobe Parietal lobe Temporal lobe Occipital lobe.
1. Frontal Lobe:
The frontal lobe is the home of much of what makes us human. It plays a role in everything from
movement to intelligence, helps us anticipate the consequences of our actions, and aids in the
planning of future actions. This part of the brain is the newest from an evolutionary perspective,
and is the last to develop, making the frontal lobe both highly malleable and susceptible to
developmental damage.
Location:
Named for its location, the frontal lobe is situated toward the front of the cerebrum, just behind
the forehead and under the frontal skull bones. It sits atop the temporal lobe, in front of the
parietal lobe, and apart from the occipital lobe, with portions of the limbic system—sometimes
called the limbic lobe crossing all four brain lobes, including the frontal lobe. The central sulcus
separates the frontal and parietal lobes, with the lateral sulcus separating the frontal and temporal
lobes.
Functions:
The frontal lobe is the slowest part of the brain to mature, continuing to create and prune neural
connections until a person's mid-twenties. This means that brain damage early in life renders the
frontal lobe particularly vulnerable, potentially affecting behavior and cognition forever. The
frontal lobe is involved in a wide range of “h “higher” cognitive functions. Although all
mammals have a frontal lobe, highly social mammals, such as dolphins and primates, tend to
have more developed frontal lobes. This suggests that our social interactions may play a key role
in the development of intelligence, and that the brain must devote significant resources to
responding to the demands of social interactions. Humans have larger and more developed
frontal lobes than any other animal.
Some of the many functions of the frontal lobe include
: • Coordinating voluntary movements, such as walking and reaching for objects. The frontal
lobe is home to the primary motor cortex.
 • Assessing future consequences of current actions. Thus, the frontal lobe plays a vital role in
impulse control, including decisions about when to spend money and eat, and whether a
particular decision is morally or socially acceptable.
• Assessing similarities and differences between two objects.
• Formation and retention of long-term memories, particularly emotional memories derived from
the limbic system.
• Language: The frontal lobe plays a role in understanding language, linguistic memories, and
speaking.
• Emotional expression and regulation, in addition to understanding the emotions of others;
empathy may derive from the frontal lobe.
• The development of personality. Because of the frontal lobe's roles in memory, emotional
regulation, expression, impulse control, and other key functions, it plays a key role in
personality. Damage to the frontal lobe can spur sudden and immediate alterations in personality.
• Managing reward. Dopamine, a neurotransmitter that plays a role in reward and motivation, is
heavily active in the frontal lobe because most of the brain's dopamine-sensitive neurons located
here.
• Attention regulation, including selective attention. Frontal lobe difficulties can lead to
executive functioning issues, as well as disorders such as ADHD
Important Structures in Frontal Lobe:
Most neuroscientists divide the frontal lobe into four distinct regions, each containing a number
of vital structures. Those include:
• Medial frontal lobe:
This region contains the cingulate gyrus, which is a part of the limbic system. It also contains the
superior frontal gyrus, which research suggests plays a role in self-awareness.
• Lateral frontal lobe:
This region contains the superior frontal gyrus, which aids in self-awareness, as well as the
middle frontal and inferior frontal gyrus. The inferior frontal gyrus plays a role in language
processing.
• Polar region:
This region is home to the front marginal gyrus, as well as the transverse frontopolar gyri.
• The orbital frontal lobe:
It contains a number of structures, including the anterior orbital gyrus, medial orbital gyrus,
posterior orbital gyrus, and gyrus rectus. The orbital gyri are connected to the vagus nerve, an
important part of the limbic system that coordinates and controls emotional and automatic
reactions.
Damage to Frontal lobe:
Frontal lobe damage can have extensive and far-reaching damage, as in the case of frontal lobe
dementia, which leads to aggression, behavior changes, and difficulties with language. Some
other consequences of frontal lobe damage include:
• Inability to engage immoral decision-making.
• Difficulties with planning, executive functioning, and attention.
• Loss of memory.
• Sudden and dramatic changes in personality.
• Declining intelligence.
• Changes in emotions, including signs of depression and anxiety.
2. Parietal Lobe:
This important brain lobe helps integrate sensory input and process language.
Location:
The parietal lobe rests near the top and center of the cerebral cortex, just behind the frontal lobe
and above the occipital and temporal lobe. The parieto-occipito sulcus separates it from the
frontal lobe, while the lateral sulcus—sometimes referred to as the Sylvian fissure—separates it
from the temporal lobe. The parietal lobe's two hemispheres are divided by the medial
longitudinal fissure. Located just under the parietal bone.
