UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

o Horn of Africa has been characterized by;

 Cradle of humankind.
 It is also a region of early civilizations and a place for the domestication of
plant and animals.
 A place where tools and religious practices were initiated

Human Evolution
o Archeological evidences stated that, East African Rift Valley and the Horn (Lower Omo
and Middle Awash River valleys) is the origin of mankind both in biological and cultural
evolution.

o The discovered fossils includes;

 Chororapithecus
• Dated 10 million in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007.
 Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba
• Dated 5.8-5.2 million years was discovered in Middle Awash.
 Ardipithicus ramidus
• Aged to 4. 2 million was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
 Australopithecines
• Another species of human being discovered in the region.
 The old child’s fossils of Australopithecus were;

A. Selam

 Aged to 3.3 million years was discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.

B. Afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh

 dated 3.18 million years

 40% complete body parts,
 bipedal female, discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D

C. Australopithecus Anamensis

 Discovered around Lake Turkana.

1|Page
 D. Australopithecus Garhi

• Dated to 2.5 million years was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and
1999.

Genus Homo
 Emerged 2-2.5 million years
 Changed from the former species of Australopithecus.
 Discovered in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Categorized in to three major classifications.

a) Homo Habilis (Handy human being)

 It name was derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human being)

 "Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years

 Discovered in Lower Omo.

 Developed the Olduvian stone technology.

b) Homo Erectus

 Called as walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years

 Its fossils discovered in Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb.
 It originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world.
 Used Achuelean stone technology (named after a place in France)

c) Homosapiens (wise human being)

 Knowledgeable human being dated 400, 000 years.
 Discovered in Bodo, Middle Awash.
 Fossils of Homo sapiens dated to 100, 000 years.
Cultural evolution

• Technological and socio-economic transformation on human life.

• Grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
 Based on the features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to 3
modes.

2|Page
 Mode I - Olduwan, which named a place after where the first tool made at Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania.

• Characterized by crude and mono-facial styles and produced by the direct

percussion.
Mode II - Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France)

• Has a feature of indirect percussion, by using hand-axe or hammer.

Mode III - (Sangoon used by Sapiens)

• Characterized by flexible and fine form of production.

 A stone tool is divided into sub-periods.
1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
 Ranges from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years
 A period when human being sheltered in caves, developed language, and used
stone, bone, wood, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
 Sex-age labor division (hunting of wild animals by men while collection of wild
fruits by women and children) began.

2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)

 Was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic age.

3. Neolithic (New Stone Age

 Ranges from 10, 000-6, 000 B.P)
Neolithic Revolution

• Transformation from mobile to sedentary way of life.

• Changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
• Ethiopia and the Horn is chiefly in the more elevated in the cultivation of plants
including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia
abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum), enset plant (Ensete edule)
 Neolithic material culture includes;
 Adigrat, Lalibela, Aksum

3|Page
  Lake Basaqa near Matahara, Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea, Laga Oda rock
shelter near Charchar.

The Peopling of the Region

• Ethiopia and Horn has ethnic and linguistic diversity.

• There is some degree of unity and tolerance.
• The people of Ethiopia and the Horn are grouped under two major language super
families.

A. Afro-Asiatic
1. Cushitic – grouped under four branches.

a. Northern: its speakers are Beja.

- spoken in northwestern Eritrea and Sudan.

b. Central: spoken by Agaw (Awign, Kunfel) Qimant( Hamtanga and Bilen).

c. Eastern: spoken by Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo,
Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro,
Tsemai.

d) Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.

2. Semitic: sub divided into two.

a) North: Ge'ez, Tigre
b) South: is further divided into two
I. Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
II. Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes.
3. Omotic: spoken in southern Ethiopia.
- Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Shekkacho, Sheko,
Wolayta, Yem etc

B. Nilo-Saharan

- Widely spoken in western part of Ethiopia.

4|Page
 - Includes Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu
 Language distribution in the horn is not uniform.

Factors for the distribution of languages

 Population movements
 Warfare
 Trade
 Religious and territorial expansion
 Urbanization
Settlement Patterns

 The significant factors in shaping of settlement patterns are;

 Historical (linguistic, inter-peoples relations)
 Environmental factors
 Socio-economic, political processes

Economic Formations
 The domestication of plants and animals further consolidate social relation.
 The site of pastoralism and agriculture is diversified in the region.
Religion and Religious Processes

• Ethiopia and the Horn also characterized by developing the sprit if indigenous Religion.

What is Indigenous Religion?

• Religious beliefs and practiced by native of people since ancient times.
• Believed to special power is given by super nature.
• Includes;
1. Oromo (Waqeffanna)
 Believed to a Supreme Being called Waqa.
 Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
 Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) linked the Ayyana and the believers. Qallu's
ritual house called Galma.

