YDS

MESUT KOYUNCU
GRAMER
 1. TENSES
Present Forms
Present Simple Present Continuous Present Perfect Present Perf. Continuous

permanent situations or states of nature actions happening at or around the moment recently completed actions actions started in the past and
She works in a bank. of speaking She has dyed her hair black. continuing up to the present
He is studying for the exams. She has been doing her homework for
permanent truths or laws complete past actions connected to an hour. (She started an hour ago and
The sun rises in the east. temporary situations the present with stated or unstated she's still doing it.)
He is spending the week with his mother. time reference
repeated/habitual actions He has bought a house. (Now he past actions of certain duration
(especially with frequency adverbs: frequently repeated actions, expressing owns a house.) having visible results or effects in
often, usually, always etc) annoyance or criticism He has just returned from Paris, (stated the present
He always goes to bed at 11 He's always getting into trouble. time reference) He has been running. That's why he's
o'clock. (Here "always" means (Here "always" means constantly.) out of breath.
every day)
fixed arrangements in the near future
timetables/programmes (future reference) I'm going to theatre this evening.
The train leaves at 8.00.

Past Forms
Past Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Pert. Continuous

complete action or event which happened two or more simultaneous past actions complete past action which had action continuing over a period up to a
at a stated past time of certain duration visible results in the past specific time in the past
She sold her car last week. ("When?" I was washing up while he was drying She felt much safer after she had She had been saving for a whole year before
"Last week." - stated past time) the dishes. locked she bought her ticket to Australia
all the doors.
complete past actions not connected to past action in progress interrupted past action of certain duration which had
the present by another past action. the Past Perfect is the past equivalent visible results in the past
Shakespeare wrote at least 36 plays. I was taking a shower when I heard of the Present Perfect He had been shouting so loudly that he had a
Shakespeare is dead - he won't write the telephone ring. The room was empty - Everyone sore throat.
any more.) had gone out.
action in the middle of happening (Present Perfect: The room is empty the Past Perfect Cont. is the past equivalent
past habit or state at a stated past time - everyone has gone out.) of the Present Perfect Cont.
He rode his bike to school every day when This time last week I was travelling The party was a great success because he
he was a child. across Africa. had been preparing for it all week.
(Present Perfect: The party is a great
success because he has been preparing for
it all week.)

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 Future Forms
Future Simple Be going to Future Continuous Future Perfect

60% of all people will live in cities by action intended to be performed in the action in progress at a stated future time action finished before a stated future time
2030. near future This time next year she'll be running her They will have emigrated to Canada by
I'm going to join a gym on Saturday. own business. Christmas.
hopes, fears, threats, offers, promises, Note: by or not... until/till are used
warnings, predictions, requests, comments planned actions or intentions Present Simple (with future with Future Perf.
etc, esp. with: expect, hope, believe, I'm Now that she's passed her exams she's going meaning) Until/till are normally used with
sure, I'm afraid, probably etc to train to be a solicitor. timetables/programmes future Perfect only in negative
I promise I'll be on time. The play begins at 7 o'clock this evening. sentences.
evidence that something will definitely He will have completed his studies by the
actions or predictions which may happen in the near future end
(not) happen in the future Those dark clouds mean its going to rain of the year. (not: till/until)
He'll probably pass his driving test. soon. He won't have arrived until tonight.
It's so hot - I'm going to faint.
things we are not yet sure about or Future Perfect Cont.
we haven't decided to do yet things we are sure about or we have duration of an action up to a certain
Perhaps I'll move house. already decided to do in the near time in the future
future They are going to operate on his By his sixtieth birthday, he will have
decisions taken at the moment of leg. (It has been decided) been teaching for 35 years.
speaking (on-the-spot decisions)
I'm hungry. I'll cook something to eat.

Will is used: Shall is used:

to express offers, threats, promises, predictions, warnings, requests, hopes, fears, on- with I/we in questions, suggestions, offers or when asking for advice.
the-
spot decisions, comments mainly with: think, expect, believe, I'm sure, hope, know, Shall we go home now?
suppose and probably). What shall I wear?
I hope you will keep in touch with me.

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 2. MODALS
Modals : Can, Could, May, Might, Should, Ought to, Must, Would, Will, Shall
Semi-modals : Have to, Used to, Need, Dare
Others : had better, be supposed to, be used to, be accustomed to etc.

CAN

ABILITY : She can design well.

IMPOSSIBILITY : That cannot be Tom. He is in New York now.
POSSIBILITY : Smoking can cause cancer.
REQUEST : Can you help me, please?
OFFER : Can I help you?
PERMISSION : Can I use your bathroom?
SUGGESTION : You can try another store, if you want.

TO BE ABLE TO
 To be able to sing well was not sufficient enough to make her famous singer. [to infinitive]
 Will she be able to cope with the work? [future tense]
 He's never been able to admit his mistakes. [present perfect tense]
 I'm sorry that I wasn't able to phone you yesterday. [past tense]
 It's so wonderful being able to see the sea from my window. [gerund]

COULD

ABILITY (Past) : She could play the guitar well when she
was 7. POSSIBILITY (Present) : We could get married by next year.
REQUEST *Could you…+ : Could you lend me £5?
PERMISSION *Could I…+ :“Could I use your phone?”
SUGGESTION : We could have dinner, if you
like.

COULD and WAS ABLE TO (=MANAGED TO)

a) COULD: see, hear, smell, taste, feel, remember, understand

 We had a lovely room in the hotel. We could see the lake.
b) COULD: (general ability or permission in the past)
 My grandfather could speak five languages. (general ability)
 We were totally free. We could do what we wanted. (general permission)
c) WAS ABLE TO veya MANAGED TO: (special situation)
 The fire spread through the building very quickly, but fortunately everybody was
able to / managed to escape. (not could)
 The fire spread through the building very quickly, unfortunately many peeople
couldn’t / was not able to escape. (in negative sentences both are possible)

MAY/MIGHT

POSSIBILITY (present OR future) : I’ll write the date of the meeting in my diary, otherwise I
may/might forget.
REQUEST (present) : May I come in?

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OFFER : May I help you?
PERMISSION : May/might I use your phone?
SUGGESTION : I thought we might/may go to the zoo on Saturday.

NOTE:
 We have missed the bus. The next one comes next hour. We may as well walk.
 If no one else wants this book we might as well give it to him.
 Don’t phone him right now. Their new-born baby may/might be sleeping.
 I may/might be going to Ireland in July. .
 May God help you! (Tanrı sana yardım etsin)
 May she rest in peace! (Huzur içinde yatsın)
 I know that he was tried hard; be that as it may, his work is just not good enough.

MUST

NECESSITY : You must be here by 10 o’clock.

: You must wear these socks.
PROHIBITION : You must not wear these socks.
:You must not smoke in the classroom.It’s strictly forbidden.
CONCLUSION : After that long walking you must be tired now.
SUGGESTION : He’s very smart. You must meet
him. FRUSTRATION, ANNOYANCE : Must the media exaggerate
so much?

HAVE (GOT) TO

NECESSITY : What time have you got to be there?

: Do we have to finish this today? [present]
: We'll have to start keeping detailed records. [future]
:Jackie's ill so they've had to change their plans. [p. perf.]

Comparison: MUST vs. HAVE TO

 Nurses have to wear a uniform. *hastane düzeni+
 Nurses must wear the same uniform. *birden fazla üniformalarının olması kafa karıştırıyor+

SHOULD /OUGHT TO

NECESSITY : You should be ashamed of yourselves.

: This computer isn't working as it should/ought to
SUGGESTION : You should /ought to give him a chance.
PROBABILITY : I enjoyed the first novel, so the new one should be
good. OFFER, ASKING APPROVAL [Should we or I] : Shall/should I put these books
over there? LESS POSSIBILITY : If you should change your mind, let me know.
: Should anyone call, please tell them I’m busy.
SURPRISE : I was just getting off the bus when who should I see
but my old school friend Pat!

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HAD BETTER +V1
 You had better wear this suit.
 You had better not drink any more. You will drive.

TO BE SUPPOSED TO
 The game is supposed to begin at 10:00.
 Jack was supposed to call me last night. I wonder why he didn’t.

WOULD

FUTURE in PAST [past of WILL] : He said he would be here at 8 o’clock.

: She hoped (that) we would come to her party.
: I thought that he would refuse your invitation.
WILLINGNESS : She would not help me. (She refused to help)
: The car would not start. (It refused to start)
POLITE REQUEST : Would you please pass the salt?
: “Would you mind if I left early?”
: If you would sign the register (Please sign it)
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (IF Type II) : She would look better if she had shorter hair. (=She would
look better with shorter hair.)
: If I were you, I would run.
PAST HABIT : Weekends we would/used to cycle to the beach.
:I used to have a Mercedes. (NOT would)

WOULD RATHER / WOULD SOONER / WOULD JUST AS SOON

1) With a verb: [would rather do ST] (present) [would rather have done] (past)
 I would rather read than walk. [PRESENT] (=I prefer reading to walking.)
 We went by air, although I would rather have gone by sea. [PAST]

2.a) With a sentence, present time: [would rather SB did ST]

 I’d rather he went by bus. (present) (=I prefer him to go by
bus.) 2.b) With a sentence, past: [would rather SB had done ST]
 My friend took me to the student opera. I’d rather he had taken me to the theater
instead.

WOULD LIKE / PREFER / LOVE = want WOULD HATE = don’t want

a)  Would you like a sandwich? [Would you like ST]
 Tom would like a lift today. (Present)
 Would you like coffee or would you prefer tea? [would like ST]
b)  Would you like to come this way please? (Please come this way?)
 Would you like to have a cup of coffee? [Would you like to do ST]
 I would prefer to stay at home tonight rather than go to the cinema. [I would prefer to do ST
than do ST]
 If you would like to go concert I will get a ticket. [would like to do

WOULD PREFER
 I’m tired. I’d rather not go out tonight.
 I’m tired. I’d prefer to stay at home tonight.

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MODAL + HAVE V3

CAN’T HAVE V3
IMPOSSIBILITY (Past) : That cannot have been Tom because we knew he had gone to New York.

COULD HAVE V3
IMPOSSIBILITY (Past) : You couldn’t have left your bag on the bus, could you?
: They told me that they had not received the letter yet. I could
have sent the letter to a wrong address.
POSSIBILITY) (Future) : By this time next week, I could have left for Washington.
POSSIBILITY which didn’t happen (Past) : We could/might have gone to Spain last year, but we
went
to Alanya instead.
NECESSITY : I waited ages for you - you could've said that you weren't coming!

MAY/MIGHT HAVE V3
POSSIBILITY (PAST) : She did not come to work yesterday. She may/might have
been ill. POSSIBILITY (FUTURE) : By next Friday I may/might/could have completed
the report.
POSSIBILITY which didn’t happen (PAST) : The plan might/could easily have gone wrong, but in
fact it was a great success.

MUST HAVE V3
CONCLUSION : John looks very tired this morning. He must not have slept last night.
:She got here very quickly. She must have walked very fast.

SHOULD HAVE V3
NECESSITY (didn’t happen) (PAST) : I had a test this morning. I did not do well. I should have
studied
last night.
: My back hurts. I should not have carried that heavy box.

NEEDN’T HAVE V3
SOMETHING NOT NECESSARY, BUT DONE [PAST] : He needn’t have taken the umbrella (=He took
the umbrella, but this was not necessary)

NOTE:
 He needn’t have taken the umbrella. (=He took the umbrella, but this was not necessary)
 He didn’t need to take the umbrella. (=He did not take the umbrella as it was not necessary)
 He didn’t have to take the umbrella. (=He did not take the umbrella as it was not necessary)
• It was Sunday I didn’t need to get up early. So I slept till 12 o’clock.
• It was Sunday. I needn’t have got up early but I woke up at 7 o’clock since I had totally
forgotten that it was Sunday.

WOULD HAVE V3
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (IF Type III) : I would have applied the job, if I had seen the
advertisement.

USED TO (Negative: Used not to/ usedn’t/ didn’t use to)

 We used to have a railway station. But they closed it down.
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BE/GET USED TO ST/ DOING ST
 I’m used to weather in this country. *be used to ST+
 I’m used to driving on the left since I’ve been living in England for 5 years. *be used to doing ST+
 I was used to driving on the left when I was in England for 5 years.
 I think I will be used to living in this city in 5 years.
 I can get used to seeing your face. (joke)

BE/GET ACCUSTOMED TO ST / DOING ST

BE FAMILIAR WITH TO ST / DOING ST
 I’m accustomed to tradition in this part of the world.
 Are you familiar with the computer software they use?

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 3. PASSIVE
1. is done/was
done A.
Somebody built this house in 1930.
(active) This house was built in 1930.
(passive)

Active verb:
* My grandfather was a builder. He built this house in 1930.
* It's a big company. It employs two hundred people.

Passive verb:
* This house is quite old. It was built in 1930.
* Two hundred people are employed by the company.

B.by...
* A lot of money was stolen in the robbery. (somebody stole it but we don't know who)
* Is this room cleaned every day? (does somebody clean it?--it's not important who)

* This house was built by my grandfather.

* Two hundred people are employed by the company.

C.be (is/was/have been etc.) + V3 (done/cleaned/seen etc.): (be) done, (be) seen, (be) built etc.

TENSE / VERB ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Simple present He paints the house every year. The house is painted every year.
Simple past He painted the house last week. The house was painted last week.
Simple future He will paint the house next year. The house will be painted next year.
Modal He can paint the house easily. The house can be painted easily.
Present cont. He is painting the house now. The house is being painted now.
Past continuous He was painting the house The house was being painted yesterday.
yesterday.
Present He has painted the house The house has been painted
perfect Past recently. He had painted the recently. The house had been
perfect house before I moved. painted before I moved.
Future perfect He will have painted the house by The house will have been painted by
next week. next week.
Modal Perfect He should have painted the house The house should have been painted
last last
year. year.
present He has to paint the house. The house has to be painted.
infinitive He wants us to paint the house He wants the house to be painted
[to paint] right now. right now.
perfect infinitive
He is said to have painted the The house is said to have been painted
[to have painted
house last year. last year.
]
present
participle I am used to sleeping 5 hours a day. The boy is used to being beaten.
/gerund [Ving]
perfect
He remembers that somebody invited He remembers having been invited to
participle
him to the party last month. the party last month.
[having invited]

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 Present simple
Somebody cleans this room every
day. This room is cleaned every
day.
* Many accidents are caused by careless driving.
* I'm not often invited to parties.
* How is this word pronounced?

Past simple
Somebody cleaned this room
yesterday. This room was cleaned
yesterday.
* We were woken up by a loud noise during the night.
* 'Did you go to the party?' 'No, I wasn't invited.'
* How much money was stolen?

2. be/been/being done
A. Infinitive
Somebody will clean the room later. The room will be cleaned later.
* The situation is serious. Something must be done before it's too late.
* A mystery is something that can't be explained.
* The music was very loud and could be heard from a long way away.
* A new supermarket is going to be built next year.
* Please go away. I want to be left alone.

B.Perfect infinitive
Somebody should have cleaned the
room. The room should have been
cleaned.
* I haven't received the letter yet. It might have been sent to the wrong address.
* If you hadn't left the car unlocked, it wouldn't have been stolen.
* There were some problems at first but they seem to have been solved.

C.Present perfect
The room looks nice. Somebody has cleaned
it. The room looks nice. It has been
cleaned.
* Have you heard the news? The President has been shot!
* Have you ever been bitten by a dog?
* 'Are you going to the party?' 'No, I haven't been invited.'
Past perfect
The room looked nice. Somebody had clean
it. The room looked nice. It had been
clean.
* The vegetables didn't taste very good. They had been cooked for too long.
* The car was three years old but hadn't been used very much.

D. Present continuous
Somebody is cleaning the room at the
moment. The room is being cleaned at the
moment.
* There's somebody walking behind us. I think we are being followed.
* (in a shop) 'Can I help you, madam?' 'No, thank you. I'm being served.'
Past continuous
Somebody was cleaning the room when I
arrived. The room was being cleaned when I
arrived.
* There was somebody walking behind us. We were being followed.

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3.
A. verbs with two objects:
* We gave the police1 the information2. (= We gave the information to the
police.) two passive sentences:
* The police were given the information. or
* The information was given to the police.

Other common verbs: ask, offer, pay, show, teach, tell…

* I was offered the job but I refused it. (= they offered me the job)
* You will be given plenty of time to decide. (= we will give you plenty of time)
* Have you been shown the new machine? (= has anybody shown you ...?)
* The men were paid 200TL to do the work. (= somebody paid the men 200TL)

B.I don't like being + V3...

I don't like people telling me what to
do. I don’t like being told what to do.
* I remember being given a toy drum on my fifth birthday. (= I remember somebody giving
me a toy drum...)
* Mr. Miller hates being kept waiting. (= he hates people keeping him waiting)
* We managed to climb over the wall without being seen. (= ... without anybody seeing us)

C.Get + V3
* There was a fight at the party but nobody got hurt. (= nobody was hurt)
* I don't often get invited to parties. (= I'm not often invited)
* I'm surprised Ann didn't get offered the lob. (... Ann wasn't offered the job)
* Our dog got run over by a car.

D. It is said that... He is said to...

Henry is very old. Nobody knows exactly how old he is,
but: It is said that he is 108 years old. or
He is said to be 108 years old.

Common verbs: thought, believed, considered, reported, known, expected, alleged, understood…

* Cathy works very hard. 

It is said that she works 16 hours a
day. or She is said to work 16 hours a
day.

* The police are looking for a missing boy. 

It is believed that the boy is wearing a white pullover and blue
jeans. or The boy is believed to be wearing a white pullover and
blue jeans.

* The strike started three weeks ago.

 It is expected that it will end
soon. or The strike is expected to
end soon

* A friend of mine has been arrested.

 It is alleged that he kicked a
policeman. or He is alleged to have
kicked a policeman.
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 * Those two houses belong to the same family. 
It is said that there is a secret tunnel between
them. or There is said to be a secret tunnel
between them.

* It is reported that two people were injured in the

explosion. or Two people are reported to have been
injured in the explosion.

E.(Be) supposed to + V3
Sometimes “it is supposed to ... = it is said to...”
* Let's go and see that film. It's supposed to be very good. (= it is said to be very good)
* 'Why was he arrested?' 'He's supposed to have kicked a policeman.' (= he is said to have
kicked a policeman)

With a different meaning. 'Something is supposed to happen' = it is planned, arranged or expected.

* I'd better hurry. It's nearly 8 o'clock and I'm supposed to be meeting Ann at 8.15. (= I have
arranged to meet Ann, I said I would meet her)
* The train was supposed to arrive at 11.30 but it was an hour late. (= the
train was expected to arrive at 11.30 according to the timetable)
* You were supposed to clean the windows. Why didn't you do it?
'You're not supposed to do something' = it is not allowed or advisable for you to do it:
* You're not supposed to park your car here. It's private parking only.
* Mr. Bond is much better after his illness but he's still not supposed to do any heavy work.
(= his doctors have advised him not to ...)

F a. Have something done

The roof of Jill's house was damaged in a storm, so she arranged for somebody to repair it.
Yesterday a workman came and did the job.  Jill had the roof repaired yesterday.

* Jill repaired the roof. (= She repaired it herself)

* Jill had the roof repaired. (= She arranged for somebody else to repair it. She didn't repair
it herself.)

* Did Ann make the dress herself or did she have it made?
* 'Are you going to repair the car yourself?' 'No, I'm going to have it repaired.'

* Where did you have your hair cut?

* Your hair looks nice. Have you had it cut?
* Julia has just had central heating installed in her house.
* We are having the house painted at the moment.
* How often do you have your car serviced?
* I think you should have that coat cleaned soon.
* I don't like having my photograph taken.

F b.
* Jill and Eric had all their money stolen while they were on holiday. = All their money was
stolen from them.'
* George had his nose broken in a fight.
* Have you ever had your passport stolen?

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 4. GERUNDS & INFINITIVES
-ING
1. Normal words: During, according to …, to bring, to spring … , building, offspring …
2. Adjectives: interesting, boring, living,
3. Continuous tenses: I am learning English.
... 4. Gerunds:
5. Reduction of Clauses:
6. , V+ing :

Through the ages, drugs have been enormously beneficial in relieving suffering and in preventing and
treating diseases.

Much of the immune system’s machinery is geared towards killing or eliminating invading
microbes once they have been recognized.

Mozart, who was one of the leading representatives of the “Classical” style in music, was only
thirty- five —-.

Earth’s crust is composed of seven large plates, plus a few smaller ones, that float on the mantle
which is the solid layer of Earth lying beneath the crust and above the core.

The Romans built strong defences on the hills surrounding Rome.

… what should people living in coastal areas do?

… Archimedes dashed out naked into the street crying “Eureka!”.

The structures around the eye protect it while allowing it to move freely in all directions.

Additionally, agricultural productivity increased, making it possible for Europe to feed a population
that had now reached unprecedented levels.

The new political and economic relationships between colonies and dependent states on the one
hand and the colonizing power on the other ran both ways, bringing changes to both sides.

Archimedes’ inventions were put into use when, following several scientific tests, they proved to
be very efficient.

- Leaving the town and driving down the road, we come to a swift water area with huge
rocks and boulders.

4a. GERUNDS
Cooking is my mother's favourite
job.
Reading is essential to broaden one's horizons.
Teasing animals is cruel.
Having to work hard all the time can strain one's nerves.
Eating too much makes people fat.
I think that eating a balanced diet will help you to slim down
healthily. She soon realized that living in a foreign country was
rather distressing.