Functions:
Some of the other functions of the parietal lobe include:
• Distinguishing between two points, even without visual input
. • Localizing touch: When you touch any object with any part of your body, your parietal lobe
enables you to feel the sensation at the site of the touch and not, say, in your brain or all over
your body.
• Integrating sensory information from most regions of the body
• Visuospatial navigation and reasoning: When you read a map, follow directions, or prevent
yourself from tripping over an unexpected obstacle, your parietal lobe is involved. The parietal
lobe is also vital for proprioception—the ability to determine where your body is in space,
including in relationship to itself. For instance, touching your finger to your nose without the
assistance of a mirror is a function of the parietal lobe.
• Some visual functions, in conjunction with the occipital lobe.
• Assessing numerical relationships, including the number of objects you see.
• Assessing size, shape, and orientation in space of both visible stimuli and objects you
remember encountering.
• Mapping the visual world: a number of recent studies suggest that specific regions in the
parietal lobe serve as maps to the visual world.
• Coordinating hand, arm, and eye motions.
• Processing language.
• Coordinating attention.
Research suggests that, the more sensory input a region of the body provides, the more surface
area of the parietal lobe is dedicated to that area. For example, the fingers and hands are a
primary site for sensory data, so much of the parietal lobe is dedicated to receiving and
processing their input.
Important Structures in the Parietal Lobe:
In addition to being divided into left and right hemispheres, the parietal lobe has a number of
distinct structures, each with its own unique contribution to brain functioning. Those structures
include:
• Postcentral gyrus:
This region is the brain's primary somatosensory cortex, and maps sensory information onto
what is known as a sensory homunculus. Some researchers also refer to this region as Brodmann
area 3.
• Posterior parietal cortex:
This region is thought to play a vital role in coordinating movement and spatial reasoning. It also
plays a role in attention, particularly attention driven by new stimuli, such as when an animal
jumps into the road while you are driving.
• Superior parietal lobule:
This region helps you determine your own orientation in space, as well as the orientation of other
objects. It also receives significant input from the hand, suggesting that it helps coordinate fine
motor skills and sensory input from the hands.
• Inferior parietal lobule:
Sometimes called Geschwind's territory, this region aids in assessing facial expressions for
emotional content. Some research suggests it plays a role in other functions, including language
processing, basic mathematical operations, and even body image. It contains a number of sub-
regions, including the angular and supramarginal gyrus.
Damage to Parietal lobe:
Because of the parietal lobe's role in sensory integration, spatial reasoning, and language skills,
damage to the parietal lobe can have a broad range of consequences. The specific prognosis
depends in large part on the location of the injury, the severity of the injury, and whether the
injury can be treated. For instance, a lesion pressing on the parietal lobe will have a better
prognosis with improved functioning if the lesion can be removed. Three specific syndromes are
especially common in people with parietal lobe damage:
• Contralateral Neglect:
Right parietal lobe damage can impede your ability to care for your body because it undermines
your ability to notice or care for at least one side of the body. This phenomenon is known as
contralateral neglect. People with damage to the right parietal lobe may also be unable to make
or draw things.
• Gerstmann's syndrome:
A cluster of symptoms resulting from damage to the left parietal lobe. People with Gerstmann's
syndrome often struggle with writing, arithmetic, language, and the ability to perceive objects,
though the degree and extent of damage varies from person to person and injury to injury.
• Balint’s Syndrome:
Damage that crosses both parietal lobes lead to a condition called Balint's syndrome, which
impedes motor skills and visual attention. People with Balint's syndrome may not be able to
voluntarily direct their eyes. They struggle to integrate the components of a visual scene, and
may be unable reaching for or manipulating an object without looking at it.
3. Temporal Lobe:
The temporal lobe is a significant part of the limbic system. The limbic system is a group of
structures deep within the brain involved in processing and regulating emotions, memory and
motivation. One of the substructures, the hippocampus, is a seahorse shaped area, essential in the
formation of new memories.
Function:
The main functions of the temporal lobes include understanding language, memory acquisition,
face recognition, object recognition, perception and processing auditory information.
• Alike to the other lobes of the brain, there are left and right temporal lobes, situated in both
hemispheres of the cerebrum. The right and left temporal lobes differ in themselves.