5|Page
 The major spirits includes;
 Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit)
 Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit)
 Awayi/Tiyyana (valuable spirit)
 Balas (spirit of victory during the war)
 Chato/Dora (wild animals defender)
 Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit/Bless)
 Jaricha (peace spirit)
 Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc…
Irreecha- Defined as;

 Thanks giving festival.

 To celebrate New Year (Birbo) rite.
 Takes places two times annually (autumn at the edge of ever-flowing River and in spring
at the top of mountain.

Hadiya - Supreme Being is known as Waa

- believed to exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho)

Kambata: have Negita or Archo Magano/sky God and religious officials called Supreme Being

Konso- religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh

Gojjam Agaw- used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God)

Gurage- Have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being)

Konta- Used spirit-cult was called Docho.

Wolayta- called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana: Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna
(justice spirit)
Keficho: called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo

Boro-Shinasha
 Believe in super natural power called Iqa.

Nuer

6|Page
  believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven)
 The Indigenous religions are practiced for the purpose of;
 Prevention of drought, flooding, erosion,
 Protection of disease and starvation
 To keep peace and stability of community and their surrounding environment.
 Some traditional religions believed that after the death (a soul goes to heaven while the flesh
to earth).
 So, it has a relation with Christianity and Islam, which is also called as syncretism.
Syncretism
 A mixed (interrelation) of the central teaching of specific religion with another.

Judaism
 Used to express the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God)
 Established with an ancient Hebrew community.
 Practiced in Ethiopia and the Horn prior to the introduction of Christianity.
Christianity
o Define monotheism and polytheism?
o List the central teaching of Christianity?
• Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360)
• Ezana converted to Christianity by Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frumentius (Fremnatos).
• Ezana abandoned the pre-Christian gods like;

 Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god)

 Arwe (serpent python god)

 Bahir (sea god) and

 Midir (earth
• Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos
(328-373) and later on, Atnatewos appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian
Orthodox Church (EOC).
• Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune
Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.

7|Page
 th
• Christianity further expanded in 5 c during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the
Nine Saints.

The role of Nine saints

 Translation of bible to Ge’ez
 Construction of churches
 Conversion of masses to Christianity
 The Expansion of Christianity;
 continued during Zagwe period (1150-1270)
 Reached its peak during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527) when churches and
monasteries were constructed.
Examples of early churches in Ethiopia
 Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela
 Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea
 Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debra-Libanos in Shewa
 Churches and monasteries were served not only for religious purposes, but also center of
manuscripts and art.
 The expansion of Catholics by Jesuit missionaries in mid of 16th to early 17th centuries,
led a conflict.
 Fasiladas issued the Closer door policy to prohibit the expansion of Catholicism in
Ethiopia.
 Therefore, due to the policy issued by Fasiladas, the relation of Ethiopia and Europeans
interrupted till to the early 19th c.
Protestant followers adopted;
 old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa and equivalent to God
 Established as centers of preaching the faith.
 The provision of medical facilities and health centers.
 Construction of Schools etc
 Such action brought the popularity of Protestant from the society.
Islam

 Could you tell the methods used in the expansion of Islam?

8|Page
  Tell the challenges that Prophet Mohamed faced in teaching of Islam?
 Prophet Mohamed began to teach Islam in 7th c.
 Who was Prophet Mohamed?
 A Prophet who began to teach Islam in 610 and until his death in 632 A.D.
 He exercised different methods (Jihad and Trade) to spread Islam.
 He was considered as a teacher, lawyer, military leader etc. among Muslim
communities.
 He faced a challenge from Quraysh tribe while he teaches Islam.
 How Islam introduced to Ethiopia?
 Islam introduced to Ethiopia peacefully.
 It was due to Prophet Mohamed sent followers to Aksum, including his daughter
Rukiya and her husband Uthman.
 The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib.
Islamic Expansion to the Horn

 What were the methods of teaching Islam?

 Tell the activity done in the horn following the introduction of Islam?
o Islam spread to the Horn of Africa Peacefully.

The major gateways of Islam to the Horn

o Islam entered through the three ways.
a) Red sea (Dahlak), has a minor role for expansion due to the well establishment of
Christianity in the north.
b) Zeila (Gulf Aden). From this way Islam spread to Shawa, Wollo and Hararghe.
c) Indian Ocean. Through this way that Islam penetrated to Bale, Somalia
• Gradually, the Muslim communities (sultanate) were formed in Ethiopia and the Horn.
th th
Example sultanate of (Shawa in 896 A.D) then Ifat in (13 c), Adal state in 14 c.
Islamic culture
 Construction of mosques
 Islamic learning and pilgrimage
 Developments in traditions and literature of Muslims communities.

9|Page