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Being interested in books is a good quality.
Swimming and running are my favourite sports.
Ironing and washing the dishes are the most boring jobs for me.
Living in the same house but not sharing the household duties shows her irresponsibility.
Reading a book for a while or listening to slow music provides relaxation after a hard day's
work. Not being aware of the facts can't be regarded as an excuse.
His not wanting to come with us surprised us all.
The government's not taking strict measures against the increasing interest rates will destroy our
economy.

Subject Complement
Their favourite pastime is watching television.
My biggest problem at work now is having to deal with too many people
every day. What he is most interested in is driving at high speed.
Her biggest dream is having her own circus, giving happiness to everyone who might
need it. The main quality needed in this job is being polite all the time.

Possessive + Gerund
I excused her taking my dress without my permission.
I miss our gathering round my grandmother and listening to her war stories.

Preposition + Gerund
I'm interested in music. (noun)
I'm interested in listening to music. (gerund
phrase) She is afraid of going out in the dark.
I object to doing the Job as he proposed.
I'm looking forward to having my holiday
soon. Your younger son seems very good at
drawing. Are you interested in taking
photographs?
Though I tried to comfort her, she remained concerned about not hearing from
her son. You are certainly capable of doing much better work.
After the resignation of the manager's secretary, Mrs. Brown became responsible for carrying out
her duties.

Passive + Gerund
She insists on our telling her the truth whatever
it is. She insists on being told the truth whatever
it is.

I appreciate being invited to the party.

I don't enjoy being asked personal
questions. You can't go to a party without
being invited.
Being the son of a very rich man, he is in danger of being
kidnapped. He is justly proud of being elected chairman.
For fear of being attacked, she avoids going out alone after
dark. I resented not being invited to the wedding.
I can't stand being told what to do.
I don't recall being informed about this case.

Having + V3
The thief admitted stealing/having stolen the car.
At the court, the headmaster denied hitting/having hit the child.
He was accused o f embezzling/having embezzled a large sum of money into his own account.
13
I appreciated your helping/having helped me.

The man denied being involved/having been involved in the robbery.

She went to the party without being invited/having been invited.
I don't recall being told/having been told about this case before.
She doesn't seem interested in being given/having been given a reward for her work.

Expressions with Gerunds

It's no use/It's no good ...
It's no use trying to conceal what you have just done. I saw you.
It's no good trying to persuade my father. He won't allow me to come with you.

There is no point In ...

There is no point in running for the train. It must have left by now.
There was no point in waiting for him in front of the cinema after the film had started, so I went in.

It's worth .../It's not worth ...

I don't think it's worth mending this pullover. It's already worn-
out. This book isn't worth reading. Its plot is nonsense.

A waste of time/money/energy ...

It's a waste of money buying more things than you need.
It's a waste of time trying to do all this work by yourself. You can ask for help.

Spend/waste (time, money, energy) ...

Yesterday, I spent the whole day cleaning the
house. He usually spends hours trying to repair
things.
You waste a lot of time watching those ridiculous series on TV.

Without doing ...

Don't go out without putting on your coat. It's rather cold
outside. I was really surprised when she went past me
without greeting me.

By doing ...
By doing, temel cümledeki eylemi nasıl yaptığımızı
açıklar. She passed the university exam by studying
very hard.
I'm very short of time. I can only catch the bus by running
fast. Because it can't speak, a baby makes its needs known
by crying.

Go + gerund
go shopping go hiking go swimming go hunting go running
go sightseeing go camping go skating go fishing go skiing

I went shopping yesterday, so I wasn't at home in the afternoon.

My husband and my son are very fond of catching fish, so they often go fishing together.

Busy doing something

In this season, the peasants are very busy harvesting their crops.
Don't disturb her. She's busy compiling the information for her graduation thesis.
She is busy with her homework.
They are busy with their financial problems these days.
14
Have fun/have a good time doing
We had fim telling each other our childhood memories.
My sister in England says in her letter that she is having a good time there visiting interesting
places and meeting people from various cultures.

Sit/stand/lie + expression of place + gerund

After the guests left, I lay in bed reading until I got sleepy.
I stood there, in front of the cinema, waiting in vain for him to come.
After breakfast, father usually sits in his armchair reading the
newspaper.

4b. INFINITIVES
She wants to study languages at
university. To be a student is really
difficult.
They are planning to move into another
house. Her father doesn't let her go out
alone at night. His poor appearance made us
feel sorry for him.

It's difficult for a mother not to feel concerned about her

children. I agreed not to İnvite too many people to the party.
She pretended not to see me.

I haven't decided yet to go to the cinema with

you. l have decided not to go to the cinema
with you.

She didn't agree to buy a small

car. She agreed not to buy a
small car.

It is fun to chat.
It is fun to chat with a close friend.
To save money is impossible these
days. It is impossible to save money
these days.

To travel by minibus takes a lot of

time. It takes a lot of time to travel by
minibus.

To become perfect in a foreign language takes

years. It takes years to become perfect in a foreign
language.

Gerund or Infinitive (general-specific)

Her favourite sport is playing tennis. (general)
Her plan after work today is to play tennis. (specific)

A nationwide pastime is watching television.

(general) What I will do after dinner is to watch
television. (specific)

Swimming is my favourite sport.

Reading is very important for children.

15
Knowing English enables you to communicate with
foreigners. To swim in that river isn't at all wise.
To read this book in just three days will be
difficult. To learn English will enable you to find
a good job.

Swimming is easy for

me.
To swim is easy for me.
It is easy for me to swim.

Driving in heavy traffic isn't difficult for an experienced

driver. To drive in heavy traffic isn't difficult for an
experienced driver. It isn't difficult for an experienced driver
to drive in heavy traffic.

Subject Complement
When I was a child, my ambition was to be an architect.
A government's policy should be to do whatever is needed to improve the standard
of living. After dinner tonight, my plan is to take a walk along the seashore.
What you need is to get some fresh air.

Noun/pronoun + infinitive
I advised him to stop smoking.
Her father doesn't allow her to go out at night.
He challenged me to swim to the other side of the
river. Owning a car enables you to travel without
difficulty.
Her job requires her to travel a
lot. He told them to be there on
time.
Last night, we hired a babysitter to look after our
son. Setting an aim motivates people to work
harder.

(If Passive…)
I was advised to stop smoking.
She isn't allowed to go out at
night. They were told to be there
on time.

1. Gerund or Infinitive with no or little change in meaning

advise cannot bear encourage intend need prefer
allow continue forbid like neglect recommend
attempt dislike hate love permit start
begin dread

a) I attempted doing/to do the job without getting any

help. Just as I left the office, it began raining/to rain.
I can't bear listening/to listen to that sort of
music. After a brief interval, we continued
working/to work. She dislikes being told/to be
told what to do.
I hate washing/to wash the dishes.
They intend moving/to move into a bigger
house. I like walking/to walk.
She loves playing/to play with children.
He neglected Informing/to Inform us about the case.
I will start studying/to study as soon as the film is over.

16
b) It was beginning to rain when I left the office.
She was still continuing to work at the same company despite many problems.
c) I advise driving more slowly on this slippery road.
I advise you to drive more slowly on this slippery
road. I don't allow chewing gum during the class.
I don't allow my students to chew gum during the
class. I encourage speaking freely in the class.
I encourage my students to speak freely in the
class. The law forbids travelling without wearing a
seatbelt. The law forbids us to travel without
wearing a seatbelt. My mother doesn't permit
smoking in our house.
My mother doesn't permit me to smoke in our
house. I recommended staying at an inexpensive
hotel.
I recommended my brother to stay at an inexpensive hotel.
d) I suggested going to an Italian restaurant for a change.
I suggested their going to an Italian restaurant for a change.
e) I need to iron my shirt. (active)
My shirt needs to be ironed/needs ironing. (passive)
You need to repair the radio. (active)
The radio needs to be repaired/needs repairing. (passive)
f) I prefer walking to running.
I prefer to walk home today rather than take the bus.

2. Gerund or infinitive with a change in meaning

forget mean (intend) regret try (make an
effort) remember mean (result in, involve) stop
try (experiment)
a) Forget and remember
Do you remember our being stuck in the mud with the car last winter?
- Yes, I also remember very clearly your losing your temper.
- Really? What did I do?
- You kicked the car and dented its rear fender.
- Oh, I'd completely forgotten doing that.
When I met him, I suddenly remembered lending him a large sum of
money the previous month. When I asked for my money back, he said he
was sorry he had completely forgotten borrowing money from me.
- Please remember (don't forget) to tell him that I will be waiting at our
usual cafe around 4 o'clock.
- Okay, I promise you. I won't forget (will remember) to give him
your message.
Because I left home in a hurry, I forgot to take my purse with me.
I usually forget to lock the door, but this morning I remembered to lock it/I
didn't forget to lock it.
b) Mean
I dont mean to hurt you by criticizing you so severely, but it's for your own sake.
He had meant to go on a camping holiday this year, but 1 think his wife didn't
agree. Being a parent means having a lot of responsibilities.
If we can't reach an agreement soon about where to have lunch, I'm
afraid it will mean wasting our lunch break here in the office.
c) Regret
He regrets that he didn't attend university.
He regrets not attending/not having attended university.
17
 She regretted that she hadn't listened to her mother's advice.
She regretted not listening/not having listened to her mother's
advice. She regrets that she bought an orange car.
She regrets buying/having bought an orange car.
Regret "I'm sorry"
l regret to tell you that 1 can't come with
you. (I'm sorry to tell you that ......... )
I regret to inform you that you couldn't get a passing grade.
d) Stop doing
When l entered the classroom, the students stopped chatting
among themselves. (They had been chatting before I came in.)
When some guests arrived after dinner, I stopped studying.
Stop to do
When the phone rang, I stopped my work to/in order to answer the
phone. When a loud noise was heard, everybody in the street stopped
to/in order to see what had happened.
Stop doing something to do something else
When the phone rang, I stopped studying to/in order to answer it.
When a student raised his hand, I stopped lecturing to/in order to
listen to him.
e) Try
I tried hard to catch the train, but I couldn't.
She tried to persuade her father to let her go to the
cinema. I tried to warn you, but you were too busy to
listen to me.

Because it was very hot last night, I couldn't get to sleep.

I tried opening the window, but it didn't work. Then I took a cold shower. It
worked!
- Take an aspirin if you have a headache.
- I tried taking one, but it didn't help.
- Then, try having a rest. It may work.

INFINITIVE AFTER CERTAIN NOUNS

a) Infinitive, bazı isimlerden sonra gelerek, o ismi tanımlayan bir sıfat işlevini
üstlenir. Bu şekilde yaygın olarak kullanılan isimler şunlardır:

ability demand failure request

ambition desire offer right
anxiety determination plan scheme
attempt eagerness promise willingness
decision effort refusal wish
Not every person has the ability to think logically. Some people lack it totally.
His ambition to become the top student in the class made him ill.
My determination to go on walking even in the rain surprised them all.
His eagerness to pass the exam is at its peak these days.
b) superlative
The best time to go on holiday is spring.
Tomorrow, I will have a lot of time to deal
with you. My favourite time to walk is early in
the morning.
The best place to fish is just under the Bosphorus Bridge.
The first, the second, the next, the last, etc.
Do you know who the first person to climb Mount Everest was?
The last person to leave home should lock the door.

18
 She is always the last (person) to come.

INFINITIVE AFTER CERTAIN ADJECTIVES

I'm sorry to hear that your mother is
ill. I'm glad to see you here.
the best restaurant to eat at, the cheapest hotel to stay at, the most difficult method to
follow, etc.

a) Common adjectives:
content disgusted determined reluctant
delighted disturbed motivated certain
glad sad prepared likely
happy sorry ready amazed
pleased upset willing astonished
relieved proud afraid surprised
lucky ashamed careful shocked
fortunate anxious hesitant stunned
disappointed eager
She is hesitant to accept their job
offer. I'm reluctant to go with them.
I was surprised to see Jane at the party.
She was determined to have a university education.
I was relieved to get the news that they didn't get injured in the
accident. She was disappointed not to pass the exam.
She was ashamed not to be able to pass the exam after so many private lessons.
b) adjective + preposition
She was proud to be the top student in the
class. She was proud of being the top student
in the class. She was ashamed to have made
such rude remarks.
She was ashamed of having made such rude remarks.
I was surprised to see him there. I was
surprised at his being there.
c) adjective + infinitive
She was disgusted when she saw the kitchen in such a
mess. She was disgusted to see the kitchen in such a
mess.
She was disappointed that she didn't get the
job. She was disappointed not to get the
job.
She was disappointed that they didn't give her the job.
She was disappointed not to be given the job.
She was happy that they promoted
her. She was happy to be
promoted.

PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND PAST INFINITIVE

a) Infinitive passive: to be done
I don't want you to tell me what to
do. I don't want to be told what to
do.
I didn't expect she would invite me to her
wedding. I didn't expect to be invited to her
wedding.
b) Infinitive past: to have done, passive past : to have been
done I'm happy that I passed the exam.
I'm happy to have passed the exam.

19
 (I passed the exam sometime before now, and now I'm happy.)
She is fortunate that she received a good
education. She is fortunate to have received a
good education. It seems that you have passed
the exam.
You seem to have passed the exam.
It seems that they were surprised at the news.
They seem to have been surprised at the news.

c) To do/to be done X to have done/to have been

done She is fortunate that she will study
abroad. She is fortunate to study
abroad.
She is fortunate that she studied
abroad. She is fortunate to have
studied abroad. She is lucky that she
will be sent abroad. She is lucky to be
sent abroad.
She is lucky that she was sent
abroad. She is lucky to have been
sent abroad. It's likely that she is at
home now.
She is likely to be at home now.
It's likely that she was at home then.
She is likely to have been at home
then. It seems he is given pay rises
regularly. He seems to be given pay
rises regularly.

It seems he was given a pay rise last month.

He seems to have been given a pay rise last month.
d) present continuous infinitive (to be doing)
past continuous infinitive (to have been
doing) It appears that they are
waiting for us. They appear to be
waiting for us.
It appears that they have been waiting for us for a long time.
They appear to have been waiting for us for a long time.

INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE: IN ORDER TO

a) I will go shopping because I want to buy some
vegetables. I will go shopping to buy/in order to buy
some vegetables. I get up early because I don't want to
be late for work.
I get up early in order not to be late for work.
I went to the bookstore because I wanted to buy a book.
I went to the bookstore to buy/in order to buy a book.
b)
You have to use an axe to chop/in order to chop wood.
An axe is used for chopping/to chop wood.
An axe is a tool for chopping wood.
You have to use a spanner to fasten/in order to fasten
bolts. A spanner is used for fastening/to fasten bolts.
A spanner is a tool for fastening bolts.
c) if specific: to do
Detergent is used for cleaning/to clean dirty things, (general)
A lot of detergent was used to clean the house, (specific)

20
 Wax is used for polishing/to polish surfaces.
A special kind of wax was used to polish the car.

INFINITIVE WITH TOO AND ENOUGH

a) Too + adjective/adverb and adjective/adverb +
enough This box is too heavy. Nobody can
carry it.
This box is too heavy to carry.
This box is too heavy. I can't carry
it. This box is too heavy for me to
carry.
b) meaning is negative
It's too late to go out.
She is too young to get married.
He spoke too quietly to hear.
She is too young to understand this situation.

c) Adjective/adverb + enough
This box is light. Anyone can carry
it. This box is tight enough to
carry.
This box is light. I can carry it.
This box is tight enough for me to carry.
This jug isn't big. It can't hold two litres of
water. This jug isn't big enough to hold two
litres of water.
The speaker didn't speak clearly. We couldn't understand
him. The speaker didn't speak clearly enough for us to
understand.
d) Too and enough
She is too young to get married.
She isn't old enough to get
married.
The car is too small to take five people.
The car isn't big enough to take five
people.
e) Enough, after and adjective: strong enough, rich enough, etc.
Enough, before a noun: enough strength, enough money, etc.
She is not experienced enough to do this job.
She doesn't have enough experience to do this
job. I'm courageous enough to talk back to
him.
I have enough courage to talk back to him.

VERBS OF PERCEPTION
See, hear, watch, feel, etc.
a) Yesterday, I took my son to the park. There, I sat on a park bench and
watched my son play with other children.
When I looked out of the window, I saw some children playing in
the street.
see someone do something
He unlocked the safe and took some money. I saw
this. I saw him unlock the safe and take some
money.
 see someone doing something
When I entered the room, he was taking some money out of the safe. I
saw this. I saw him taking some money out of the safe.
b) When I suddenly woke up in the middle of the night, I felt the ground
shake/shaking.

21
 Yesterday, I saw him run/running down the street.
c) Smell, find, catch: only gerund.
When I entered the house, I could smell something burning.
When I got home, I found my son sleeping.
He had given up smoking. But last night, I caught him smoking on the
balcony.

INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO" AFTER "LET AND "HELP

Let
I will let you go when you have finished your
work. They didn't let me explain my excuse.
Don't let him start smoking at such an early
age. Will you let your daughter stay out so
Help late?

Will you please help me lay/to lay the

table? I helped my mother clean/to dean
the house.
Talking to a native English speaker will help you improve/to improve your English.
When I got lost in the country, a villager helped me .find/to find my way.
INFINITIVE AFTER QUESTION WORDS
She can't decide what she should
do. She can't decide what to do.
Can you tell me where I can buy cheap but fresh
fruit? Can you tell me where to buy cheap but
fresh fruit?
I don't know whether I should come with you or stay
home. I don't know whether to come with you or (to)
stay home.

CAUSATIVES
have, get and make
a) Have
have someone do something
Yesterday, I had the mechanic repair my
car. I will have the plumber fix the leak
tomorrow. I have had my tailor make a
wonderful dress. have something done (by
someone)
Yesterday, I had my car repaired (by the
mechanic.) I will have the leak Uxed tomorrow (by
b) Get the plumber.) I have had a wonderful dress
made (by my tailor.)

get someone to do something

My mother is a good tailor, but she doesn't sew any more.
I want to get her to make me a dress for my
graduation ball. Yesterday, I got my friend to write a
composition for me.
She is rather lazy. She always gets her sister to clean their
room. get something done
I want to get a dress made for my graduation
c) Make ball. I got a composition written for me (by my
friend.) She always gets their room cleaned by
h r sister. Get something done = have
e something done

22
 make someone do something
I made my son do his homework before he went outside to
play. (I forced him to do....)
The film made us laugh a lot.
His broken leg made him stay in bed for a
month. to be made to do something
The film made me cry. (active)
I was made to cry by the film, (passive)
His friends made him laugh during the class, (active)
He was made to laugh by his friends during the class,
(passive) make + noun/pronoun
His coming late made me feel angry.
His coming late made me angry.
Her strange behaviour makes everybody feel surprised.
Her strange behaviour makes everybody surprised
The good news made me feel relieved.
The good news made me relieved.

d) Have with a passive meaning

He had his wallet stolen on the train on his way to
Ankara. His wallet was stolen on the train on his way
to Ankara.
They had their house broken into last week.
Their house was broken into last week.
You might have your hair damaged while getting it permed.
Your hair might be damaged while it is being permed.

23
 5. NOUN CLAUSE
 what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why, how
 whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever, however
 that
 if, whether

What John did shocked his friends.

John’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t
swim. John’s mistake was that he refused to take
lessons. Jane is not responsible for what John
did.
Everybody is sad that John drowned.

John’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t

swim. John’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t
swim.
That John jumped off the pier surprised everyone.
* John jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

Do you know what time it is?

* Do you know what time is it?
Everybody wondered where John
went.
* Everybody wondered where did John go.

He thinks that the exam next week will be

hard. He thinks that Jane is taking the exam
right now. He thinks that took the exam
yesterday.
The astronaut said that people will live on other planets
someday. We learned that English is not easy.
The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.

That George learned how to swim is a

miracle. Whether Alan can get a better job is
not certain. What Jane said confused her
parents.
However you learn to spell is OK with me.

We didn’t know that John would

jump. We didn’t know John would
jump.
Can you tell me if Alan is
here? I don’t know where he
is.
George eats whatever is on his plate.

The truth is that John was not very

smart. The truth is John was not very
smart.
The question is whether other boys will try the same
thing. The winner will be whoever runs fastest.

John didn’t listen to what Jane said.

He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.
He is happy that he is learning English.
We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.

24
why sentence I don’t know why you are here.
when sentence I don’t know when she will come.
where sentence I don’t know where she is now.
wherever sentence You can send this letter to wherever you want.
how sentence I don’t know how she is.
how ever sentence I don’t know how ever you got here so quickly.
what sentence I don’t know what you want.
whatever sentence Whatever you want will be done accurately.
who sentence I don’t know who you want more.
whoever sentence You can choose whoever you want.
whose sentence I don’t know whose these cars are.
which sentence I don’t know which you want more.
whichever sentence You can take whichever you want.

How adj sentence I didn’t know how urgent the matter was.
How adv sentence I don’t know how hard they study for the examination.

what N sentence I don’t know what kind of problem she has.

whatever N sentence I don’t know whatever problem she can cause.
whose N sentence I don’t know whose book this is.
which N sentence I don’t know which book you prefer.

whose N V I don’t know whose father is wealthier.

what V I don’t know what can cause such a horrible damage.
whatever V I don’t mind whatever will happen.
who V I don’t know who came here earlier.
whoever V I don’t care whoever came here earlier.
which (one) V I don’t know which (one) is your father.