• The left temporal lobe, which is typically the most dominant in people, is associated with
understanding language, learning, memorizing, forming speech and remembering verbal
information.
• The right temporal lobe, which is typically the least dominant in people, is associated with
learning and memorizing non-verbal information (e.g., drawings and music), recognizing
information, and determining facial expressions.
 • Essentially, the temporal lobes interact with, and depend upon input, which can be from other
brain regions, as well as from sensory input from the environment. The temporal lobes can
convert sounds into visual images in the mind. We also would not be able to understand someone
talking to us without the use of our temporal lobes helping us to make sense of language.
• The temporal lobes are also vital for declarative memory and long-term memory, as well as
making us good at selective hearing.

Important Structures in the Temporal Lobes:

The temporal lobe is structurally divided into the superior, middle, inferior and medial gyri.
• Superior Temporal Gyrus:
‘Superior’ in anatomical terms means ‘to the top’. A ‘gyrus’ (or plural: gyri) is a ridge on the
surface of the brain. The superior temporal gyrus is situated at the top of the temporal lobes,
located somewhat above the ears. The superior temporal gyrus is an area of the temporal lobe
which contains other areas with specialized functions. Some areas of the superior temporal gyrus
are vital in auditory processing, including the processing of language. Other areas are specialized
for processing a combination of frequencies, whilst others specialize in processing changes in
amplitude or frequency. The superior temporal gyrus has been implicated as being critical in
social cognition as well as being involved in the perceptions of emotions from facial expressions.
• Auditory cortex:
The auditory cortex, the main area responsible for processing auditory information, is located
within the temporal lobe. The auditory cortex is a part of the superior temporal gyrus which
essentially receives input from the ears and analyses it. Once it has done this, the cortex then
filters out unnecessary information, and passes on the relevant information to be processed and
understood.
The sensory information that is received gets processed into meaningful units such as speech and
words. As well as being able to do this, the signals can be transmitted back to the ears and can be
interconnected with other parts of the cerebral cortex. This area of the temporal lobes is therefore
responsible for processing auditory information, especially important in processing the semantics
in language and vision. The auditory cortex is also important for performing basic and higher
functions in regard to hearing, as well as being essential for the ability to switch languages.
• Limbic System:
The temporal lobe is a significant part of the limbic system. The limbic system is a group of
structures deep within the brain involved in processing and regulating emotions, memory and
motivation. One of the substructures, the hippocampus, is a seahorse shaped area, essential in the
formation of new memories. The hippocampus is important for early storage of long-term
memories and is involved in the transition of long-term memory to an even more permanent
memory. Another substructure of the limbic system, the amygdala, is known as the emotional
center of the brain. The amygdala is involved in processing emotions, fear and reward as well as
playing a big role in the fight-or-flight response. As the amygdala is close to the hippocampus, it
is involved in the modulation of memory strengthening, especially emotional memories. In
essence, the stronger the emotional arousal of a memory, the more likely it will be retained.
• Wernicke’s Area:
Wernicke’s area is believed to be situated in the back part of the temporal lobe, frequently found
in the left hemisphere. It takes its name from Carl Wernicke, who worked with patients who had
language impairments, in order to distinguish separate regions for language comprehension and
production. Wernicke’s area is particularly important for language development as well as the
comprehension of speech, giving meaning to speech and the written word
Damage to Temporal Lobe:
Below is a list of symptoms that can be associated with damage to the temporal lobes:
• Walking unsteadily
• Impaired verbal and non-verbal memory.
• Impaired speech and understanding of speech – Wernicke’s aphasia.
• Difficulty with executive functions – e.g., planning and coordinating.
• Impaired music skills.
• Inability to recognize faces – prosopagnosia.
• Poor impulse control or addiction.
• Hallucinations – visual, auditory, and olfactory.
• Apathy.
• Deafness.
• Impaired learning.
• Differences in automatic behaviors – e.g., hunger, thirst, and sexual desire.
• Amnesia.
• Aggressive behaviors.
• Difficulty with planning and direction.
• Long and short-term memory loss.
4. Occipital Lobe
The occipital lobe is the seat of most of the brain's visual cortex, allowing you not only to see
and process stimuli from the external world, but also to assign meaning to and remember visual
perceptions. Located just under the parietal lobe and above the temporal lobe, the occipital lobe
is the brain's smallest lobe, but its functions are indispensable.
Location:
The occipital lobe is the rearmost lobe of the brain, located in the forebrain. It rests upon the
tentorium cerebelli, a thick membrane of tissue the separates the cerebrum from the
evolutionarily older cerebellum.