25
 6. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
Mary bought a red sweater at the department store for her
mother. The sweater was too small.
Mary felt very disappointed.
Mary’s mother received nice gifts for her birthday.

1. The woman who is pushing the baby stroller is my sister, Karen.

2. The man who is wearing glasses is my Uncle Kenneth.
3. The woman who Karen is talking to is my cousin, Gina.
4. The man who Uncle Kenneth is talking to is my brother, Robert.

Types of adjective clauses:

Subject Adjective Clauses
The people who came to my party had a good time.

Object Adjective Clauses

The turkey that my father cooked was delicious.

Possessive Adjective Clauses

The woman whose baby cried during dinner was my sister, Karen.

Location Adjective Clauses

The house where we had the party belongs to my Uncle Kenneth.

Subject Adjective Clauses

The people who came to my party had a good
time. The people that came to my party had a
good time.
I need to wash the shirt which has a stain on the
pocket. I need to wash the shirt that has a stain on
the pocket.

1. The man that is waiting for a job interview is nervous.

2. I know the man that got the job.
3. The woman that interviewed him is the personnel director.
4. He is going to work for a company that is located in San Jose, California.
5. He is taking a job that pays $40,000 a year.

Object Adjective Clauses

The turkey which my father cooked was
delicious. The turkey that my father cooked
was delicious. The turkey my father cooked
was delicious.
The people whom we invited to dinner loved the
turkey. The people who we invited to dinner loved
the turkey. The people that we invited to dinner
loved the turkey.
The people we invited to dinner loved the turkey.

1. The man the woman is interviewing is nervous.

2. I know the man the company hired.
3. The woman the man talked to is the personnel director.
4. He is going to work for a company my sister used to work for.
5. He is taking a job many people wanted.
26
Possessive Adjective Clauses
The woman whose baby cried during dinner was my sister, Karen.
The woman whose car I borrowed was my sister, Karen.

1. The man whose resume the woman is reading is nervous.

2. I know the man whose interview is tomorrow.
3. The woman whose office they are meeting in is the personnel director.
4. He is going to work for a company whose employees are very satisfied.
5. The man whose interview went the best is taking the job.

Location and Time Adjective Clauses

The house where we had the party belongs to my Uncle
Kenneth. (The house my Uncle Kenneth bought cost over
$200,000.)
I remember the Thanksgiving when my Uncle Kenneth dropped the turkey on the kitchen floor.

1. I can't find the file where I put the resumes.

2. The company is near a park where the kids like to play.
3. The office where they had the interview is on the third floor.
4. He was also very nervous the last time when he had an interview.
5. The room where he will be working has a window overlooking the park.
6. The company where he is going to work manufactures computer printers.
7. The park was built in the same year when the company was started.

WHERE
The building where I work is
new. The building in which I work
is new. The building which I work
in is new. The building that I
work in is new. The building I
work in is new.

WHEN
I will never forget the day when I graduated.
I will never forget the day on which I
graduated. I will never forget the day that I
graduated.
I will never forget the day I graduated.

Prepositions and Adjective Clauses

The house in which we had the party belongs to my Uncle
Kenneth. The person to whom we gave the most attention was
my niece, Robin.

1. The woman to whom the man talked is the personnel director.

2. He is going to work for a company for which my sister used to work.
3. The office in which they had the interview is on the third floor.
4. The house at which we had a party belongs to my Uncle Kenneth.
5. The company is near a park in which the kids like to play.

When do we use adjective clauses?

To identify "which one" or "which ones". For example, you have a picture of three
dinosaurs: The dinosaur that is on the left is a brontosaurus.
The dinosaur that is in the middle is a tyranosaurus
rex. The dinosaur that is on the right is a
stegasaurus.
27
The students who eat a good breakfast do better in
class. The students who skip breakfast cannot
concentrate in class.

When do we use commas with adjective clauses?

These adjective clauses do not identify "which one" or "which ones" because the reader can
already figure this out. However, the writer wants to add some more information about the
noun.
 I really like Mrs. Smith, who teaches ESL 101.
 His father, whom I have known for many years, is a very honest and hardworking person.
 Tsingtao, which is a city in China that was once occupied by Germany, is famous for its
beer.
 You should never stare directly at the sun, which is many times brighter than a lightbulb.

1. The boy who was hit by a car had to be taken to a nearby hospital.
2. Roger Nguyen, who is the head of personnel, will be on vacation next week.
3. The milk which is in the refrigerator has turned sour.
4. San Francisco, which thousands of tourists visit every year, is the number one tourist city in
the United States.
5. My father, who was hired by the company in 1965, retired yesterday at the age of 67.
6. The girl whose ball got stuck in a tree cried until her mother helped her get it down.
7. Patricia Kerman, who is an English teacher at San Mateo College, is our guest speaker this
evening.
8. A new apartment building is going to be built on the empty lot which is around the corner
from my house.
9. I took this photograph, in which you can see both of my parents and my
grandmother, at the Grand Canyon last summer.
10. Mary doesn't like to go to places where they play loud music and people smoke a lot.

Reduction of Relative Clauses

Active
 Students who want to join the club must apply to the English teacher.
 Students wanting to join the club must apply to the English teacher.

 Do you know the man who is talking on the TV?

 Do you know the man talking on the TV?

 The car struck the people who were waiting at the bus stop.
 The car struck the people waiting at the bus stop .

 The students who came to class late missed the quiz .

 The students coming to class late missed the quiz.

 I passed the exam, which made all my family happy.

 I passed the exam, making all my family happy.

Passive
 The car which was used in the bank robbery has been found by the police.
 The car used in the bank robbery has been found by the police.

 Students who are punished are generally boys.

28
 Students punished are generally boys.

 The method that has been used in the project was excellent.
 The method used in the project was excellent.

 It is unsafe to enter a building which was damaged by the earthquake.

 It is unsafe to enter a building damaged by the earthquake.

To-infinitive
 the first, the second, the third, … , the last, the next
 the only
 the superlative (the best, the most populated,…)
 Modals (may, can, must,…)

 He is the first person who wrote about that problem.

 He is the first person to write about that problem.

 Yesterday, I was the last person who left the school.

 Yesterday, I was the last person to leave the school.

 Tansu Çiller is the only woman who became Prime Minister.

 Tansu Çiller is the only woman to become Prime Minister.

 He is the oldest footballer that plays in Turkish League.

 He is the oldest footballer to play in Turkish League.

Passive
 This is the largest ship which was made last year.
 This is the largest ship to be made last year.

 She is a person who can be trusted.

 She is a person to be trusted.

To be + (Adjective / Preposition / Noun)

 The girl who is happy with the present is playing joyfully.
 The girl, happy with the present, is playing joyfully.

 The person who was responsible for the accident was put in jail.
 The person responsible for the accident was put in jail.

 The Tv program which has been boring for some time won’t be broadcast anymore.
 The Tv program, boring for some time, won’t be broadcast anymore.

 The boy who was in the car looked suspicious to me.

 The boy in the car looked suspicious to me.

 Marmaris, which is a popular tourist center, has many places to visit.

 Marmaris, a popular tourist center, has many places to visit.

29
 Doctor James, who is the head of eye department, operated on my father’s eye.
 Doctor James, the head of eye department, operated on my father’s eye.

Passive + Continuous Tense

 The song which is being played now is my favorite one.
 The song being played now is my favorite one.

 The patient who is being operated on is very ill.

 The patient being operated on is very ill.

Different Tenses
 The students who failed the Math 101 course have to take it again next term.
 The students having failed the Math 101 course has to take it again next term.

 Murat, who had been fired, looked for another job for five months.
 Murat, having been fired, looked for another job for five months.

30
 7. ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
Relation Basic Sentences Subordinate Clause + Main Clause

Time The telephone rang. I woke up. When the telephone rang, I woke up.

Contrast Bill entered the contest for fun. He Although Bill entered the contest for fun, he won first
won first prize. prize.
They want a house. We would rather
live They want a house, whereas we would rather live in a
in a flat. flat.
Cause We don't have any money. We can't Since we don't have any money, we can't buy food.
Effect buy
food.
Purpose He has to earn a lot of money. He He has to earn a lot of money so that he can provide a
wants good education for his children.
to provide a good education for
his children.

Type Clause and Subordinating Example

Conjunction
1.TIME
until / till, after, before , He will remain a bachelor until he
as as long as, as soon dies. I'll remember you as long as I
as live.
no sooner... than / hardly ... We had no sooner gone to bed than the phone rang.
when / scarcely ... when
once, by the time, the Once it is destroyed, it can't be recreated.
moment whenever Whenever we make choices, we give up something.
while While I was watching television, he was doing his
when homework. I'll give him your message when I see him
since tomorrow.
I have been working in Ankara since I graduated from the university.
2. PLACE
where Where minerals are abundant, mining becomes
wherever important. He takes his son with him wherever he
everywhere, anywhere goes.
Everywhere I look, I see mothers with newborn babies.
3. REASON
because She didn't go to work yesterday because she was
now that ill. Now that you have finished the work, you can
since, as leave. Since /As he was in a hurry, he took a taxi.
seeing that Seeing that she is legally old enough to get married, I don't see how
because of the fact you can stop her.
that due to the fact The match was cancelled due to / owing to / on account of the
that owing to the fact fact that
that there was a terrible storm.
on account of the fact
that in view of the fact In view of the fact that it is raining, we should take our umbrellas.
that
Inasmuch as language is constantly changing, the rules of
in asmuch as grammar change also.
He left on the grounds that he was ill.
on the grounds Birth is similar to an athletic event in that your body will need to
that in that work hard.
4. DIRECT CONTRAST
while While I like jazz music, my wife
whereas hates it. He is wealthy, whereas we
are poor.
31
5. CONCESSIVE CONTRAST
/ OPPOSITION Although he was ill, he went to work.
Although, even though, though Even though / Though he studied a lot, he failed again.
despite the fact that / in spite of the Despite the fact that he is desperately in need of money, he
fact that makes no effort to economize.
even if, while I won't go to his party even if he invites me.
6. RESULT
so + adj + He is so careful that he rarely makes mistakes.
that so + adv He writes so carefully that he rarely makes mistakes.
+ that He is such a careful student that he rarely makes
such+[ a(n) ] + adj + N + that mistakes. He writes with such great care that he rarely
such + adj + N (uncountable) + makes mistakes. His courage is such that even his
that abstract noun + be + such enemies admire him.
that such + a lot of + N + that
so + adj + a(n) + N + It's so good a story that I'II never forget it.
that so many ... that She has made so many mistakes that I'm really
that so few... that disappointed. He has made so few mistakes that we
that so much ... are all surprised.
that that so little ... He has so much money that he doesn't know what to do with it.
that He has so little patience that he can't tolerate any noise at all.
7. PURPOSE
so that, in order that We've arrived early in order that / so that we can/will/may
see the parade.
We arrived so that we could / would / might see the parade.
in case I always keep candles in the house in case there is a power cut.

lest He ran away lest he should be seen.

for fear that I do not go there for fear that he will see me.
8. MANNER
as Some teachers teach as they were taught years ago.
as if, as though (showing actions that You look as if you are tired.
are probable) He looks as if he has missed the train.
as if ,as though (showing actions that The cat sounded as if it was hungry.
are improbable) He treats us as though we were his own children.
I feel as if I hadn't slept at all last night.
9. DEGREE (PROPORTION)
the ... er, the ... er The greater the demand (is), the higher the price (is).
the more ... , the more ... The more (food) you eat, the fatter you get.
The less food you eat, the thinner you get.
The richer a person is, the more comfortably he can live.
The older we get, the more experienced we become.
to the extent A teacher is successful to the extent that he motivates his student
that to the to learn.
degree that in I'll help you insofar as I can.
so far as As the city grew so did its problems.
as... (so)
10. CONDITION
if, only if If I see him tomorrow, I'll talk to him.
suppose X happens If I saw a green cat now, I would be very surprised.
if X should happen If I had seen him yesterday, I would have talked to him.
assuming that If we had taken a plane instead of a bus, we would be in Adana
now.
in the event that In the event that a fire breaks out, leave the building as soon as
possible.
unless You can't be succesful unless you study hard.
as long as / so long as You can stay here as long as you obey the rules and regulations.
provided (that) providing (that) Provided that there is no opposition, we'll hold the meeting here.
whether... or I'll go, whether you come with me or stay at home.
if it hadn't been for If it hadn't been for the storm, we would have had a good harvest.
if it weren't for If it weren't for airplanes, it would take a long time to go to
Australia.
But for (=if it weren't for) But for his pension, he would starve.
32
11. COMPARISON
as ... as, She earns twice as much as I do.
er... than, more ... than He is much more optimistic than I am.
... the est, the most... She plays the piano the most beautifully of all these three girls.
just as ... , (so) Just as Ali is a teacher, so is his brother.

1.TIME
no sooner... than a) He had no sooner left the house than it began to rain.
b) No sooner had he left the house than it began to rain.
hardly ... when a) She had hardly woken up when her husband arrived.
b) Hardly had she woken up when her husband arrived.
2. RESULT
so .... that a) He is so energetic that he works 16 hours a day.
b) So energetic is he that he works 16 hours a day.
such ... that a) She is such a beautiful girl that everbody admires her.
b) Such a beautiful girl is she that everybody admires her.
3. CONDITION a) If you should need help, just give me a ring.
b) Should you need help, just give me a ring.
a) If the truth were known, the man would go to jail.
b) Were the truth known, the man would go to jail.

Reduction of Adverbial Clauses

1. To Be
Full Clause Verbless Clause
Where it is necessary, improvements will be Where necessary, improvements will be made.
made.
When he was in London, he visited the British When in London, he visited the British Museum.
Museum.
While she was at college, Sheila wrote a novel. While at college, Sheila wrote a novel.
As it can be seen from the chart, food As can be seen from the chart, food accounts for 30%
accounts for 30% of a middle-income family's of a middle-income family's monthly expenditure
monthly expenditure.
In teaching, as it is in other professions, In teaching, as in other professions, experience is of
experience is crucial importance.
of crucial importance.
He acted as if he was certain of success. He acted as if certain of success.
You can change the sentence structure if it is You can change the sentence structure if neccessary.
necessary.
Though he is an old person now, my uncle still Though an old person now, my uncle still feels young.
feels
young.
Although she was happy in the nursing home, Although happy in the nursing home, Mrs. Brown
Mrs. missed
Brown missed her house. her house.

2. Active
a. Two Actions That Take
Place at the Same Time
TIME a. While he was travelling around the world, John met very interesting
people.
b. While travelling around the world, John met very interesting people.
c. Travelling around the world, John met very interesting people.
MANNER a. She hesitated as though she was hunting for words and ways of putting
them.
b. She hesitated as though hunting for words and ways of putting them.
CONTRAST 1a. Although he was living many miles away, he came to the meeting.
1b. Although living many miles away, he came to the meeting.
33
 2a. A powerful bomb exploded in front of a cinema.lt caused extensive
damage. 2b. A powerful bomb exploded in front of a cinema, causing
extensive damage.

3a. He went to his room and closed the door behind

him. 3b. He went to his room, closing the door
behind him.

4a. We were not in a hurry, so we took a long leisurely stroll along the
river bank. 4b. Not being in a hurry, we took a long leisurely stroll along
the river bank.
5a. As/Since/Because he did not have a watch, he did not know the exact
time. 5b. Not having a watch, he did not know the exact time.

* -ing participle
6a. John used a ruler. He measured the length of the
table. 6b. Using a ruler, John measured the length of
the table. 6c. John, using a ruler, measured the
length of the table.
6d. John measured the length of the table, using a ruler.
b. Two Actions That 1a. As he had lost his money, he was literally
Take Place at Different penniless. 1b. Having lost his money, he was
Times literally penniless.
2a. After/When she had finished her work, she left the
perfect participle (V3) : office. 2b. Having finished her work, she left the office.
(Having V3) 3a. Since Bill had married Jane, Bob had to find another
girl. 3b. Bill having married Jane, Bob had to find
another girl. 4a. As the rain had stopped, we decided
to go out.
4b. The rain having stopped, we decided to go out.

3. Passive
a. Actions That Take Place
at the Same Time
TIME 1a. When he was asked whether he would run for president, he said he
might. 1b. When asked whether he would run for president, he said he
might.
1c. Asked whether he would run for president, he said he
might. 2a. As soon as it was completed, the report was
publised.
2b. As soon as completed, the report was published.
3a Once he is substituted, a player may not return to the
game. 3b. Once substituted, a player may not return to
the game.
4a. Don't open your test booklet unless you are told to do so.
4b. Don't open your test booklet unless told to do so.

Man, apes and monkeys can all be observed to cry out when in pain, flush
when enraged, yawn when tired, glare when defiant, grin when tickled,
tremble when afraid, embrace when affectionate, bare their teeth when
hostile, raise their
eyebrows when suprised, and turn their heads when offended.
COMPARISON 1a. The condition of the trapped miners was much better than it had
been expected.
1b. The condition of the trapped miners was much better than expected.
b. Actions That Take passive perfect participle (having been+V3)
Place at Different 1a. After we were given a map of the city, we knew how to find
Times our way. 1b. Having been given a map of the city, we knew how
to find our way. 1c. Given a map of the city, we knew how to find
our way.

2a. As he had been dismissed from his job, John had to look for
another one. 2b. Having been dismissed from his job, John had to look
for another one.
2c. Dismissed from his job, John had to look for another one.

34
 Reduction of Adverbial Clauses of He arrived early so that he could/might/would watch the
Purpose parade.
(When subjects are the same) ,, in order that he could/might/would watch the parade.
,, in order to watch the parade.
,, so as to watch the parade.
,, to watch the parade.

4. Inversion

Normal Inversion
Place The best speaker is seated behind the Behind the microphone is seated the best
microphone. An armchair is to the left of the speaker.
table. To the left of the table is an armchair.
Negative I have never seen such a thing Never have I seen such a thing
before. She hardly ever goes to the before. Hardly ever does she go to
cinema. He is neither rich nor the cinema. Neither is he rich nor is
poor. he poor.
The show had hardly / scarcely started when Hardly / Scarcely had the show started when
the fire broke out. the fire broke out.
He realized his fatal mistake only much later. Only much later did he realize his fatal mistake.
Condition If you should change your plans, please let Should you change your plans, please let me
me know. know.
If she were not ill, we would go on a
trip to Europe. Were she not ill, we would go on a trip to
If he had taken my advice, he wouldn't have Europe.
had
so much trouble. Had he taken my advice, he wouldn't have had
so much trouble.
Result He felt so depressed that nothing would cheer So depressed did he feel that nothing would
him up. cheer him up.
We had such a bad time that we'll never forget Such a bad time did we have that we'll never
it. forget
it.

1a. An old woman stood on the door step.

1b. On the doorstep stood an old woman.
2. At the next table was a pretty girl waiting for someone.
3. In South Africa are a lot of diamond mines.
4. Across the hall is his son's office.
5. In the row in front of us are the Browns.
6. Along the street came a strange procession.

at no time neither not once rarely

barely never not until... that scarcely
hardly ever no sooner... than nowhere seldom
hardly... when nor only under no circumstances
little not only... but (also) on no account

7. At no time was I aware of anything out of the usual.

8. Little did the police suspect that the teacher was the murderer.
9. Never have I enjoyed myself more.
10. They do not owe us even a penny, nor have we ever lent them any money.
11. We can not accept your ultimatum, nor do we fear the consequences.
12. Not a single page had he read that month.
13. Not a penny did he have in his pocket.
14a. Ayla not only broke her leg but also injured her shoulder.
14b. Not only did Ayla break her leg but she also injured her shoulder.
35
15a. They not only took our money but also burned all our papers.
15b. Not only did they take our money but they also burned all our
papers. 15c. Not only did they take our money but they burned all our
papers as well.
16. Not only did we lose our money, but we were nearly killed.
17. Not only did Jim win first prize, but he was offered promotion as well.
18. Not only does television inform and educate us, but it also entertains us.
19. Nowhere is the food aid needed more than in this African
village. 20a. Only in rare cases can an exception be made.
20b. Only then did I understand what he meant. (Not inversion)
21a. I understood only then what he meant. (Not inversion)
21b. It was only when I got to school that I realize (that) I'd forgotten my bag at home. (Not inversion)
22. Only John and Jack passed the exam. (Not inversion)
23. On no account must you let them in.
24. Rarely had I had so much responsibility.
25. Scarcely did he utter words before he fainted.
26. Under no circumstances will Erkan be allowed to see Elif again.
27. Barely had I fallen asleep when someone rang the doorbell.
28. Hardly had we arrived at the assembly hall, when there was a power cut.
29. No sooner had the ceremony ended than it started raining.
30. Not until I got to school did I realize that I had left my bag at home.
31. Scarcely had I left the room when the phone rang.

36
METİN
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1. question
UNICEF is deeply committed to creating a world
in which all children, regardless of their gender or
socioeconomic background, have ---- to free,
compulsory and quality education.
Source: http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61657.html

Basic education and gender equality

Equitable access
There are currently an estimate 61 million primary school-age children
who are not in school. Of these children, 47 per cent are expected to
never enter school, 26 per cent have attended but left school, and the
remaining 27 per cent are expected to enter school in the future. Girls
account for more than half of primary school-age children out of
school. They face the greatest barriers in the Arab States, with 61 per
cent of the out-of-school population being girls. Furthermore, 71
million children of lower secondary school age were out of school in
2010.

With progress towards universal enrolment slowing, even more

children could be out of school in 2015. The current financial crisis
has put extra pressure on stretched public funding as well as
households struggling to afford schooling. These out of school
children are being denied their basic human right to education:
without it, their future opportunities are dramatically limited.

Deeply entrenched structural inequalities and disparities are part of

what keeps children out of school. These challenges are linked to
many factors, including income poverty, exposure to child labour,
conflict and natural disasters, location, migration and displacement,
HIV/AIDS, disability, gender, ethnicity, language of instruction,
religion and caste. In Nigeria, for instance, poor women from rural
areas average 2.6 years of education while wealthy urban women
receive on average nine years of education. In stark contrast a poor
rural Hausa girl barely manages 0.3 year of education.
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Those affected by inequality, especially girls and children living in extreme

poverty and isolated areas and belonging to socially disadvantaged groups,
have less access to education because they live in areas where there are no
schools, and if they exist they cannot cover the costs, or children do not
relate to the content being taught, or simply are discriminated against.

UNICEF is deeply committed to creating a world in which all children,

regardless of their gender, socio-economic background or circumstances,
have access to
free, compulsory and quality education. In education, UNICEF supports the
Education for All (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals 2 and 3 to
ensure that all children have access to and complete a full course of primary
schooling, and to eliminate gender disparity in education by 2015. Other
global goals echoing these commitments include the World Education
Forum’s Dakar Framework for Action, which stresses the rights of girls,
ethnic minorities and children in difficult circumstances; and the emphasis
in A World Fit for Children on ensuring equal access to and achievement in
basic education of good quality.

UNICEF’s mandate to serve the most marginalized populations also focuses

special attention on girls, who are the largest group excluded from
education. UNICEF works to mobilize and provide resources to
communities in need. In countries with low net enrolment rates for girls,
programmes are implemented to help governments formulate policies,
procedures and practices that will significantly reduce the number of girls
who are not in school. UNICEF also leads on the United Nations Girls’
Education Initiative (UNGEI), which is the Education for All flagship for
girls’ education: a partnership of organizations committed to narrowing the
gender gap in primary and secondary education.

While UNICEF adapts its strategies to fit each situation, its interventions
typically include outreach to identify excluded and at-risk girls and get them
into school, policy support and technical assistance for governments and
communities to improve access for those children who are hardest to reach
or suffer most from discrimination, and programmes to eliminate cultural,
social and economic barriers to girls’ education. As part of its equity
strategy, UNICEF is working on
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identifying the bottlenecks that inhibit school participation and to

understand the complex profiles of out-of-school children that reflect the
multiple deprivations and disparities they face in relation to education. The
School Fee Abolition Initiative enables countries to take pioneering steps to
eliminate fees and other costs to address economic barriers preventing
children from accessing basic education. UNICEF also provides
development and implementation support, promotes educational quality and
helps countries prepare for and respond to crises, in order to ensure that
affected children learn in safe, stable and gender- sensitive environments.

Across the globe, UNICEF is committed to nothing less than full and
complete access to free, quality education for every girl and boy. Universal
access to quality education is not a privilege – it is a basic human right.

3. question
Before they are allowed to be used, all
medicines, including vaccines, are ---- tested to
assess how safe and effective they are.
Source: www.immunisation.nhs.uk - A guide to immunisations up to 13 months of age. Common
questions about immunisation (Booklet),

What is immunisation?
Immunisation is a way of protecting against serious diseases. Once we have
been immunised, our bodies are better able to fight those diseases if we
come into contact with them.

How do vaccines work?

Vaccines contain a small part of the bacterium or virus that causes a disease,
or tiny amounts of the chemicals that the bacterium produces. Vaccines work
by causing the body’s immune system to make antibodies (substances that
fight off infection and disease). If your child comes into contact with the
infection,

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the antibodies will recognise it and be ready to protect him or her. Because
vaccines have been used so successfully in the UK, diseases such as
diphtheria have almost disappeared from this country.

There are some diseases that can kill children or cause lasting damage to
their health. Immunisations are given to prepare your child’s immune system
to fight off those diseases if they come into contact with them.

When should my baby be immunised?

It is important that your baby has their immunisations at the right age – the
first ones are given at two months old. They will be given further doses of
these immunisations when they are three months old and four months old.
Other immunisations are given at around 12 months and 13 months of age,
then between three and five years of age (before your child starts school),
and in their teenage years (see the table on the back cover of this leaflet).

Why are babies vaccinated so early?

These diseases can be particularly serious in young babies. It is important to
make sure babies are protected as early as possible to prevent them catching
the diseases.

Why does my baby need more than one dose of vaccine?

Most immunisations have to be given more than once to prepare your child’s
immunity. For example, three doses of DTaP/IPV/Hib vaccine are needed to
provide protection in babies. Booster doses are then given later in life to
provide longer term protection.

How will I know when my baby’s immunisations are due?

Your doctor’s surgery or clinic will send you an appointment for you to
bring your baby for their immunisation. Most surgeries and health centres
run special immunisation or baby clinics. If you can’t get to the clinic,
contact the surgery to

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make another appointment. All childhood immunisations are free.

What happens at the appointment?

The doctor or nurse will explain the immunisation process to you, and
answer any questions you have. The vaccine is injected into the muscle of
the child’s thigh.

What if I missed the appointment?

If you missed the appointment or delayed the immunisation, make a new
appointment. You can pick up the immunisation schedule where it stopped
without having to start again.

If some diseases have disappeared from this country, why do we need to

immunise against them?
In the UK, these diseases are kept at bay by high immunisation rates.
Around the world, more than 15 million people a year die from infectious
diseases. More than half of these are children under the age of five. Most of
these deaths could be prevented by immunisation. As more people travel
abroad and more people come to visit this country, there is a risk that they
will bring these diseases into the UK. The diseases may spread to people
who haven’t been immunised so your baby is at greater risk if he or she has
not been immunised. Immunisation doesn’t just protect your child, it also
helps to protect your family and the whole community, especially those
children who, for medical reasons, can’t be immunised. (See page 13 for
details.)

Remember, it’s never too late to have your child immunised. Even if your
child has missed an immunisation and is older than the recommended ages,
talk to your doctor, practice nurse or health visitor to arrange for your child
to be immunised.

How do we know that vaccines are safe?

Before they are allowed to be used, all medicines (including vaccines) are

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thoroughly tested to assess how safe and effective they are. After they have
been licensed, the safety of vaccines continues to be monitored. Any rare
side effects that are discovered can then be assessed further. All medicines
can cause side effects, but vaccines are among the very safest. Research
from around the world shows that immunisation is the safest way to protect
your child’s health.

4. question
Many scientists believe that our sanitized
surroundings are ---- allergic disorders in
children, which have doubled in the last decade.
Source: Psychology Today, September/October 2008

Cult of Clean
We’ve become a nation of grime fighters, and there’s growing evidence
that we’re sacrificing our safety and our sanity to sanitization. By Carlin
Flora

On the Tyra Banks Show, a young mother publicly confided she was
terrified that her apartment could be harming her toddler son—because it
wasn’t perfectly clean. Banks sent a microbiologist to the home to test for
germs. Sure enough, the place was filled with them! “Are you surprised the
bathtub was
the dirtiest part of the house?” Banks asked. “Yes,” the woman answered,
her voice quavering and her eyes welling with tears, “I clean it with bleach.”
Banks leaned in: “But do you clean it after every shower? Do you really
scrub it?”

“Well,” the woman confessed, “I have a 2-year-old. I don’t always have

time.” Such chagrin is no surprise to writer Katherine Ashenburg, who
heard cleanliness confessions throughout a tour promoting her book The
Dirt on Clean: An Unsanitized History. “I don’t shower every day,” people
sheepishly whispered to her. That experience only reinforced her belief that
“we are obsessed with cleanliness” to “a point of absurdity. Today there
seems to be no resting place, no point at which we can feel comfortable in
our own skins for more than a few hours after our last shower. Clean keeps
receding into the distance.”

Interest in home and body hygiene has waxed and waned through the ages,
from early Egyptians who frolicked in pools for hours to Enlightenment
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Europeans who never bathed a day in their lives, believing that water
spread diseases such as the Plague. But ever since deodorant and
mouthwash entered the American marketplace in the twentieth century,
standards of cleanliness have steadily ratcheted up.

Now, nearly a decade into the twenty-first century, we are convulsed by

full- on germophobia and personal hygiene mania. Office supply stores
sell germ- resistant highlighters and scissors. Ten years ago hand-
sanitizing gels could be found only in hospitals. Now they’re flying off the
shelves of every grocery and drug store. In 2005, more than $67.3 million
in sanitizers were sold, a 54 percent increase over 2004.

Why the massive panic over invisible threats? On the surface, it seems an
earnest effort to promote health. But a closer look suggests that we feel a
deep distrust of our bodies and profound pessimism about human nature:
The backyard is a hotbed of creepy crawlies, my body is brimming with
toxins, and the germs in my kitchen are just waiting to rise up and infect
me!

We scour and scrub in an attempt to alleviate our anxieties and exercise

control over an environment we perceive as hostile—a futile act that gives a
whole new meaning to germ warfare. Our battles against what is by far the
largest population of living things on earth—the weight of all microbes is 25
times that of all multicelled animal life combined—also misunderstands the
role
of dirt and the place of germs on the planet. Without bugs we wouldn’t be
drawing breath.

Because we seem never to feel clean enough, all our scrubbing and
scouring only stokes the anxiety it is meant to allay. But it may be
sabotaging our physical health as well. Just as overprotecting children can
keep them from developing coping skills, sanitizing ourselves may be
undermining the immune system, which requires germs to keep it viable.
What’s more, overuse and misuse of cleaning products directly expose us to
toxic chemicals. And, quite possibly, they even encourage what
germophobes fear most—the rise of resistant “superbugs.”

It’s Their World

“They’re lying in wait for you at the ATM machine and on your computer
keyboard at work. Secretly, they attach themselves to your hands when you
push a shopping cart at the store. The little pests will even attach
themselves to your children’s hands when they romp on playground
equipment.” So warns
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materials sent to the press by a maker of hand-sanitizing gels.

Titled “99 Places Where You Need to Watch Out for Germs,” it is 100
percent intimidating. Who could possibly keep an eye on all 99? More
surreptitiously the material perpetuates a fundamental misconception about
germs. The idea of watching for and banishing creatures that are literally
everywhere is patently preposterous.

The adult human body contains an estimated 100 trillion cells, points out
microbiologist Lynn Bry, an assistant professor at Harvard Medical
School. But only 10 percent of those cells actually belong to us! The rest
are—are you ready for this?—germs. Most are bacteria that live in the
digestive tract and help you break down food and secure nutrients as they
protect you from the minority of disease-causing bug groups.

“If you were germ-free this moment,” says Bry, “you’d be dead within two
weeks.” Microbes living in the gut, for example, make vitamin K, essential
to the proper clotting of blood. “We have an irrational fear of germs and
dirt,” she contends. “And in the grand scheme of things, the very oxygen we
breathe is a byproduct of blue-green algae”—scum—”that evolved millions
of years ago.”

Our internal flora may even be able to cure some of our most perplexing
diseases. A molecule naturally produced in the gut completely eliminates
the symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease in animals, researchers
reported in Nature. Human trials of the substance are in the works.

“I fully advocate appropriate hygiene and cleanliness,” says Bry. “Don’t

suck on your fingers after you cut open a chicken. But you don’t need to
scrub yourself until you’re sore.”

On her press tour, Ashenburg suggested to audiences that we really don’t

need to wash above the wrists very often. She was scolded by her listeners.
But if you’re looking for a way to prevent illness, nothing beats regular
hand washing with hot water and plain old soap. So says the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, the nation’s—and perhaps the world’s—
highest authority on infectious diseases.

Wiping Away Anxiety

Why, then, do we see all germs as evil? It could be that being the most

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sparkling person around confers moral superiority, offers psychologist

Robert Leahy, director of The American Institute for Cognitive Therapy in
New York and author of The Worry Cure.

But what Leahy really sees in those preoccupied with cleaning is an

excess of anxiety. Cleaning is the “go to” activity for the anxious. That
explains its popularity with those on the extreme end of the anxiety
scale, those suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder; it classically
manifests as excessive, ritualistic hand-washing. People resort to it in a
futile attempt to
calm themselves simply because it’s there, Leahy says. Given the ubiquity
of indoor plumbing, it’s an activity everyone has access to. And from an
early age we’re taught that washing is a good thing. The physical act of
cleaning is a compelling stand-in for getting rid of unwanted thoughts and
feelings.

The problem is, it doesn’t work—or not for long. Anxious people think that
intrusive thoughts about, say, the need to wash the kitchen counter for the
third time must be obeyed or they will grow more insistent. “’If I don’t get
rid of the anxiety now, it’s going to get worse,’” Leahy says. But giving into
that voice is what makes it stronger. Ignoring it weakens it—once the
person comes to see that nothing terrible actually happens when an urge is
resisted.

Normal life ipso facto involves risk and uncertainty, even occasional
regrets, says Leahy. But the anxious seek to avoid all risk, uncertainty, and
regret by doing all they can to keep bad things from happening. Risk
misperception is at the root of their disorder. They distort real probabilities.
The chances of dying from a severe case of salmonella are far lower than
the chances of dying from obesity-related causes.

“But no one runs away screaming from a Big Mac,” says Leahy. We do,
however, watch in horror reports of the latest bacterial breakout.

Real life is a balancing act of competing risks, adds Leahy. There is a risk of
getting an infection if you don’t clean, but too much cleaning increases your
risk of developing OCD. “I shake hands with everyone who comes into my
office,” he reports. “Maybe I get an extra cold per year—but that trade-off is
worthwhile because I want to be warm and friendly toward my patients.
There is no escaping risk altogether.”

Why We Worry
Significantly, our dreams of disinfection parallel the rise of anxiety in our
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culture. After analyzing anxiety levels measured among young people in

1952 and 1993, psychologist Jean Twenge of San Diego State University
concluded that levels of anxiety in today’s average teenager are equivalent
to those in patients treated for a psychiatric disorder 50 years ago. Other
studies have documented the rise of anxiety among college students and
adults.

Twenge points to social isolation as one cause. Studies show we have

fewer close friends and dwindling social networks—and spend less time
with them than we did, say, 20 years ago. “People who feel interpersonally
connected are less likely to be anxious,” says Leahy.

And just as our communities are becoming more transient and fragile, they
are also becoming more diverse. Though we may not be consciously
aware of it, says John Portmann, a professor of religious studies at the
University of Virginia, our hygiene obsessions may disguise a residual
fear of mingling with
people different from ourselves. He points to a study by University of
Montana historian Jeff Wiltse, Contested Waters: A Social History of
Swimming Pools in America, which argues that widespread fear of
insufficiently chlorinated water in the ‘60s in the South was really the
expression of irrational beliefs about African-Americans finally being
granted access to public pools.

If cleaning is an expression of our neuroses, it also assuages our psyches.

Buffing and polishing can give rise to feelings of spiritual purity and even
ease guilt. Enter: the “Macbeth effect.” Researchers find that subjects who
are prompted to focus on unethical behaviors such as lying, stealing, or
betraying
friends are subsequently more likely to engage in activities suggesting they
feel physically dirty. For example, they wash their hands more than
controls do.

The late anthropologist Mary Douglas, in her classic book Purity and
Danger, argued that a preoccupation with dirt runs through all of the major
religions. But it’s not principally about hygiene. Rather, cleanliness is a way
of keeping chaos at bay.

“You can’t get rid of your daughter’s boyfriend that you don’t like,” says
journalist Margaret Horsfield, author of a social and psychological history
of housecleaning, Biting the Dust: The Joys of Housework. “You can’t sort
out the fact that your mother is dying or that you’ve gained 10 pounds. But
you can get that sink looking better.” The process of cleaning might be
frustrating, she adds, but it does make us feel that we’ve achieved some
small thing in an unmanageable world. “It gives an illusion of order.”
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A Spotless Mirror
Obsession with cleanliness is also an ill of affluence. Overworked we may
be, but we worry about microorganisms because we can afford to. So we
remodel our bathrooms to accommodate an apothecary-size supply of
potions for youth, beauty, and cleanliness.

“I live in an area where a lot of money has poured into the local economy,”
says Horsfield, “and many women I know run big houses. I’m shocked at
how high their cleaning standards are. I think they feel they have to live up
to the prosperity they’ve acquired.” They are aided and abetted by a clique
of
domestic goddesses on TV, along with the proliferation of high-end home
and garden magazines, glamorizing household toiling.

Cleanliness, however, doesn’t stop at the surface. It’s also taking a highly
invasive course. A growing trend among upper-class women is getting a
colonic enema or vacuuming at the spa, along with a manicure and pedicure.
Vegan blogger Kathy Freston advocates dietary detoxification. “Doing the
cleanse delivers one to a fresh start,” she insists. “It’s like a vacation, a
reprieve, from our old and tired ways... a way to let your body rid itself of all
the stored up junk it has had to process throughout the years. I’m not saying
it’s easy, but it’s worth it.”

In fact, the body has intricate mechanisms for cleaning itself without
vacuums or extreme diets. The mucosal cells lining the digestive tract, for
example, replace themselves frequently. Embodiment is the very heart of
our existence; it is entirely likely that envisioning the buildup of “junk” in
our bodies is a way of expressing cumulative emotional damage. Get rid of
that and perhaps you can purge personal heartaches, too.

Big and Bigger

It’s one thing to experience anxiety, a need for control, a fascination with
“fresh starts,” even self-focus. But media and marketers have exploited
those concerns, and in doing so have exacerbated them. “We’ve developed a
paranoia in the last five to 10 years,” says Andrea Gardner, author of The
30-Second Seduction: How Advertisers Lure Women Through Flattery,
Flirtation, and Manipulation.

Gardner points to TV shows in which an expert shines a black light on a

seemingly tidy hotel room and then exclaims, “This mattress looks
completely clean and yet look at all the dust mites!” Their eyes opened to
invisible threats,
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the audience gasps in horror at the tiny interlopers.

Marketers are also tapping into parental vigilance. If you aren’t
disinfecting to protect your kids and they get sick, the message is you’re a
bad mom, says
Gardner. Advertisers also remind parents that by keeping the family well,
they won’t have to miss work themselves.

“The definition of clean is expanding.” This from no less an authority than

Packaged Facts, the marketing research firm. They conclude: “The
relationship between cleanliness and health is clearer than ever in the minds
of consumers in a time of germ warfare where life-threatening asthma,
allergies, SARS, avian flu, and superbugs are a daily reality.”

Casualties of War
The pursuit of purity, like the quest for perfection, can have consequences.
Escalating standards of cleanliness disproportionately burden women, who
still bear the brunt of domestic chores despite working full-time. Women in
relationships do two-thirds of the housework, a continuing source of
personal stress and family friction.

But the most serious consequence of the cult of clean may be that it
undermines the immune system, which, like the brain, grows and develops
only when presented with challenges. Exposure to infectious agents is
essential. It prompts the immune system to create specific antibodies and
then store them so they can be readily summoned to defensive duty when a
similar bug poses a threat.

Many scientists believe that our sanitized surroundings are fostering

allergic disorders in children, which have doubled in the last decade.
According to the so-called hygiene hypothesis, children who lack exposure
to dirt, bacteria, and other microorganisms develop weak immune systems
and are thus prone to asthma and allergies.

Studies show that children with many siblings, those who live on farms,
those who enter day care in their first year, or who have a cat—
circumstances that expose them to bacteria in soil or air—are much less
likely to develop allergic diseases than children who face none of those
circumstances. Bodies with
no bacteria, viruses, and parasitic diseases to fight off turn on innocents like
peanuts and pollen and do battle with them.

Christopher Lowry takes the hygiene hypothesis further and contends

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the lack of exposure to germs harms our minds as well as our bodies. An
assistant professor of physiology at the University of Colorado, he points
to growing evidence that disorders such as depression and anxiety, like
asthma and allergies, are set off by inflammatory processes within the
body. The high incidence of depression and anxiety in developed countries
could be due to diminished contact with benign microorganisms to which
we were exposed throughout our history—organisms that raise the bar for
setting off inflammatory processes.

“The hygiene hypothesis is widely accepted among immunologists,” says

Lowry. “It suggests that we have less exposure to certain organisms in the
soil and water than we used to. In the case of the soil, the organisms are still
there.” But unless they live on farms, kids don’t play much in the dirt
anymore. As for water, he observes, municipal water sources have been
purified and sterilized.
Lowry “can imagine that if a child goes out to play in the field and gets
wiped with sanitizing cloths as soon as he comes in, it could be limiting his
exposure to those microorganisms in the soil.”

At the same time that it is weakening us and our children, the overuse of
cleaning products is beefing up the germs around us, turning garden-variety
microbes into superbugs. “If you routinely expose microbes to cleaning
agents, over time the microbes could evolve to tolerate more of the stuff,”
says Bry.
Germs, after all, are far more adaptive than we are. A carton of milk left out
of the refrigerator overnight will host thousands—thousands!—of
generations of germs. In just hours, they will have evolved characteristics to
help them thrive in that carton.