Functions:
Although we know that the occipital lobe is dedicated to vision, this process is highly complex,
and includes a number of separate functions. Those include:
• Mapping the visual world, which helps with both spatial reasoning and visual memory. Most
vision involves some type of memory, since scanning the visual field requires you to recall that
which you saw just a second ago.
• Determining color properties of the items in the visual field.
• Assessing distance, size, and depth.
• Identifying visual stimuli, particularly familiar faces and objects.
• Transmitting visual information to other brain regions so that those brain lobes can encode
memories, assign meaning, craft appropriate motor and linguistic responses, and continually
respond to information from the surrounding world.
• Receiving raw visual data from perceptual sensors in the eyes' retina.
Important Structures:
Like all other lobes of the brain, the occipital lobe contains a number of structures and neuronal
tracts that work together to enable vision. Those include:
• Brodmann area 17:
Known as V1, this region is located in the occipital lobe's calcarine sulcus, and serves as the
brain's primary visual cortex. It aids the brain to determine location, spatial information, and
color data.
• Ventral stream:
Known sometimes as V2, this is a secondary visual cortex that helps the brain assign meaning to
what it is seeing. Without V2, you would still be able to see, but would have no conscious
awareness of or understanding of the sights your eyes took in.
• Dorsomedial stream:
Neuroscientists don't yet have a strong understanding of this brain region, which connects to
both V1 and V2, as well as other brain regions.
• Lateral geniculate bodies:
These structures take in optic information from retinal sensors in each eye, sending raw
information to each visual cortex.
• Lingula:
This area receives information from the contralateral inferior retina to gather information about
the field of vision. Brain imaging studies have revealed that neurons on the back of the gray
matter of the occipital lobe create an ongoing visual map of data taken in by the retinas.
Damage to Occipital lobe:
The most obvious effect of damage to the occipital lobe is blindness, but occipital lobe damage
can have other surprising effects:
• Epilepsy: Some seizures occur in the occipital lobe, and occipital lobe damage increases
vulnerability to seizures.
• Difficulties with movement: Even if you are still able to move, changes in depth perception and
vision can lead to inappropriate movements and difficulty navigating the visual field.
• Difficulties perceiving colors, shape, dimension, and size.
• Difficulty recognizing familiar objects or faces.
• Hallucinations
• Inability to recognize or read written words
. • Inability to detect that an object is moving.
• Difficulty reading or writing; for example, the words may appear to move on the page.
• Difficulty locating objects within the environment, even when you are able to see those
objects.
• Difficulties with fine and gross motor skills, as well as balance.
Interaction with other areas of the Body:
• The eyes, particularly the retinas, which take in and process visual information to then be
further processed by the occipital lobe.
• The frontal lobe, which contains the brain's motor cortex. Without motor skills, the eyes cannot
move or take in information from surrounding regions.
• The temporal lobe, which helps assign meaning to visual information, in addition to encoding it
into memories

ENCODING:
Definition:
The technique of cognition where brain perceives sensory input from the outside world and
changes (encodes) it into memories.
The Role of Encoding in Memory Encoding
It is the first step of the memory process. This is where our brain takes in various sensory input
and "encodes" it into something manageable and accessible for later use. Without proper
encoding, our brains would not have the opportunity to store and retrieve memories. Our brains
rely on all our senses to obtain information. Our senses provide a variety of ways to absorb
information and encode it.
Main Types of Encoding:
Psychologists agree there are different ways our brains encode memories. They include:
• Acoustic encoding:
The processing and encoding sounds, words, and other auditory input for storage and retrieval.
This includes using our inner voice to recite information to strengthen memories. For example,
mentally going over facts for a test.
• Visual encoding:
Processing and encoding images and visual sensory information. Visual information is
temporarily stored within iconic memory before being encoded in long-term storage. Since most
of us take in so much visual information daily, this type of information tends to be forgotten
easily.
• Tactile encoding:
The processing of how something feels, usually through touch. Neurons in the somatosensory
cortex react to vibrotactile stimuli caused by the feel or texture of an object. Odors and tastes can
also be part of tactile encoding. This could include remembering the feeling of your first kiss, the
taste of your favorite meal, and the feeling of cuddling with your favorite pet.
• Semantic encoding:
The processing of sensory input having a particular meaning or used in a context. It deals with
remembering facts, ideas, and concepts not drawn from personal experience. For example, word
definitions, the dates of specific events, and finding places on a map. Research suggests our
semantic encoding is much more memorable when we attach importance and emotions to the
information. Some researchers suggest more types of encoding that include:
• Elaborative encoding:
Involves actively relating new information or knowledge to something already in memory. Most
memories are a combination of old and new information. Any particular interpretation of a
memory depends on the old information as well as new information coming to our senses. For
example, a novice pianist may remember her first recital as exciting and excellent. As she gets
better and performs more, she may still see her first recital as exciting but may think her playing
was sloppy and amateur.
• Organizational encoding:
The process of classifying information to the associations of a sequence of terms. This includes
grouping or categorizing by noticing relationships among a series of items. Like elaborative
encoding, this involves encoding existing memories differently. For example, knowing cats,
dogs, monkeys, and humans are mammals.

Information coding in Visual cells:

Visual Encoding:
Visual coding describes the way in which cells of the retina encode information they receive
from the photoreceptors.
The Process of Visual encoding:
The process of “vision” starts when light rays enter the eye and ends with visuallyguided
behavior. This process goes through three main stages:
1. The optical stage focuses an image on the retina.
2. In the receptor stage, photoreceptor cells convert the light energy striking your retina into
nerve impulses which are then be processed by your nervous system.
3. Neural processing, the final stage, processes the nerve impulses, leading to our consciously
perceiving, to recognizable objects in the visual world.
Because the different stages of visual processing have very different properties and can present
with very different kinds of problems, it is important to keep this in mind when testing and
analyzing visual performance. Understanding where in the visual process problems are arising
allows you to identify appropriate solutions.

The optical stage of vision is associated with the optical apparatus of the eye–the front of the eye.
This first part of the visual pathway should result in a clear image of the environment on the
retina.
With age… As one gets older, the lens loses its elasticity and remains too flat even when the
ciliary muscles are completely contracted. When this happens, images of near objects, such as a
book you are reading, are blurred. Potential problems in the optical stage and their solutions:
refraction and opacities Focusing problems When light rays do not converge on the retina
precisely, several types of vision defects may occur.
The ability of the eye to focus properly depends on a few aspects of the eye:
• The cornea’s curvature:
If the front surface of the eye, the cornea, is not adequately spherical, if it's the curve is irregular,
light rays entering the eye will not focus correctly on the retina, resulting in a blurred image.
This is referred to as astigmatism.
• The length of the eye:
If the eye’s shape or length prevents the focused light from landing on the retina, vision will be
distorted. If the eye is too long front to back, light that is focused in front of the retina. This is
myopia or nearsightedness –you can see better up close than far away.
 If the eyeball is too short, the light that is focused in the eye lands behind of the retina
and one is farsighted. This is called hyperopia (farsightedness).
 Nearsightedness and farsightedness can also result from distortion of the curvature of the
lens inside the eye. A too-flat lens will result in farsightedness, a too-curved lens in
nearsightedness.
 As well, the lens loses its natural elasticity with age losing its ability to change shape,
making it more difficult to focus on close objects, as we do when reading or sewing or
typing on a keyboard. In fact, by the age of 30 you have lost around half of your
accommodative power. This hardening of the lens is called presbyopia.
 Vision can be diminished by corneal opacities that can lead to scarring or clouding of the
cornea. Corneal opacities can cause minor irritation to severe vision problems. Corneal
opacities can also result from bacterial infections from severe Conjunctivitis and contact
lens-related infection.
 A cataract is a clouding of the eye’s lens that occurs when some of the protein that keeps
the lens clear and lets light pass through it clumps together and starts to cloud a small
area of the lens. Although cataracts are related to aging – more than half of all Americans
80 and over either have or have had a cataract – they can also result from smoking and
diabetes.
 Potential problems in the optical stage and their solutions: drainage the aqueous fluid
inside the eye plays another important role, one critical to glaucoma: the fluid provides
the necessary pressure inside the eye, known as intraocular pressure (IOP), to maintain
the shape of the eye. If too much fluid is produced or the drainage system does not
adequately remove the used fluid, pressure builds up in the eye and the eye expands,
much like a balloon. When the eye expands with the increasing pressure, it gives way at
its most vulnerable point, which is where the optic nerve exits the eye. The optic nerve is
thin and vulnerable where it leaves the retina, and so the result of the increased
intraocular pressure can be damage and then death to the axons of the nerve cells