As director of strategic initiatives at AmeriCares, Ella Gudwin grapples

first- hand with the adaptability of germs and the tenacity of infectious
diseases such as dysentery in disaster regions. “They evolve in response to
treatments— and only become stronger,” she observes. “The whole world is
covered in a small film of fecal matter,” she adds. “Just get used to it.”

5. question
In non-literate societies, valuable information
about the past is often enshrined in oral tradition –
poems, hymns or sayings ---- from generation to
generation by word of mouth.
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Source: Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice (4th edition), 2006, Renfrew and Bahn,
Thames & Hudson

Polity
A politically independent or autonomous social unit, whether simple or
complex, which may in the case of a complex society (such as a state)
comprise many lesser dependent components.

Segmentary societies
Relatively small and autonomous groups, usually of agriculturalists, who
regulate their own affairs; in some cases, they may join together with other
comparable segmentary societies to form a larger ethnic unit.

Chiefdom
A term used to describe a society that operates on the principle of ranking, i
.e. differential social status. Different lineages are graded on a scale of
prestige, calculated by how closely related one is to the chief. The chiefdom
generally has a permanent ritual and ceremonial center, as well as being
characterized by local specialization in crafts.

Early states
Societies characterized by: the prominent role played by cities, a ruler with
explicit authority to establish and enforce laws, a class hierarchy, a
bureaucratic administration of officials.

Central Place Theory

Theory that seeks to explain the spacing and function of the settlement
landscape. The theory argues that under idealized conditions, central places
of the same size and nature would be equidistant from each other,
surrounded by secondary centers with their own smaller satellites.

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Thiessen Polygons
A formal method of describing settlement patterns based on territorial
divisions centered on a single site.

Site Hierarchy
In archaeological studies, the sites are usually listed in rank order by size
(i.e. in a site hierarchy) and then displayed as a histogram. Histograms allow
comparisons to be made between the site hierarchies of different regions,
different periods, and different types of society.

XTENT Modeling
A method of generating settlement hierarchy, that overcomes the limitations
of both central place theory and Thiessen polygons ; it assigns territories to
centers based on their scale, assuming that the size of each center is directly
proportional to its area of influence. Hypothetical political maps may thus
be constructed from survey data.

Oral traditions
In non-literate societies, valuable information about the past, even the
remote past, is often enshrined in oral tradition - poems or hymns or
sayings handed on from generation to generation by word of mouth.

Ethnoarchaeology
The study of contemporary cultures with a view to understanding the
behavioural relationships which underlie the production of material culture.

Ethnicity
The existence of ethnic groups, including tribal groups. Though these are
difficult to recognize from the archaeological record, the study of language
and linguistic boundaries shows that ethnic groups are often correlated with
language areas.

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Ethnos
The ethnic group, defined as a firm aggregate of people, historically
established on a given territory, possessing in common relatively stable
peculiarities of language and culture, and also recognizing their unity and
difference as expressed in a self-appointed name (ethnonym) (see ethnicity).

Achieved status
Social standing and prestige reflecting the ability of an individual to acquire
an established position in society as a result of individual accomplishments
(cf. ascribed status).

Habitus
An informing ideology that is communicated and reproduced through a
process of socialization or enculturation in which material culture plays an
active role.

6. Question
By mapping equatorial rainfall since 800 AD,
scientists have ---- how tropical weather may
change over the next century.
Source: Scientific American, March 2011

A Shifting Band of Rain

By mapping equatorial rainfall since A.D. 800, scientists have figured out how tropical weather
may change through 2100.

The first indication that our expedition was not going as planned was the
abrupt sputter and stop of the boat’s inboard engine at 2 a.m. The sound of
silence had never been less peaceful. Suddenly, crossing the open ocean in a
small fishing vessel from the Marshall Islands in the North Pacific Ocean
seemed an unwise choice. A journey to a scientific frontier had led us to a
different frontier altogether, a vast darkness punctuated by the occasional
lapping wave.
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We are climate scientists, and our voyage (which ended safely) was one of
many intended to help us do what at first glance seems impossible:
reconstruct rainfall history back in time, across an ocean. By tracing that
history, we can gain a better understanding of how the ongoing build up of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, rising air temperatures and changes in
tropical precipitation are likely to alter future climate patterns. We have
travelled far and wide to numerous islands across the Pacific Ocean.

Some present-day climate patterns are well known, such as the El Niño and
LaNiña circulations in the Pacific. A lesser known but equally important
pattern is the primary precipitation feature on the planet: a band of heavy
rainfall that circles the globe in the tropics and migrates north or south
seasonally with the angle of the sun. The area in which it moves is known as
the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Any change in the earth’s temperature, as a result of incoming solar

radiation or greenhouse gases, can affect the rain band, which provides the
precipitation that feeds equatorial agriculture. The band also plays a central
role in the monsoons of Asia, Africa and India and the large convection cells
that transport heat from the equator toward the poles. The frequency and
intensity of El Niño and La Niña events and the strength and duration of
hurricane seasons in the Pacific and Atlantic can all be influenced by
variations in the band’s position. Changes in rainfall resulting from a
permanent shift of the band would dramatically alter the equatorial
environment, with effects reaching worldwide. And we have good reason to
believe the band is shifting.

Until recently, climate scientists did not know whether the current annual
range of the band’s midline—from 3°N to10°N latitude over the Pacific
Ocean—was its historical range. But now field measurements from latitudes
bracketing the ITCZ have allowed our colleagues and us to define how the
band has moved over the past 1,200 years. A large shift of five degrees
northward—about 550 kilometres—occurred from about 400 years ago until
today. Discovery of that shift led us to a startling realization: small increases
in the greenhouse effect
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can fundamentally alter tropical rainfall. We can now predict where the
ITCZ will move through 2100 as the atmosphere warms further. We can also
predict whether rainfall may rise or fall across the world’s equatorial zones,
the probable effects across higher latitudes in Asia, Central America and the
U.S. southern tier, and what those changes might mean for weather and food
production.
Some places are likely to benefit, but many others, we fear, will face dry times.

Medieval Unknown
Until we began mapping rainfall history, scientists had little data about
where the ITCZ had been during the past millennium. The band hovers near
the equator, but it can be tens or hundreds of kilometres wide, depending on
local conditions and seasonal sunshine. Because the zone is highly
pronounced over the Pacific, that region is ideal for tracking its movement.
And because the rain band girds the earth, Pacific trends indicate global
changes.

Scientists can profile the sun’s strength from isotopes such as carbon 14 in
tree rings and beryllium 10 in ice cores and can reconstruct the historic
profile of worldwide greenhouse gases from air bubbles trapped in tubular
cores of ice extracted from polar regions. By comparing solar output and
greenhouse gas levels with the ITCZ’s position over centuries, we can infer
how tropical rainfall might change in the 21st century in response to rising
greenhouse gas emissions.

Clever investigators have identified many different indicators of global

temperature during the past millennium. Two periods stand out. Around a.d.
800, global temperatures were similar to those in the late 1800s.
Temperatures then rose during the Medieval Warm Period (a.d. 800–1200),
reaching levels similar to 20th-century temperatures. They gradually settled
and fell during the Little Ice Age (a.d.1400–1850).

In the past two decades the sun’s output has remained essentially
constant,yet both temperature and levels of carbon dioxide—the most
abundant manmade greenhouse gas—have become significantly higher than
at any point in the past
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1,200 years.
Atmospheric scientists knew few specifics about past tropical climate,
however, when we began our work. Sea floor sediments, which can provide
exquisite records of climate on multi thousand-year time scales, accumulate
too slowly to record much information about the past 1,000 years. Many
corals produce annual bands, but the creatures rarely live longer than 300
years, providing no records from 300 to 1,000 years ago.

Mapping rainfall would allow us to fill in the missing information about the
ITCZ’s position over the past millennium. Usually determining rainfall once
it has hit the ocean is a lost cause. But small islands scattered across the
Pacific have enclosed lakes and ponds that can reveal the history. In the past
six years we have collected dozens of sediment cores from the bottoms of
such waters in some of the most remote, exotic Pacific islands. The
locations span a range of latitudes above, below and within the current band
and fully across the Pacific. We can define where the rain band was during a
given time period by pinpointing places that experienced intense rainfalls in
that period at various latitudes. Simultaneous rainfall increases and
decreases, northward or southward, indicate a common, ocean wide shift in
the band.

Fieldwork is an adventure fraught with setbacks, equipment issues, language

barriers and difficulty getting to the sediment-coring locations. For
example,by the time we arrived in the capital city of Majuro, the local
airline, Air Marshall Islands (affectionately known to locals as “Air
Maybe”), had two broken planes in its fleet of two. The two-day trip
mentioned earlier to test a local entrepreneur’s modified fishing boat that
looked alarmingly unseaworthy ended when the engines died on our
overnight return from a neighbouring atoll.

To retrieve an undisturbed sediment core, we push, pound and screw long

tubes into a lake’s bottom. Just about every site we have cored has a unique
sediment sequence. Sometimes we find bright-red gelatinous layers several
meters thick made up of cyanobacteria, as in the Washington Island lake.
Other times the sediment is brown mud rich in hydrogen sulfide (read: it
stinks!), containing
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mangrove leaf fragments and the occasional layer of bivalve shells, as in Palau.

As we slog through mud on foot and row across shallow water, we push a
longpole into the sediment to test depths and to see whether obstacles lurk.
It is not unusual to abort a core attempt because it hits rocks, ancient coral,
sand or roots.

Because the rate of sediment deposition is highly variable, we do not know

how deep we need to go. Generally speaking, one meter of sediment
stretches back at least several hundred years: nine meters of sediment from
Washington Island, for example, spanned 3,200 years. When possible, we
try to hit “bedrock” at the bottom of a core: deposited sand, coral or
volcanic rock marking the time when the lake first began accumulating
sediment, so that we can obtain the most complete record of the historical
climate.
….

7. Question
The physics of elementary particles in the 20th
century ---- by the observation of particles
whose existence ---- by theorists decades
earlier.
Source: American Scientist - March 1, 2012

A palette of particles:
Some elementary particles arrived like unexpected and, sometimes,
unwanted guests.
20th century was distinguished by the observation of particles whose
existence had been predicted by theorists sometimes decades earlier. There
were also particles no one had predicted that just appeared. Five of them are
of interest to me here. In order of increasing modernity, they are the
neutrino, the pi meson, the anti-proton, the quark and the Higgs boson. Let's
begin with the neutrino.
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On the 4th of December 1930, Wolfgang Pauli sent a letter to a group of

colleagues who were attending a physics conference in Tubingen. He
addressed them as "Dear Radioactive Ladies and Gentlemen." Pauli
apologized for not being able to attend the conference. A very good dancer
who had a fondness for women, he explained that he wanted to attend a ball
in Zurich instead. The letter is one of the most remarkable documents in
20th-century physics.

Pauli's concern was an anomaly that had occurred in experiments on what

was known as beta decay. The great New Zealand-born physicist Ernest
Rutherford, who had made an extended study of radioactivity, had identified
three types of decays, which he called alpha, beta and gamma. Heavy nuclei
such as plutonium can in decaying produce an alpha particle that was
identified as a nucleus of helium. Many other nuclei can decay producing a
gamma ray, which is a very energetic electromagnetic quantum. Some nuclei
produce a beta particle, which is just an ordinary electron. It was in these last
decays that the anomaly manifested itself.

The obvious scenario was that a parent nucleus decayed into a daughter
nucleus and an electron. If energy and momentum are conserved in this
decay, then the electron must emerge with one and only one energy. The
problem was that experiment showed that the emerging electron had a
spectrum of energies. This was such a puzzle that Niels Bohr even proposed
that energy and momentum were not conserved in the decay. Pauli thought
that this idea was nonsense, and in his letter he made a counterproposal. He
suggested that an invisible third particle was emitted with the other two and
that this particle carried off some of the energy and momentum. The
particle, he concluded, was invisible since it was electrically neutral and
interacted very weakly with anything. It simply departed from the scene of
the decay.

I have no idea what the "radioactive ladies and gentlemen" made of this
suggestion. How seriously Pauli took his suggestion is unclear. He never
published it. But Enrico Fermi in Rome took it seriously and created the first
real theory of beta decay. Pauli called the particle the neutron, but in 1932
James Chadwick
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discovered what we call the neutron--the electrically neutral component of

the atomic nucleus. Fermi noted that neutrone means "big neutral one" in
Italian and since this particle, if it existed, had a small mass, he called it the
neutrino, "the little neutral one". The name stuck.

When I first learned about it in the early 1950s, the neutrino had an odd role
in nuclear physics, like that of a sort of crazy uncle who was not all there.
This changed thanks to the nuclear reactors that Fermi had created during
the war. These reactors are factories for producing radioactive fission
fragments that beta decay and produce an almost unbelievable flux of
neutrinos. In 1956 Los Alamos physicists Clyde Cowan and Fred Reines
observed a flux of more than 10,000 billion neutrinos per square centimeter
per second at the Savannah River plant in South Carolina. Pauli was still
around, and one can imagine his feelings. Now neutrino experiments are
commonplace. And we know that there are three distinct kinds and that they
are all massive. This means that they move at speeds close to that of light.
Recent claims, much disputed, say that they actually move faster than light,
which contradicts Einstein's relativity "Dear Radioactive Ladies and
Gentlemen" indeed.

The Pi Meson
In 1909 Ernest Rutherford and two young colleagues in Manchester
discovered the atomic nucleus in which most of the mass of the atom was
concentrated. This led naturally to the question of how it was composed and
what held its parts together. It was clear that there must be positive charges
in the nucleus. This was because the atom, as one usually encountered it,
was electrically neutral. Negatively charged electrons were somehow
distributed with the nuclear material and these charges must be balanced for
the atom to be electrically neutral. But it became clear that the positively
charged objects--protons they were called--could not be the whole story.
Electrically neutral objects were needed to account for the mass. Rutherford
made the sensible suggestion that these must be electrons and protons bound
together, but by 1930 Pauli and others argued that such a composite did not
fit the atomic spectra data. The matter was resolved in 1932
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when Chadwick discovered the neutron. But what held the nucleus together?

The nucleus is tens of thousands of times smaller then the average distance
to the closest electrons. Electrons engage in the chemical business of the
atoms while the nucleus is a bystander.
…

12. Question
---- lead was widely known to be dangerous, by
the early years of the 20th century, it could be
found in all manners of consumer products.
SourceA Short History of Nearly Everything -Bill Bryson (page 100)

GETTING THE LEAD OUT

IN THE LATE 1940s, a graduate student at the University of Chicago
named Clair Patterson (who was, first name notwithstanding, an Iowa farm boy
by origin) was using a new method of lead isotope measurement to try to get
a definitive age for the Earth at last. Unfortunately all his samples came up
contaminated— usually wildly so. Most contained something like two
hundred times the levels of lead that would normally be expected to occur.
Many years would pass before Patterson realized that the reason for this lay
with a regrettable Ohio inventor named Thomas Midgley, Jr.

Midgley was an engineer by training, and the world would no doubt have
been a safer place if he had stayed so. Instead, he developed an interest in
the industrial applications of chemistry. In 1921, while working for the
General Motors Research Corporation in Dayton, Ohio, he investigated a
compound called tetraethyl lead (also known, confusingly, as lead
tetraethyl), and discovered that it significantly reduced the juddering
condition known as engine knock.

Even though lead was widely known to be dangerous, by the early years of
the
twentieth century it could be found in all manner of consumer products.
Food
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came in cans sealed with lead solder. Water was often stored in lead-lined
tanks. It was sprayed onto fruit as a pesticide in the form of lead arsenate. It
even came as part of the packaging of toothpaste tubes. Hardly a product
existed that didn’t bring a little lead into consumers’ lives. However, nothing
gave it a greater and more lasting intimacy than its addition to gasoline.

Lead is a neurotoxin. Get too much of it and you can irreparably damage the
brain and central nervous system. Among the many symptoms associated
with overexposure are blindness, insomnia, kidney failure, hearing loss,
cancer, palsies, and convulsions. In its most acute form it produces abrupt
and terrifying hallucinations, disturbing to victims and onlookers alike,
which generally then give way to coma and death. You really don’t want to
get too much lead into your system.

On the other hand, lead was easy to extract and work, and almost
embarrassingly profitable to produce industrially—and tetraethyl lead did
indubitably stop engines from knocking. So in 1923 three of America’s
largest corporations, General Motors, Du Pont, and Standard Oil of New
Jersey, formed a joint enterprise called the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation (later
shortened to simply Ethyl Corporation) with a view to making as much
tetraethyl lead as the world was willing to buy, and that proved to be a very
great deal. They called their additive “ethyl” because it sounded friendlier
and less toxic than “lead” and introduced it for public consumption (in more
ways than most people realized) on February 1, 1923.

Almost at once production workers began to exhibit the staggered gait and
confused faculties that mark the recently poisoned. Also almost at once, the
Ethyl Corporation embarked on a policy of calm but unyielding denial that
would serve it well for decades. As Sharon Bertsch McGrayne notes in her
absorbing history of industrial chemistry, Prometheans in the Lab, when
employees at one plant developed irreversible delusions, a spokesman
blandly informed reporters: “These men probably went insane because they
worked too hard.” Altogether at least fifteen workers died in the early days
of production of leaded gasoline,

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and untold numbers of others became ill, often violently so; the exact
numbers are unknown because the company nearly always managed to hush
up news of embarrassing leakages, spills, and poisonings. At times,
however, suppressing the news became impossible, most notably in 1924
when in a matter of days five production workers died and thirty-five more
were turned into permanent staggering wrecks at a single ill-ventilated
facility.

As rumors circulated about the dangers of the new product, ethyl’s ebullient
inventor, Thomas Midgley, decided to hold a demonstration for reporters to
allay their concerns. As he chatted away about the company’s commitment
to safety, he poured tetraethyl lead over his hands, then held a beaker of it to
his nose for sixty seconds, claiming all the while that he could repeat the
procedure daily without harm. In fact, Midgley knew only too well the perils
of lead poisoning: he had himself been made seriously ill from overexposure
a few months earlier now, except when reassuring journalists, never went
near the stuff if he could help it.
….

14. Question
The European Commission has put forward that
policies to cut greenhouse gases will not work ----
individuals share the vision of a low-carbon
society.
Source: BBC News, 8 October 2012, By Roger Harrabin (Environment analyst)

Climate change: EU rebrands green energy campaign

The EU has launched a campaign aimed at showing how low-carbon
solutions can improve quality of life.

The European Commission believes that policies to cut greenhouse gases

will only work if individuals share the vision of a low-carbon society.

"It's perhaps been a bit too much doom and gloom in the past on climate," one
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official told the BBC at the launch in London. "We are now emphasising the
need to inspire people."

The EU-wide campaign runs until 2014.

The campaign title "Worldulike" will doubtless raise eyebrows. The name
is uncomfortably reminiscent of the British baked potato restaurant chain
Spudulike.

The vision is being transmitted through the Commission's website world-

you- like and also Facebook and Twitter.

These will create space for positive examples of tackling climate change
throughout Europe, including schemes to use excess body heat from one
building to warm another (Sweden); allow neighbours to use your car (UK);
and generate energy from landfill (Latvia).

Experts in media and marketing have criticised politicians in the past for
failing to show people how climate policies could make their own lives
better in the short term, as well as reducing planetary risk in the longer term.

The EU Climate Commissioner, Connie Hedegaard, said climate policies

would cut local pollution, reduce dependency on fossil fuel imports,
improve resource efficiency, save money on energy and even make people
fitter if they left their cars at home and cycled to work.

Critics will argue that some of these claims are contestable, but Ms
Hedegaard told BBC News: "If we are defeatist over the climate we will get
nowhere."

"There are many good solutions out there that other people can learn from.
Climate change policies create jobs in Europe in renewable energy and
retro- fitting - these aren't jobs that can be exported.

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"The UK has enjoyed massive growth in the green economy with 110,000
green jobs. Climate change policies also help us reduce our imports of fossil
fuels and help to give us the lead in smart technologies as resources become
more scarce."

Political uncertainty
She said awareness of climate change varied widely throughout the EU. One
of her officials admitted that the UK was suffering from something of a
media backlash against climate policies because previously there had been
media "overkill" on climate. But in some other countries - particularly in
southern and eastern Europe - climate was not widely discussed.

When asked whether at a time of recession countries should seek the

cheapest forms of energy possible to stay competitive Ms Hedegaard replied
that this would result in the EU missing its climate targets.

She said she believed a new global climate agreement might be achieved in
2015. "That would be the first time that rich nations and developing nations
signed a legally binding agreement for everyone to reduce emissions - a
huge breakthrough."

She admitted, though, to great uncertainty over the negotiations in the short
term, with coming leadership changes in the US and China. Asked whether
she was supporting President Barack Obama's re-election, on the grounds
that his policy on climate change might be more amenable, she replied: "I'll
work with whoever Americans decide to elect."

17. - 21. Questions

Cities, large and small, are at the heart of a fast
changing global economy – they are a cause of, and
a response to world economic growth. Many urban
areas are growing (17)---- their rural hinterlands are
depressed, which forces impoverished rural people
to
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move to the cities in search of work. These

newcomers often end up not (18)---- the
opportunities they are looking for, so they become
part of the urban poor. (19)---- arrival to the city, they
often encounter lack of housing and infrastructure
services. To (20)---- the lack of available homes,
newcomers often set up shelters on the city outskirts,
usually on public-owned land. They often live
without electricity, running water, a sewerage
system, roads and other urban services. (21)----
dealing with poor sanitation and pollution from dirty
cooking fuels and primitive stoves, they are exposed
to modern environmental hazards, such as urban air
pollution, exhaust fumes and industrial pollution.
Source: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,contentMDK:23272
497~pagePK:51123644~piPK:329829~theSitePK:29708,00.html

Urbanization
Cities growing as people move from the countryside in search of better jobs and
living conditions.

What is it?
Cities, large and small, are at the heart of a fast changing global economy --
they are a cause of, and a response to world economic growth.

The world's cities are growing because people are moving from rural areas
in search of jobs, opportunities to improve their lives and create a better
future for their children.

This is the first time in human history that the majority of the world's population
lives in urban areas:
3.3 billion people -- more than half the world's population -- live in cities.

60% of all people will live in cities by 2030. (In 1800, only 2% of people lived in
cities and towns. In 1950, only 30% of the world population was urban.)

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Almost 180,000 people move into cities each day.

60 million people move into cities each year in developing countries. This
rate of movement will continue for the next 30 years

Over the next 15 to 20 years, many cities in Africa and Asia will double in size.

Why should I care?

City populations are growing faster than city infrastructure can adapt.

Many urban areas are growing because their rural hinterlands are depressed,
which forces impoverished rural people to move to the cities in search of
work.

These newcomers often end up not finding the opportunities they are
looking for, so they become part of the urban poor. Upon arrival to the city,
they often encounter:
• Lack of housing: To make up for the lack of available homes,
newcomers often set up shelters on city outskirts, usually on public
owned land. This land tends to be dangerous and inhabitable, such as
flood plains, river banks, steep slopes or reclaimed land.
• Lack of infrastructure services: Slum dwellers often live without
electricity, running water, a sewerage system, roads and other urban
services.
• Lack of property rights: As illegal or unrecognized residents, slum
dwellers have no property rights to the land they inhabit, which makes it
impossible for them to use land as collateral.

Over the last 50 years the global population living in slums has risen from
35 million to more than 1 billion people. This number is expected to keep
rising. Slum dwellers make up the majority of the urban population in Africa
and South Asia. The urban population of developing countries is expected to
reach 50% in 2020.
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People living in slums are at particular risk to disease: On top of dealing

with pollution from dirty cooking fuels, primitive stoves, and poor access to
water and sanitation, they are exposed to modern environmental hazards,
such as urban air pollution, exhaust fumes and industrial pollution.

Also, as cities grow, so do environmental problems:

Air quality worsens in cities. Each year 1 million people die from urban air
pollution.

Traffic increases, leading to more congestion and more road accidents. 1.2
million people die and as many as 50 million are injured in urban traffic
accidents in developing countries each year, according to the World Health
Organization. Victims are mostly poor pedestrians and bicyclists. Those
who survive are often left disabled. For example, in Bangladesh, it is
reported that nearly 50% of hospital beds are occupied by road-accident
victims.

What is the international community doing?

International agencies are also working with poor countries to:
• Build adequate infrastructure, such as roads, houses, electricity, water
and sanitation services, public transportation, schools and health clinics
• Transform slums into legitimate communities
• Strengthen urban governance
• Improve the lives of poor people and promote equity

What can I do?

Explore these websites:
• UN Habitat is a UN agency charged with looking at human settlements
around the world.
• The Cities Alliance is a global coalition of cities and their development
partners committed to improve the living conditions of the urban poor.

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22. - 26. Questions

No single country owns Antarctica. (22)----, countries
wishing to have a say in how the Antarctic (both the
continent itself and the surrounding Southern Ocean) is
governed (23)----, and agree to abide by, the Antarctic
Treaty. However, prior to the signing of the Antarctic
Treaty in 1959, several countries had made claims to
parts of Antarctica, some of which overlapped. The
Treaty does not (24)---- these claims; Article IV of the
Treaty states in part, “No acts or activities taking place
while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a
basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to
territorial sovereignty in Antarctica.” (25)---- avoiding the
claims issue in this way, it was possible to produce a
treaty that many parties could sign. Unfortunately, this
means that (26)---- many countries follow the spirit of
cooperation of the Treaty, there are still disputes over
territory that remain unresolved and come up from time
to time.
Source: http://www.asoc.org/issues-and-advocacy/antarctic-governance/overview-of-antarctic-governance

Overview of Antarctic Governance

Many people have questions about Antarctica and how it is governed or
managed. Below, we explain the basics of Antarctic governance and how
our organization participates as an observer in the Antarctic governance
system.

Who owns Antarctica?

No single country owns Antarctica. Instead, countries wishing to have a say
in how the Antarctic (both the continent itself and the surrounding Southern
Ocean) is governed must sign on to, and agree to abide by, the Antarctic
Treaty.
However, prior to the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 several
countries
had made claims to parts of Antarctica, some of which overlapped. The
Treaty
does not recognize or annul these claims. Article IV of the Treaty states in
part, “No acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force
shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to
territorial
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sovereignty in Antarctica or create any rights of sovereignty in Antarctica.”

By avoiding the claims issue in this way, it was possible to produce a treaty
that
many parties could sign. Unfortunately, this means that while many
countries
follow the spirit of cooperation of the Treaty, there are still disputes over
territory that remain unresolved and come up from time to
time.

One of the original copy of the Antarctic Treaty. The 12 nations that signed
the Antarctic Treaty on December 1959 were Argentina, Australia, Belgium,
Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the USSR, the
United Kingdom and the United States of America. This document is an
Australian Archive document which fall within the open access period, and
is now publicly available. This picture was taken in the Tasmanian Museum
& Art Gallery.

When was the Antarctic Treaty signed? Who signed it?

The Treaty was originally signed in 1959. The original signatories were
Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway,
South Africa, the USSR, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These
countries had been active participants in the International Geophysical Year
(1957-1958), a project designed to stimulate geophysical research
worldwide. The IGY resulted in the establishment of numerous research
bases in Antarctica, and the Treaty grew out of a desire to ensure that the
valuable research of the IGY could continue.

Since then, many other countries have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty. There
are now 28 Consultative Parties, which have the ability to vote on decisions,
and 19 Non-Consultative Parties, which attend meetings but cannot vote. To
become a Consultative Party, a country must demonstrate that it is
conducting substantive scientific research in Antarctica. Non-consultative
Parties may be conducting important research but not at the same level as
Consultative Parties.

What are the provisions of the Treaty?

The original Antarctic Treaty contains fourteen articles, eleven of which relate
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directly to Antarctic governance. The rest concern other aspects of the

Treaty, such as the nation that will be the repository for Treaty, the
procedures for ratification and accession, and the process for amending the
Treaty. The other articles establish Antarctica as an area free from military
activity and encourage scientific research and the exchange of scientific
information between parties, as well as cooperation and peaceful conflict
resolution. Click here to read the original text of the Treaty or here to read a
summary of the other articles. Antarctic Treaty Parties meet every year for
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs) to discuss how to carry
out the requirements of the Treaty.

How has the Treaty changed since then?

The most important addition to the Treaty was the Protocol on
Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which was agreed in 1991
and which came into force in 1998. The Protocol proclaims that protection
of the Antarctic environment shall be considered paramount when planning
and carrying out activities, thus expanding the purview of the Treaty. It
enumerates the environmental principles to which Parties shall adhere and,
importantly, prohibits mineral and gas development. It also details
procedures for environmental impact and assessment. The Protocol was a
major step forward and it prevents unwise practices such as the dumping of
waste from research bases directly into the Southern Ocean. Read the
Protocol here.

What other legal agreements govern Antarctica?

There are three other major agreements that are considered part of the
Antarctic Treaty System:

The Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Flora and Fauna (adopted
1964). These measures, which were more or less incorporated into Annex II
of the Protocol for Protection of the Antarctic Environment, prohibit the
taking of species without a permit and the introduction of non-native
species, and designate specially protected species.
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The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) (adopted 1972)
establishes measures designed to conserve Antarctic seal populations,
including the issuing of permits for the killing of seals. Although the
Convention allows for the commercial hunting of seals, no commercial
hunting currently takes place in the Antarctic.

The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

(CCAMLR) (adopted 1980) adopts the ecosystem approach to managing the
commercial exploitation of marine resources such as fish and crustaceans.
Learn more about CCAMLR.

Are there any other international agreements have a major impact on

the Antarctic?
Antarctica’s whales fall under the purview of the International Whaling
Commission, an organization separate from the Antarctic Treaty System. All
members of the Antarctic Treaty are part of the IWC except Ukraine. Learn
more about the IWC here. The International Maritime Organization (IMO)
makes international rules that govern shipping, many of which impact
Antarctic ships, and it is currently considering adoption of a Polar Code that
would impose special regulations on ships travelling in Antarctic or Arctic
waters. Learn more about the IMO here.

How do the provisions in these agreements get translated into day-to-

day decisions?
To fulfill their treaty obligations, treaty parties must undertake actions at the
national and international level. Individual nations agree to require citizens
of their countries to abide by certain rules and regulations, and must pass
legislation or institute appropriate regulations. In the cases of CCAMLR and
the Antarctic Treaty and Protocol, yearly meetings are held to make
decisions on issues requiring the input of all parties to the agreements.
Essentially, decisions that apply to the entire Antarctic or to Antarctic waters
are made at yearly meetings, and then countries must go home and ensure
that the decisions are upheld.

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For example, at an Antarctic Treaty meeting, consultative parties might

decide to designate an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA).
Individual nations would then be charged with making their citizens apply
for permits to enter those areas for scientific study.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of governing Antarctica by

international treaties?
The signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 was an impressive achievement.
Despite the existence of Cold War tensions and unresolved territorial
disputes, the Parties to the Treaty agreed that the benefits of scientific
cooperation outweighed individual national interests. While it certainly helped
that Antarctica is a remote, inhospitable place from which resource
extraction would be difficult, the decision to sign the Treaty was
nevertheless a revolutionary step that enabled much important scientific
research to occur without interference.

The Antarctic Treaty has been in place for fifty years with no major
problems. However, the consensus-based decision making that takes place
within the Antarctic Treaty System can be problematic. Consensus-based
decision making does not mean that everyone must agree, but that no one
can voice disagreement. So one country, if it feels strongly about an issue,
can stop a resolution from going forward. This is true for many similar
international bodies. Additionally, without legal penalties for violating
agreements most Parties are essentially on their honor to abide by their
obligations under the Antarctic Treaty, CCAMLR, CCAS, and the Protocol.
On the plus side, these Treaties have been existence for several decades and
Parties seem committed to working within their frameworks.

What role does the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)
play in Antarctic governance?
ASOC, as an NGO, plays muchthesame role in Antarctic governance as non-
profit environmental organizations play in national governance – raising
awareness of environmental issues and ensuring that agreed regulations are
observed. ASOC has been fortunate to receive observer status in the
Antarctic Treaty System, which
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means that we can attend and participate in meetings, particularly ATCMs

and CCAMLR meetings, although we cannot vote on decisions. We attend
meetings and monitor official decisions, submit informational papers on
major issues, and meet with government officials to present the
environmental community’s perspective. Since Antarctica doesn’t have a
population, it is vital to have a group that can promote what is best for the
Antarctic environment and its flora and fauna – penguins can make a lot of
noise but they aren’t very articulate. Much as other NGOs raise awareness of
national issues and press governments to act, ASOC works to ensure that the
countries that make decisions about Antarctica have the best possible
information so they can protect the fragile environment. Since the
consensus-based decision process can often be slow to produce results,
ASOC encourages governments to move forward on contentious issues and
works to provide information that can convince them of the need to act.
During annual Treaty meetings, Parties frequently express their appreciation
for the papers that ASOC provides. We make timely and useful
contributions to discussions at these meetings even though we cannot vote.

29. Question
Despite the political upheavals in the Arab world, ----.
Source: The Middle East, No. 431

And Still They Come

Despite the political upheavals in the Arab world and the financial crisis in
the Eurozone, the Middle East and North African region is gaining ground
to become one of the world's top tourist destinations. Business is booming in
places like Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Qatar and Oman, while in countries such as
Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco, the emphasis is on new policies which aim to
promote investment and job creation, along with more moderately-priced
facilities for both business travellers and tourists.

The region's airlines are rapidly expanding their routes in the US, Europe, Asia

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and Africa, while cruise operators, from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea,
report increased bookings. Global chains such as Marriott, Radisson, Golden
Tulip and Accor, along with private entrepreneurs in the region, are planning
multimillion-dollar new hotels, resorts and theme parks. Speciality tourism,
featuring shopping holidays, sporting events, eco-tours, luxury beauty, health
and spa treatments, home stays and culinary delights, is adding a level of
sophistication to an industry that is already renowned for its year-round
sunshine, historic and cultural sites and, most importantly, its traditional
hospitality.

Within the region, Turkey's hotels recorded an impressive increase last year
in revenues per available room (revPAR). These were up by an average of
24%. Stability, strong economic growth and value for money were the key
factors supporting the rise, according to Paris-based consultants, MKG
Hospitality.

In the Gulf, Abu Dhabi reported the highest growth in the region in 2011 in
terms of hotel occupancy. This rose by just under 10% to 64.8%, according
to the international benchmarking analysts, STR Global. Dubai came
second, with a figure of 7%, to 75.4%, but scored first in terms of revPAR,
which jumped 10.7%.

By the end of January, the improvement was more widespread. Occupancy

rates in Beirut rose 32.0% to 53.4%, followed by Amman, where the figure
was up by 30.8% to 64.7%. Jeddah came third, up by 26.9% to a remarkable
74%, partly because of a rise in religious tourism.

"The Middle East started the new year with good results across all key
indicators with double-digit RevPAR and occupancy growth," reports
Elizabeth Randall, managing director of STR Global. Its figures for the
month, put into a global perspective, are even more impressive: the Middle
East and Africa reported the highest average daily rate for hotel rooms--
$182--compared to $153 for the Asia Pacific region, $126 for Europe and
$104 for the Americas. Occupancy rates amounted to 56%, second only to
Asia Pacific, with a figure of 60%.
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The locally owned luxury chain, Jumeirah, which competes with Mandarin
Oriental and Four Seasons, is setting new global standards with its revPAR
rates. These reached $712 at its Madinat Jumeirah, Jumeirah Beach and
Jumeirah Zabeel Saray beach-front hotels in Dubai during the holiday season
in late December and early January. At its famed 7-star Burj Al Arab, the
figure was a phenomenal
$1,983, with an occupancy rate of almost 81%, thanks in part to demand
from Asian visitors. The Group is now planning to extend its brand further
outside the Arab world, adding new hotels in Bali, Majorca and Azerbaijan,
as well as in Kuwait. It has already signed management contracts for
premium hostelries in Frankfurt, the Maldives and Shanghai.

International chains are also recognising the Gulf's huge potential, given its
role as an intercontinental transport hub as well as its rapidly rising incomes
and capital surpluses. J.W. Marriott is building what will become the world's
tallest hotel, the 1,608-room J.W. Marquis Dubai, which is aimed at business
travellers and the luxury market. Hyatt is adding three new hotels--the Park
Hyatt Riyadh, Grand Hyatt Jeddah and the Hyatt Regency Jeddah--to its
portfolio of six hotels in Saudi Arabia alone. Mandarin Oriental has new
projects in Doha and Abu Dhabi and is looking at Dubai and Kuwait, as well
as Saudi Arabia, with an emphasis on suites and serviced apartments. Later
this year, InterContinental will be opening its new 4-star Duqm Crowne
Plaza in Oman, where the government is building a new, state-of-the-art
convention centre.

Overall, hotel operators and developers are expected to invest some $1.8
billion this year on new projects in the GCC, according to Frederique
Maurell, events director of The Hotel Show in Dubai. This is 230% more
than in 2011. By the end of next year, projects worth a staggering $6 billion
are due to be completed, he adds.

Cruise operators are also reporting a roaring business in the region, having
been relatively unaffected by the political turmoil in countries such as
Bahrain and Egypt. Royal Caribbean International expects to more than
double, or even triple, its turnover in the Middle East within the next three
to five years, according to
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Helen Beck, regional director for Europe, the Middle East and Africa.

The "Arab Spring," she added, had "no negative impact. On the contrary, we
recorded a 30% growth in the Middle East in 2011," compared to 2010, she
noted.

Tourist officials in Dubai, where DP World is planning to double its capacity

to handle cruise ships at Port Rashid, estimate that income from cruise
tourism could rise to 837 million dirhams ($228 million) by 2015, up from
338 million dirhams ($92 million) in 2010. The Port Rashid terminal
currently serves some 7,000 passengers a year.

Voyages of Discovery is attracting new clients from the Gulf and other parts
of the Middle East for its cruises to Istanbul and the Black Sea. Its
Mediterranean tours are also in demand in the UK and Europe, including a
13-day cruise in April to Cyprus, Sharm El Sheikh, Suez and Istanbul.

Spotlight Religious tourism in Saudi Arabia

The number of tourists heading to the kingdom is expected to reach 15.8
million by 2014, up from around 13 million in 2010, according to Business
Monitor International (BMI). The kingdom's hospitality sector will grow in
tandem, with some 381,000 new hotel rooms expected by 2015,
representing 63% of additional room stock against 2010 inventories, driven
by business, religious and domestic tourists. Religious tourism remains the
main reason for overseas visitors to Saudi Arabia. More than half of
inbound visitors travel to Mecca and Medina, making it a major focus for
major investment in hotels and leisure development. The kingdom issued
9.5 million religious visas last year, up 11.3% from 2010, according to the
Ministry of Hajj website, with Umrah visas rising by one million in 2011
from 2010. Nearly two million foreign pilgrims arrived to perform Hajj last
year.

Saudi Arabia's government is undertaking major infrastructure initiatives to

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provide better services to pilgrims, including enhancement of the Holy

Mosque in Mecca as well as expanding and upgrading King Abdulaziz
international Airport, Jeddah and Medina airports.

Saudi Arabia continues to focus on its tourism industry, which accounts for
around 3.6% of GDP. The tourism authority has announced it aims to attract
88 million tourists by 2020, focusing on developing religious tourism and
business travel in particular.

Focus on cruising in the Middle East

The Middle East is recognised as a key growth cruise market through to
2015, following major commitments to invest substantial amounts into new
cruise terminals and associated infrastructure. According to Reed Travel
Exhibitions, the organisers of Arabian Travel Market, the expansion of
regional facilities and the associated potential increase in revenue from
tourism will provide a catalyst for further port development in the Gulf.

"Diversification of the tourism product to capitalise on new market

segments, and significant government investment in supporting
infrastructure, has already demonstrated real time benefits for Dubai, which
has seen passenger figures quadruple over the last five years," said Mark
Walsh, Portfolio Director, Reed Travel Exhibitions. A dedicated on-site
cruise pavilion will provide a platform for regional port operators, tourism
service providers and international cruise lines looking to develop a well-
rounded cruise product--both off and onshore.

The future potential of regional cruise tourism is again a highlight at this

year's Arabian Travel Market. Two major international cruise operators,
Royal Caribbean and MSC cruises, are exhibiting, both demonstrating
serious regional commitment.

The importance of the sector is underlined by the local commitment to

creating cruise terminal facilities. Abu Dhabi launched a 1,300-visitor-
capacity tented
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cruise terminal at Mina Zayed in late 2011, ahead of the construction of a

permanent dedicated facility to accommodate 600,000 passengers by 2030.
Abu Dhabi Tourism Authority has also prioritised cruise tourism as a
strategic focus for 2012, following MSC Cruises' decision to base its 59,000
ton MSC Lirica vessel in Abu Dhabi's Mina Zayed Port, adding up to
39,000 annual cruise arrivals to the market.

Dubai's Cruise Terminal, which was named the world's leading cruise port
for the fifth year running at the World Travel Awards 2011, has seen fivefold
growth since launching its new facility in early 2010. Further expansion is
also anticipated, with DP World planning to expand existing amenities and
provide berthing facilities for up to seven visiting cruise ships to
accommodate projected passenger numbers of 625,000 by 2015. The 2011
season closed with a total of 135 ships and 375,000 visitors, and these
numbers are expected to increase to 150 vessels with in excess of 425,000
passengers in 2012.

Qatar is investing $5.5 billion in a cruise ship terminal in Doha capable of

handling two to three cruise ships. Marsa Zayed in Aqaba, a $10 billion
marina community and currently one of the largest real estate project in
Jordan's history, will provide, among other projects, more than 300 yacht
berths in a luxury marina and a cruise ship terminal. This is due to be
completed by 2017.

Oman is working to transform Mina Qaboos into a dedicated cruise port as

part of the government's Vision 2020 plan, coming off the back of a record
72% increase in passengers during the 2010/11 winter season against
2009/10 figures.

"The rapid growth of cruise-related facilities and terminals has the potential
to showcase multiple destinations to inbound visitors eager to get a snapshot
of the Middle East from the comfort and convenience of a shipboard base.
Upscale cruise tourism and the arrival of smaller luxury cruise liners into the
region, are additional opportunities highlighted by regional tourism leaders,"
added Walsh. Boutique cruising, using regional dhows, is also on the agenda
for the future.
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32. Question
----, Indian culture was primarily oral, with a
high value placed on recounting tales and
dreams.
Source: http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/outlines/history-1994/early-america/native-american-cultures.php

Native American Cultures

The America that greeted the first Europeans was, thus, far from an empty
wilderness. It is now thought that as many people lived in the Western
Hemisphere as in Western Europe at that time -- about 40 million.

Estimates of the number of Native Americans living in what is now the

United States at the onset of European colonization range from two to 18
million, with most historians tending toward the lower figure. What is
certain is the devastating effect that European disease had on the indigenous
population practically from the time of initial contact. Smallpox, in
particular, ravaged whole communities and is thought to have been a much
more direct cause of the precipitous decline in Indian population in the
1600s than the numerous wars and skirmishes with European settlers.

Indian customs and culture at the time were extraordinarily diverse, as could
be expected, given the expanse of the land and the many different
environments to which they had adapted. Some generalizations, however,
are possible. Most tribes, particularly in the wooded eastern region and the
Midwest, combined aspects of hunting, gathering and the cultivation of
maize and other products for their food supplies. In many cases, the women
were responsible for farming and the distribution of food, while the men
hunted and participated in war.

By all accounts, Indian society in North America was closely tied to the
land. Identification with nature and the elements was integral to religious
beliefs. Indian life was essentially clan-oriented and communal, with
children allowed more freedom and tolerance than was the European custom
of the day. Although some North American tribes developed a type of
hieroglyphics to preserve
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certain texts, Indian culture was primarily oral, with a high value placed on
the recounting of tales and dreams. Clearly, there was a good deal of trade
among various groups and strong evidence exists that neighbouring tribes
maintained extensive and formal relations -- both friendly and hostile.

33. question
----, you can work on extinguishing any
undesirable behaviours.
Source: The Everything Practice Interview Book - Be Prepared for Any Question (page 28)

Body Language
When you interact with other people, there are two ways your message gets
across to them. One is intentional—your words. The other is often
unintentional— your body language. Body language is comprised of the
nonverbal gestures and mannerisms that may indicate a person’s true
feelings.

Your body language can reveal things that your words do not. In fact, it may
reveal much more than you intend to reveal. In the simplest terms, if you say
you are happy but have a big frown on your face, your body language—the
frown— will show your true feelings. While most people manage to exert a
great deal of control over the words they let cross their lips, many have great
difficulty when it comes to keeping their body language in check.

You may think all this talk about body language is just a bunch of nonsense.
However, you must pay attention to what your body language seems to
reveal even if you question whether there is any truth to it. Many
interviewers are trained to look for even the subtlest nonverbal cues and
interpret what they mean.

Whether these interpretations are correct is irrelevant as long as the

interviewer thinks they are. Read the following section carefully. If you
have a habit of doing
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any of these things or something else that may make you appear anxious or
disinterested, you need to extinguish that behavior.

ESSENTIAL
Participate in videotaped mock job interviews to help you become aware of your body
language. Once you are able to see yourself interacting with others, you can work on
extinguishing any undesirable behaviors.

Stay Calm . . . or at Least Look That Way

A job interview is very stressful for most people. Your anxiety may be
brought on by the fact that a job interview is a very unnatural situation to be
in. How often do you sit across from another person while he or she fires a
series of questions at you?

It is disconcerting to be put under a microscope by another person,

especially when your livelihood may depend on the outcome of that person’s
research. Since one of your goals on a job interview is to appear confident,
the last thing you want to do is let your body language betray your anxiety.

FACT
Most people have some sort of behaviour that appears when they are feeling anxious. One
person may twirl the end of her hair or chew her bottom lip, another may wring his
hands, and someone else may twist a ring around her finger or play with a pendant. Try
to identify your own individual anxious behavior and keep it in check during the
interview.

What to Do with Your Hands and Arms

Many people do not know what to do with their hands and arms during an
interview. Should you clasp them together or keep them at your sides?
Should you hold a pen to keep your hands occupied? Should you keep your
arms folded across your chest?

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The best thing to do with your hands is to let them rest in your lap. You may
have them clasped together, as long as you don’t clasp them too tightly and
appear to be trying to hold them still. Folding your arms across your chest is
often seen as an indication that you are closing yourself off or putting up a
barrier. Since you want to appear open and approachable on a job interview,
you should avoid doing that. Holding a pen is not necessarily bad, but be
careful not to fiddle with it. Remember not to point or clench your hands
into fists. Also avoid covering your mouth with your hand or touching your
face when you speak.

Make Eye Contact

If you have ever taken a public-speaking class, you no doubt discussed how
important it is to make eye contact. If you avoid making eye contact, the
interviewer may jump to the conclusion that you are not being truthful about
something. That, of course, is the last thing you would want an interviewer
to determine from your body language. She may also be wary of hiring
someone who appears to have difficulty carrying on a conversation, which is
another impression you need to avoid making.

ESSENTIAL
If you tend to be shy or know that making eye contact tends to be a problem for you,
you can practice making eye contact when you talk to people you are very comfortable with;
for example, friends and family. Graduate to making eye contact with the cashier in the
supermarket or the bank teller. Soon you should be able to accomplish this in all
situations.

Sit Up Straight
How you sit during an interview is very important. Think back to when you
were a child or a teenager and your parents and teachers told you to sit up
straight. They were not kidding. Good posture helps you look confident.
Slouching makes you look lazy and bored.

Sitting up straight also makes it easier to breathe, as any yoga instructor will
tell you. When in a stressful situation, many people tend to forget to breathe.
Then
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they let out a huge sigh when they remember. This is not a good idea during
an interview.

It is preferable to keep your feet flat on the floor, but you can also have them
crossed at the ankles. Do not cross your legs at the knee or have your ankle
resting on your opposite knee. You should lean forward slightly. This shows
that you are an eager participant in the conversation.

The Handshake
Another important thing to think about is the handshake. The opportunity
for a handshake presents itself at two points in a job interview. One such
juncture is when you first meet the interviewer. The other is at the end of the
interview when you are getting ready to leave.

The moment when a handshake can take place can be somewhat awkward;
for instance, if you put out your hand and the gesture is not reciprocated.
However, if the interviewer puts out her hand and you are not ready to shake
her hand at that moment, you will be putting her in an awkward situation.
That is certainly something you want to avoid.

Therefore, while you do not want to initiate the handshake, you can make
sure you are ready for it by keeping your right hand free at your side, ready
to move into the handshake position. Avoid holding anything in your right
hand as you enter and leave the office. When you do shake hands, your
handshake should be firm, which demonstrates that you are confident.

34. question
It might not be practical to use a different
password for every single website that you log
into ----.
Source: http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/243347/At-the-mercy-of-hackers/ (April 28, 2011)

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At the mercy of hackers

The personal details of millions of people have been stolen by cyber
criminals, revealed software giant Sony this week. So how at risk are you
and what’s the best way to protect yourself ?

What is the Sony PlayStation story all about?

This could be one of the biggest hacking cases in history. Sony has warned
all users of its PlayStation Network (PSN) - around 77 million people
worldwide who use the network to play online computer games or to access
music and films - that their personal details may have been stolen. The
company says it has been compromised by “an illegal and unauthorised
intrusion” into its network, meaning its database has been hacked into.

Could this affect me?

Yes, if you are one of the people who use PSN. Sony hasn’t yet said how
many accounts have been compromised but it admits that personal
information such as name, home address, email address, date of birth, PSN
passwords and security information have been obtained by this
“unauthorised person”. It is also possible that other information has been
stolen, with a Sony spokesperson admitting: “While there is no evidence
that credit card data was taken at this time, we cannot rule out the
possibility.” This could include customers’ credit card numbers (excluding
security codes) as well as expiry dates.

What if I am affected?
“The big problem for users is that the data they have on the PlayStation
Network may not be unique,” says Rupert Goodwins, editor of ZDNet
Magazine. “They’ve got to think where else they may use the same
password and if someone could use that data to get at other accounts like
their bank account or Amazon account.”

Sony “strongly recommend” several actions: If you use your PlayStation

password as your password for other unrelated services or accounts, change
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them. When the PlayStation Network is fully restored (it is still down),
change this password too.

Sony is also warning customers to be aware of criminals pretending to be

from their bank or other companies and asking for sensitive information,
attempting to trick people into handing over even more personal
information. “We encourage you to be especially aware of email, telephone
and postal mail scams that ask for personal and sensitive information,” says
Sony. To guard against credit card fraud, the company urges people to
“remain vigilant” and keep an eye on their statements.

How has this happened?

Good question. This is a massive security breach and you would expect a
company the size of Sony to have tough systems in place to prevent an event
such as this happening. The company is still working on the problem,
saying: “We are currently investigating to determine the cause of this outage
and are working to restore and maintain the services.” Sony is also using the
PSN’s downtime to strengthen its security systems and network
infrastructure so that this doesn’t happen again.

Why does computer hacking happen?

There appears to have been a shift away from hackers doing it for the thrill
or the fame and towards doing it for profit. In many cases criminals will
commit identity theft then either use the information themselves or sell it to
others. It is estimated that every year in the UK alone, such fraud costs
more than
£2.7billion and affects more than 1.8 million people.

Criminals steal personal information then pretend to be you. According to

identitytheft.org.uk, once a hacker has your information, they could apply
for a credit card in your name, open a bank or building society account in
your name, apply for other financial services in your name and run up debts
(eg, use your credit/debit card details to make purchases) or obtain a loan in
your name.
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Can I prevent my computer from being hacked?

We might not be responsible for big companies’ security systems but we can
take certain precautions against computer hacking in our everyday lives. The
best way of protecting your computer from external hacking or a virus is to
purchase anti- virus software which will help you minimise any chance of
someone managing to access your computer. Highly recognised software
brands include Norton Antivirus and McAfee.

These brands offer computer protection and internet security and can be
bought via the internet or in a store such as PC World, Currys, Argos and
Dixons. They generally involve a yearly subscription and prices range from
£25 to £100, depending on whether you opt for a one or two-year
subscription or if you want to use more exclusive packages.

What should I look out for when on the web or emailing?

As well as using anti-virus security software, stick to trusted sites when
looking on the internet. If in doubt, avoid a site and certainly do not
download anything suspicious. When it comes to emails, beware of outside
sources, companies and junk emails.

Luis Villazon, a technology expert for BBC Focus Magazine, says spam
(unsolicited emails) can be designed to trick you into revealing sensitive
personal information.

He suggests everyone should look out for “trojans” and “phishing”. Trojans,
bits of software that appear to do something useful but actually play havoc
with your computer, are sent with emails as attachments. The text of the
email is designed to make you curious so that you will open the attachment
but you are actually installing a virus. Once infected your PC will become
part of a “botnet” that sends spam around the world. Your passwords and
credit cards can also be stolen.

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Phishing is more subtle. These often pose as email notifications from your
bank, PayPal or the Inland Revenue, claiming there is a problem with your
account that requires you to re-enter personal details. In reality the site you
are directed to is a bogus one and the information you enter is used to
defraud you. Banks and similar organisations will rarely contact you out of
the blue to confirm your identity. So when you get an email, always contact
them by using the phone number or email on their official website.

Villazon suggests getting a spam filter and if any spam gets through “just delete
it”.

When using social networking sites such as Facebook, try to avoid putting
your email address on your profile page which can be seen by potential
hackers who could then use the address and may even try to get into your
email account.

How can I ensure online shopping is safe?

According to Villazon, more and more criminals are targeting online
businesses directly, stealing customers’ credit card details and using them to
buy goods fraudulently.

“If an online merchant gets hacked, you can expect to see rogue entries turning
up on your credit card statement,” he says.

Your credit card company may automatically detect and notify you of this
activity but you should also contact the company as soon as you notice any
transactions that you weren’t expecting.

“The big online traders such as amazon.co.uk and direct.tesco.com are

generally safer than smaller, specialist sites because they can afford more
expensive IT infra¬structure. If you are buying from a site for the first time,
check that it lists a physical address and phone number,” says Villazon. “Try
calling the number with a query about shipping costs, just to verify the
number is genuine.”
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Should I vary my passwords?

Yes. “It might not be practical to use a different password for every online
retailer and website you log on to but it is definitely worth having more than
one,” says Villazon. “Use one password for forums and blogs, another for
sites like Facebook and online retailers and a third for Paypal and online
banking. This roughly corresponds to low, medium and high security;
keeping different passwords for each tier prevents one hacked account from
compromising more sensitive information in the higher tiers.

“A good password shouldn’t be any name or word that can be found in a

dictionary. Many passwords are cracked by automated programmes that try
every word in the dictionary. So use two unrelated words with a number in
between them such as ostrich447indecisive. But a secure password is no use
if your “password reminder” question can be guessed. Mother’s maiden
name, pet’s name information can be researched. The website doesn’t care
what your mother’s maiden name actually is, so you can use anything you
like.”

36. question
----, not only cell operators but also law
enforcement have come under fire for exploiting
personal data without the user’s knowledge.
Source: Time Magazine - Monday, Aug. 27, 2012

The Phone Knows All

If someone wanted to create a global system for tracking human beings and
collecting information about them, it would look a lot like the digital
mobile- device network. It knows where you are, and--the more you text,
tweet, shop, take pictures and navigate your surroundings using a smart
phone--it knows an awful lot about what you’re doing.

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Which is one reason federal officials turned to Sprint, Verizon, AT&T and
T-Mobile in early 2009 when they needed to solve the robbery of a Berlin,
Conn., branch of Webster Bank. Using a loophole in a 1986 law that allows
warrantless searches of stored communications, the feds ordered the carriers
to provide records of phones that used a nearby cell tower on the day of the
crime. The carriers turned over to the prosecutors the identities, call records
and other personal information of 169 cell-phone users--including two men
who were eventually sentenced to prison for the robbery. With a simple
request, the feds cracked a case that might have otherwise taken years to
solve. In the process, they collected information on 167 people who they
had no reason to believe had committed a crime, including details like
numbers dialed and times of calls that would have been protected as private
on a landline.

Such cases are common. In response to a request from Representative Ed

Markey, major cell carriers revealed in July that they had received more than
1.3 million requests for cell-phone tracking data from federal, state and local
law- enforcement officials in 2011. By comparison, there were 3,000
wiretap warrants issued nationwide in 2010. That revelation has added to a
growing debate over how to balance the convenience and security
consumers now expect from their smart phones with the privacy they
traditionally have wanted to protect. Every second we enjoy their
convenience, smart phones are collecting information, recording literally
millions of data points every day.

The potential for good is undeniable. In recent years, the average time it
takes the U.S. Marshals Service to find a fugitive has dropped from 42 days
to two, according to congressional testimony from Susan Landau, a
Guggenheim fellow. Cell phones have changed criminal investigation from
the ground up. “There is a mobile device connected to every crime scene,”
says Peter Modafferi, the chief of detectives in Rockland County, New
York.

But as smart phones’ tracking abilities have become more sophisticated, law
enforcement, phonemakers, cell carriers and software makers have come
under
fire for exploiting personal data without the knowledge of the average user.
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Much of the law protecting mobile privacy in the U.S. was written at the
dawn of the cell-phone era in the 1980s, and it can vary from state to state.
Companies have widely differing privacy policies. Now conservatives and
liberals on Capitol Hill are pushing legislation that would set new privacy
standards, limiting law- enforcement searches and restricting what kinds of
information companies can collect.

Government snooping is part of the worry. But market demand is driving

some of the biggest collectors of data. Mobile advertising is now a $6 billion
industry, and identifying potential customers based on their personal
information is the new frontier. Last year, reports showed that free and
cheap apps were capable of everything from collecting location information
to images a phone is seeing. One app with image-collection capabilities,
Tiny Flashlight, uses a phone’s camera as a flashlight and has been installed
at least 50 million times on phones around the world. Tiny Flashlight’s
author, Bulgarian programmer Nikolay Ananiyev, tells Time that his
program does not collect the images or send them to third parties.

In November, news broke that a company named Carrier IQ had installed

software on as many as 150 million phones that accesses users’ texts, call
histories, Web usage and location histories without users’ knowing consent.
Carrier IQ says it does not record, store or transmit the data but uses it to
measure performance. In February, Facebook, Yelp, Foursquare and
Instagram apps, among others, were reported to be uploading contact
information from iPhones and iPads. The software makers told the blog
VentureBeat that they only use the contact information when prompted by
users. “No app is free,” says one senior executive at a phone carrier. “You
pay for them with your privacy.”

Many consumers are happy to do so, and so far there hasn’t been much
actual damage, at least not that privacy advocates can point to. The question
is where to draw the line. For instance, half of smart-phone users make
banking transactions via their mobile device. The Federal Trade
Commission has brought 40 enforcement cases in recent years against
companies for improperly storing customers’ private information.
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Law enforcement is subject to some oversight. Absent an emergency,

prosecutors and police must convince a judge that the cell information they
are seeking from wireless companies is material to a criminal case under
investigation. An unusual alliance between liberals and conservatives is
pushing a bill to impose the same requirements for getting cell tracking data
as those that are in place when cops want to get a warrant to search a house.
Another bill would increase restrictions on what app writers can do with
personal information. Cases moving through the courts may limit what law
enforcement can do with GPS tracking.

Tech companies are trying to get a handle on the issue. Apple has a single
customer-privacy policy. Google posts the permissions that consumers give
each app to operate their phones’ hardware and software, including
authorization to access camera and audio feeds and pass on locations or
contact info. The rush to keep up with technology will only get harder: the
next surge in surveillance is text messaging, industry experts say, as
companies and cops look for new ways to tap technology for their own
purposes.

42. question
The world’s largest energy consumer without its
own significant reserves, the European Union
imports 50% of the energy it needs, and it is
predicted that its dependence on imported energy
will rise to 70% by 2030.
Source: Turkey’s Neighborhood - Edited by Mustafa Kibaroğlu - Published by: Foreign Policy Institute

Recent Developments
This section provides an assessment of the recent developments in (i) the
Karabakh conflict, (ii) the legal status of the Caspian Sea, and (iii) the role
of Azerbaijan’s oil and gas resources in energy security and in transporting
the Caspian energy resources via the energy hub in Turkey.

(i) The Karabakh conflict is still the most important issue in the foreign policy
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of Azerbaijan. The current president, Ilham Aliyev, who came to power in

2003, has tried to create international pressure on Armenia to withdraw its
support for Karabakh Armenians, following the increased oil production in
Azerbaijan and the completion of the BTC pipeline. Furthermore, Azeri
officials have classified the Karabakh region as a “terrorist heaven” and
hoped to receive the USA’s support against Armenian terrorist activities in
the post-September 11 rhetoric of US foreign policy and its ongoing war on
global terror.

The Minsk Group reportedly presented four proposals as a framework for

negotiation talks, but a peace settlement has proved elusive. The Karabakh
conflict is one of the most dramatic human tragedies in the post-Soviet era
in the Caucasus. The total number of refugees and internally displaced
people from the occupied territories in Karabakh and the seven districts
outside the region is 1,010,000, while there were 20,000 casualties, 50,000
people disabled, and 4,866 people missing. The latest round of peace talks
failed to reach a settlement, because Armenia insisted on two conditions.
According to Armenia, the Karabakh region should either be a sovereign
state or should be part of Armenia. On the other hand, Azerbaijan’s position
emphasizes that the Karabakh region is inseparable, given the territorial
integrity of the Republic of Azerbaijan recognized by the related UN
resolution. The Minsk Group co- chairs revealed part of the proposals for
settlement. Accordingly, the proposal includes “redeployment of Armenian
troops from Azerbaijani territories around Karabakh, with special modalities
for Kelbajar and Lachin districts (including a corridor between Armenia and
Karabakh); demilitarization of those territories; and a referendum or
population vote to determine the final status of Karabakh”. International
peacekeepers would also be deployed in the conflict area. In July 2006,
disagreeing with the Minsk group proposal, President Aliyev declared that
the withdrawal of forces from occupied territories must be followed by the
return of displaced Azerbaijanis. Then, Azerbaijan citizens including those
in Karabakh would discuss the status of the region, but its secession from
Azerbaijan was forbidden. Although recent statements by both President
Aliyev and President Kocharyan of Armenia reflected some progress and
optimism regarding the last stage of peace talks, most people in both
countries believe that
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both presidents aim to manipulate public opinion and prolong the status quo.

Furthermore, little progress is expected in the next round of peace talks until
the presidential elections in Azerbaijan in 2008 and in Armenia in 2009 are
completed. Most of the surveys conducted in Azerbaijan, in fact,
demonstrate that the public in Azerbaijan has increasingly favored a military
resolution to the conflict. Thus, both presidents have been unwilling to make
concessions, given the historical role of the Karabakh issue in destabilizing
the governments in both countries. Although the increased oil revenues, the
geopolitics of oil, and security threats in the Middle East (i.e., the strategic
location of Azerbaijan and its air zone in the fight against terrorism in
Afghanistan and Iraq) seem to have increased the bargaining power of
Azerbaijan, the unknown risks associated with a furious military operation
could be highly destructive for its economic and political independence.

(ii)The demarcation of the Caspian Sea is crucial to bringing Turkmen gas

and Kazakh oil to the EU energy market via the energy hub of Turkey,
independent of the Russian-controlled pipeline network. Russia and Iran
have contended that the Caspian is actually an inland lake and thus subject
to joint control by all the littoral states. Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and
Turkmenistan, however, have argued that the Caspian is a sea that should be
divided into national sectors over which each state has exclusive
sovereignty. Nevertheless, all littoral states currently favor sectoral division
of the Caspian Sea. In May 2003, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Russia
concluded bilateral agreements with each other based on a Russian
developed principle known as the “modified median line”. Turkmenistan
and Iran, meanwhile, refused to sign this agreement. Iranian officials argued
that the southern end of the Caspian constitutes a natural bay; thus, a
different baseline should be used. Azerbaijan fiercely contests the concept of
such a baseline and related claims on the offshore fields. Moreover, the
differences between Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan remain unsettled.
Therefore, while the projects in the northern Caspian Sea are likely to move
forward despite the lack of a comprehensive regional consensus, the
extension of the SCP (South Caucasus- Shah Deniz) gas pipeline to
Turkmenistan and the trans-Caspian oil pipeline
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project have been halted for the foreseeable future.

Nevertheless, there are plans to connect Turkmen gas to the SCP pipeline.
The demarcation of the Caspian Sea does not exclusively constitute an
obstacle for building a trans-Caspian gas pipeline between Turkmenistan
and Azerbaijan, if the two countries agreed to build such a pipeline in their
sectors of the Caspian Sea.

(iii) Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan are important energy rich

countries of the Caspian region, which has increasingly become important
for the energy security of developed countries. The war in Iraq, China and
India’s emergence as major energy importers, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the
dispute between Russia and the Ukraine in 2006, and most recently, the
turmoil in the Middle East have contributed to the heightened fears about
energy security. Thus, Azerbaijan has an important role together with
Turkey—given that the BTC and SCP pipelines connect to Turkey’s energy
hub—to secure, stabilize, and diversify the energy transportation routes for
the EU. The EU is the world’s largest energy consumer without its own
significant reserves. The EU imports 50% of the energy it needs, and
projections predict that its dependence on imported energy will rise to 70%
by 2030. Furthermore, roughly half of the EU’s gas consumption comes
from only three countries (Russia, Norway, and Algeria). Following current
trends, gas imports would increase to 80% in the next 25 years.

There are plans to connect Turkmen gas to the SCP gas pipeline. At present,
Turkmenistan is bound to export most of its gas through the Russian
pipeline system. Using the Korpezhe-Kurt Kui pipeline as a way to create
another export outlet for the huge gas reserves of Turkmenistan is limited
because of the international crisis about the nuclear proliferation in Iran. The
unexpected death of Turkmenistan President Saparmurat Niyazov
highlighted some optimism about the feasibility of a trans-Caspian gas
pipeline, because under his dictatorial rule, most of the multinational oil
companies withdraw their investment from Turkmenistan.

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Furthermore, in May 2007, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, and Russia agreed to

carry Turkmen natural gas to Europe via Kazakhstan and Russia. Thus, the
agreement was a blow to the planned trans-Caspian natural gas pipeline
project. While the new President Berdymukhammedov states that
Turkmenistan still has a long-term interest in diversifying pipelines to
export Turkmen gas via Iran, China, Afghanistan, India, and the
TransCaspian, there are concerns over how much gas is available in
Turkmenistan. Despite the confident statements of President
Berdymukhammedov emphasizing that there are enough gas reserves,
Turkmenistan has not published independent audits of its gas reserves. On
the other hand, the previous agreement between Turkey and Turkmenistan to
bring Turkmen gas to the Turkish energy hub was revitalized in June 2007.

43. - 46. questions

History is one of the few school subjects commonly
mandated in education systems throughout the world.
Furthermore, the use of history textbooks to support
student learning is an almost universally accepted
practice. However, the widespread international
presence of the humble history textbook should not
disguise its ideological and cultural potency. Indeed,
essential to understanding the power and importance
of history textbooks is to appreciate that in any given
culture they typically exist as the keepers of ideas,
values and knowledge. No matter how neutral history
textbooks may appear, they are ideologically
important, because they often seek to inject the youth
with a shared set of values, national ethos and an
incontrovertible sense of political orthodoxy.
Textbooks stand as cultural artefacts that embody a
range of
issues associated with ideology, politics and values
which in themselves function at a variety of different
levels of power, status and influence. Embedded in
history textbooks are narratives and stories that nation
states choose to tell about themselves and their
relations with other nations. Typically, they represent
a core of cultural knowledge which future generations
are
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expected both to assimilate and support.

Source: What Shall We Tell the Children? International Perspectives on School History Textbooks (page 1)

THE CRITICAL IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY TEXTBOOK RESEARCH

History is one of the few curriculum subjects commonly mandated in
education
systems throughout the world. Furthermore, the use of history textbooks to
support student learning is almost universally accepted practice. However,
the
widespread international presence of the humble history textbook should not
disguise its ideological and cultural potency. Indeed, essential to
understanding
the power and importance of history textbooks is to appreciate that in any
given culture they typically exist as the keepers of ideas, values, and
knowledge.
No matter how neutral history textbooks may appear, they prove
ideologically
important because often they seek to imbue in the young a shared set of
values,
a national ethos, and an incontrovertible sense of political
orthodoxy.

Textbooks stand as cultural artefacts that in their production and use

embody a range of issues associated with ideology, politics and values
which in themselves function at a variety of different levels of power, status
and influence. Embedded in history textbooks are narratives and stories that
nation states choose to tell about themselves and their relationships with
other nations. Typically they represent a core of cultural knowledge which
future generations are expected both to assimilate and support. As a
consequence to think about the content of textbooks and how they are
authored, published, and used is to think about the purposes of schooling. So
dominant are textbooks in most education systems that Boyer has suggested
that choosing and using textbooks “is the closest thing that we have to
systematic debate over what schools should be teaching.”

Not surprisingly in many nations’ debates over the content and format of
school textbooks are sites of considerable educational and political conflict.
Evidence from national education systems across the globe strongly
suggests that the manufacture of textbook content is the result of
competition between powerful groups who see it as central to the creation of
a collective national memory designed to meet specific cultural, economic
and social imperatives. Abundantly
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clear, however, is that the process of textbook production and distribution is

not a simplistic top-down process in which the knowledge valued by
prevailing political leaders is distributed instrumentally into classrooms in
uniform ways. Undoubtedly, the ways in which textbooks are selected and
deployed in classrooms across nations is extremely complex and, although
textbook research in this area is expanding, not enough is known about the
influence of dominant cultural, political, and economic forces on textbook
content production, and deployment.

As a consequence one of the purposes of this book is to begin to address this

fundamental gap in our knowledge. Through the informed perspective of
leading international scholars, this book explores the way in which
historical, cultural, political and socioeconomic factors influence the
selection of knowledge that appears in a range of history school textbooks.
It also investigates how societal forces (e.g., governments, politicians and
pressure groups) influence the way school knowledge is selected and how
that knowledge is presented in the form of history textbooks. Finally, this
book pays critical attention to what knowledge is included and rejected in
history textbooks and how the transmission of this selected knowledge often
attempts to shape a particular form of national memory, national identity
and national consciousness.

SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS AND THE “PREACTIVE” CURRICULUM

The relationship between history textbooks and the school curriculum is an
important one. Following Goodson’s claim that in order to understand
curriculum we need to develop a sense of history, a focus on the “preactive”
definition of a written curriculum enables us to analyze the relationship
between historical antecedence and the exercise of power and agency at the
micro- level of curriculum implementation. The notion of curriculum as that
which is taught in schools and its relationship with the manner in which
curriculum is constructed outside school is poorly documented. Young
developed two views of curriculum: “curriculum as fact” and “curriculum as
practice.” For Young, “curriculum as fact” views curriculum as an
uncontested and uncontroversial given, a historically located response to
particular socioeconomic conditions.
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Young saw “curriculum as practice” as reductionist in the sense that because

it focuses upon interpretation within schools, it ignores the wider
socioeconomic, ideological and political concerns that help construct
curriculum.

Goodson’s contribution to curriculum theory demonstrates how taking

curriculum as an abstract and unquestioned given ignores the “Antecedent
struggles over the preactive definition of curriculum.” Goodson defines the
preactive curriculum as, “The visible, public and changing testimony of
selected rationales and legitimating rhetorics of schooling.” From this
perspective Goodson has produced an extensive body of work focusing on
the social construction of curriculum subjects. Goodson claims that: “The
conflicts over the definition of the written curriculum offer visible, public
and documentary evidence of the continuing struggle over the aspirations
and purposes of schooling.”

This book applies this perspective to the idea that school history textbooks
are examples of preactive curriculum documents that are socially
constructed. The view of social constructionism adopted in this book is
based upon the notion that social action is the product of the manner in
which individuals and groups create and sustain their social world. From
this viewpoint the setting, the participants, their motives and intentions and
the socioeconomic, cultural and historical context are important variables in
shaping meaning and behavior. This approach has similarities to Foucault’s
analysis of social constructionism. Foucault takes the view that knowledge
is historically and culturally specific and emphasizes the constructive power
of language. Foucault does not talk of truth but of “discourses of truth”in the
construction of a “regime of truth.” Foucault was also interested in the status
of truth and the economic and political role it plays. For Foucault truth
operates within hegemonic, social, cultural and economic contexts. True and
truth can mean different things in different contexts. He writes, “Every
educational system is a political means of maintaining or of modifying the
appropriation of discourses with the knowledge and power it carries with it.”
Studying the construction of history textbooks and their use in school from a
social constructionist viewpoint allows for the exploration of the
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views, values and interests involved in the making of curriculum, of the

political maintenance of power and knowledge and, crucially, of the
sociohistorical context within which curriculum is constructed.

47. - 50. questions

Farmers in many countries utilize antibiotics in two key
ways: at full strength to treat animals that are sick and
in low doses to fatten meat-producing livestock or to
prevent veterinary illnesses. Although even the proper
use of antibiotics can inadvertently lead to the spread of
drug resistant bacteria, the habit of using a low dose is
a formula for disaster: the treatment provides just
enough antibiotic to kill some but not all bacteria. The
germs that survive are typically those that happen to
bear genetic mutations for resisting the antibiotic. They
then reproduce and exchange genes with other
microbial resisters. As bacteria are found literally
everywhere, resistant strains produced in animals
eventually find
their way into people as well. You could not design
a better system for guaranteeing the spread of
antibiotic resistance. To cease the spread, Denmark
enforced tighter rules on the use of antibiotics in the
raising of poultry and other farm animals. The
lesson is that improving animal husbandry – making
sure that pens, stalls and cages are properly cleaned
and giving
animals more room or time to mature – offsets the initial
negative impact of limiting antibiotic use.
Source: Scientific American, April 2011

Our Big Pig Problem

The U.S. should follow Denmark and stop giving farm animals low-dose
antibiotics. ByThe Editors

The Crisis of Antibiotic Resistance

Bacteria are finally overrunning our last defenses. Can we stop them?
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For more than 50 years microbiologists have warned against using

antibiotics to fatten up farm animals. The practice, they argue, threatens
human health by turning farms into breeding grounds of drug-resistant
bacteria. Farmers responded that restricting antibiotics in livestock would
devastate the industry and significantly raise costs to consumers. We now
have empirical data that should resolve this debate. Since 1995 Denmark has
enforced progressively tighter rules on the use of antibiotics in the raising of
pigs, poultry and other livestock. In the process, it has shown that it is
possible to protect human health without hurting farmers.

Farmers in many countries use antibiotics in two key ways: (1) at full
strength to treat animals that are sick and (2) in low doses to fatten meat-
producing livestock or to prevent veterinary illnesses. (It is illegal in the U.S.
to sell milk for human consumption from dairy cattle treated with
antibiotics.) Although even the proper use of antibiotics can inadvertently
lead to the spread of drug- resistant bacteria, the habit of using a low or
subtherapeutic dose is a formula for disaster: the treatment provides just
enough antibiotic to kill some but not all bacteria. The germs that survive
are typically those that happen to bear genetic mutations for resisting the
antibiotic. They then reproduce and exchange genes with other microbial
resisters. Because bacteria are found literally everywhere, resistant strains
produced in animals eventually find their way into people as well. You
could not design a better system for guaranteeing the spread of antibiotic
resistance.

The data from multiple studies over the years support the conclusion that
low doses of antibiotics in animals increase the number of drug-resistant
microbes in both animals and people. As Joshua M. Sharfstein, a principal
deputy commissioner at the Food and Drug Administration, told a U.S.
congressional subcommittee last summer, “You actually can trace the
specific bacteria around and ... find that the resistant strains in humans
match the resistant strains in the animals.” And this science is what led
Denmark to stop subtherapeutic dosing of chickens, pigs and other farm
animals.
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Although the transition unfolded smoothly in the poultry industry, the

average weight of pigs fell in the first year. But after Danish farmers started
leaving sows and piglets together a few weeks longer to bolster the
littermates’ immune systems naturally, the animals’ weights jumped back
up, and the number of pigs per litter increased as well. The lesson is that
improving animal husbandry— making sure that pens, stalls and cages are
properly cleaned and giving animals more room or time to mature—offsets
the initial negative impact of limiting antibiotic use. Today Danish industry
reports that productivity is higher than before. Meanwhile reports of
antibiotic resistance in Danish people are mixed, which shows—as if we
needed reminding—that there are no quick fixes.

Lest anyone argue that Denmark is too small to offer a reasonable parallel to
the U.S., consider that it is the world’s largest exporter of pork. Like U.S.
farmers, Danes raise pigs on an intensive, industrial scale. If they can figure
out how to limit antibiotic use while actually increasing agricultural
productivity, then so can Americans.

The American Medical Association, the Infectious Diseases Society of America,

the American Public Health Association, a previous FDA commissioner and
many others have advised the U.S. to follow suit. Last year the FDA
published new guidelines calling for “judicious use” of antibiotics. Yet it
ultimately left the decision on exactly when and where to use antibiotics up
to individual farmers. That laissez-faire standard is not good enough,
particularly when the health of the rest of the population is at stake.
Of course, the way veterinary antibiotics are used is not the only cause of
human drug-resistant infections. Careless use of the drugs in people also
contributes to the problem. But agricultural use is still a major contributing
factor. Every day that passes brings new evidence that we are in danger of
losing effective antibiotic protection against many of the most dangerous
bacteria that cause human illness [see “The Enemy Within,” by Maryn
McKenna=]. The technical issues are solvable. Denmark’s example proves
that it is possible to cut antibiotic use on farms without triggering financial
disaster. In fact, it might provide a competitive advantage. Stronger
measures to deprive drug-resistant bacteria
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of their agricultural breeding grounds simply make scientific, economic and

common sense.

51. - 54. questions

“The Marshall Plan was not a simple program for
transferring massive sums of money to struggling
countries, but an explicit – and eventually successful
– attempt to reindustrialize Europe.” say Erik Reinert
and Ha-Joon Chang. It follows that if Africa really
wants economic prosperity, it should study and draw
valuable lessons from the Marshall Plan’s dark twin:
the Morgenthau Plan implemented in Germany in
1945.
Reinert tells the story best: When it was clear that the
Allies would win the Second World War, the question
of what to do with Germany, which in three decades
had precipitated two World Wars, reared its head.
Henry Morgenthau Jr, the US secretary of the
treasury, formulated a plan to keep Germany from
ever again threatening world peace. Germany, he
argued, had to
be entirely deindustrialized and turned into an
agricultural nation. All industrial equipment was to be
destroyed, and the mines were to be flooded. This
program was approved by the Allies and was
immediately implemented when Germany capitulated
in 1945. However, it soon became clear that the
Morgenthau Plan was causing serious economic
problems in Germany: deindustrialization caused
agricultural productivity to plummet. This was indeed
an interesting experiment. The mechanisms of
synergy between industry and agriculture worked in
reverse: killing the industry reduced the productivity
of the agricultural sector.
Source: New African, Apr 1, 2011

The Marshall Plan:

Contrary to popular opinion, re-industrialisation of Europe was the main
focus of the Marshall Plan, using the traditional policy toolbox, including
heavy
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protection of manufacturing industries.

THE MARSHALL PLAN WAS NOT A SIMPLE PROGRAMME for

transferring massive sums of money to struggling countries, but an explicit--
and eventually successful--attempt to reindustrialise Europe, say Erik
Reinert and Ha-Joon Chang.

It follows that if Africa really wants economic prosperity, it should study

and draw valuable lessons from the Marshall Plan's dark twin: the
Morgenthau Plan implemented in Germany in 1945.

Reinert tells the story best: When it was clear that the Allies would win the
Second World War, the question of what to do with Germany, which in three
decades had precipitated two World Wars, reared its head. Henry
Morgenthau Jr, the US secretary of the treasury from 1934 to 1945,
formulated a plan to keep Germany from ever again threatening world
peace.

Germany, he argued, had to be entirely deindustrialised and turned into an

agricultural nation. (Africa, are we listening?) All industrial equipment was
to be
removed or destroyed, the mines were to be flooded with water or concrete.
This
programme was approved by the Allies during a meeting in Canada in late
1943,
and was immediately implemented when Germany capitulated in 1945.
During
1946 and 1947, however, it became clear that the Morgenthau Plan was
causing
serious economic problems in Germany: deindustrialisation caused
agricultural
productivity to plummet. This was indeed an interesting
experiment.

The mechanisms of synergy between industry and agriculture, so key to

Enlightenment economists, also worked in reverse: killing industry reduced
the productivity of the agricultural sector. Many of those who had lost their
jobs in industry returned to the farm, and the biblical mechanisms of
diminishing returns became the dominating mechanisms in the economy.
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The former US president, Herbert Hoover, who at the time played the role
or the old and wise statesman, was sent to Germany with orders to report to
Washington what the problem was. His investigation took place in early
1947, and he wrote three reports. In the last, dated 18 March 1947, Hoover
concluded: "There is the illusion that the New Germany left after the
annexations can be reduced to a 'pastoral state'. It cannot be done unless we
exterminate or move 25,000,000 out of it."

Observing the dark consequences of deindustrialisation, Hoover had

reinvented the old mercantilist theory or population: an industrial state can
feed and maintain a far larger population than an agricultural state
occupying the same territory. In other words, industry greatly increases a
country's ability to sustain a large population. The fact that famines only
occur in countries specialising in agriculture underlies the power of
industry, of the division of labour and of the importance of the intersectorial
synergies that create and maintain welfare. Less than three months after
Hoover submitted his report, the Morgenthau Plan was silently buried. The
Marshall Plan [named alter the former chief-or- staff of the army, George
Catlett Marshall] was devised to produce exactly the opposite effect, namely
to reindustrialise Germany and the rest of Europe. The Plan was announced
by Marshall in a speech at Harvard University on 5 June 1947. Its details
were negotiated at a meeting held in Pans from 12 July 1947 onwards.
Implementation was started in 1948 and ended in 1951, channelling
$13bn (equivalent to $130bn in 2007) into the war-torn economies of Europe.

George Carlett Marshall (1880-1959), a five-star general in 1944, was noted

for his exemplary service during the Second World War. He became
secretary of state and later secretary of defence, and was awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize in 1953 for his role in the Marshall Plan. In the case or
Germany, the Marshall Plan demanded that industry was to be returned to its
1936 level, which was considered the last "normal" year before the War.
"Today's problem," says Reinert, "is that the dominating barter-focused
economic theory fails to appreciate the difference between a Marshall Plan
and a Morgenthau Plan. "Politicians today abuse the concept of a Marshall
Plan by using it to describe any large transfers
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of resources to poor countries. It cannot be emphasised strongly enough that

the kernel of Marshall's plan was reindustrialisation; the demand and supply
of capital was per se entirely secondary to the principal strategy of
developing the industrial life of a nation."

Generally, the Marshall Plan was implemented with heavy tariff protection
of national industries and strict rules for currency transactions. It was fully
acknowledged that jobs needed long-term protection, and that foreign
exchange was a scarce resource. In Norway, for example, this resulted in a
total prohibition on imports of clothing until 1956, combined with severe
restrictions on the transfer of funds abroad. Importing cars for private use
was prohibited until 1960.
COPYRIGHT 2011 IC Publications Ltd.
No portion of this article can be reproduced without the express written permission from the copyright
holder. Copyright 2011 Gale, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

55. - 58. questions

Imagine an industry that runs out of raw materials.
Companies go bankrupt, workers are laid off, families
suffer and associated organizations are thrown into
turmoil. Eventually, governments are forced to take
drastic action. Welcome to global banking, recently
brought to its knees by the interruption of its lifeblood
– the flow of cash. In this case, we seem to have been
fortunate. In the nick of time, governments released
reserves in order to start cash circulating again. But
what if the reserves had not been there? What are we
going to do when our supplies of vital materials such
as fish, tropical hardwoods, metals like indium and
fresh water dry up? We live on a planet with finite
resources
– that is no surprise to anyone – so why do we have
an economic system in which all that matters is
growth
– more growth means using more resources. When
the human population was counted in millions and
resources were sparse, people could simply move to
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new pastures. However, with 9 billion people expected

around 2050, moving on is not an option. As politicians
reconstruct the global economy, they should take heed.
If we are to leave any kind of planet to our children, we
need an economic system that lets us live within our
means.
Source: New Scientist (editorial), 15 October 2008

IMAGINE an industry that runs out of raw materials. Companies go bust,

workers are laid off, families suffer and associated organisations are thrown
into turmoil. Eventually governments are forced to take drastic action.
Welcome to global banking, brought to its knees by the interruption of its
lifeblood – the flow of cash.

In this case we seem to have been fortunate. In the nick of time,

governments
released reserves that should with luck get cash circulating again. But what
if
they hadn’t been there? There are no reserves of fish, tropical hardwoods,
fresh
water or metals such as indium, so what are we going to do when supplies
of
these vital materials dry up? We live on a planet with finite resources –
that’s no
surprise to anyone – so why do we have an economic system in which all
that
matters is growth (see “Why our economy is killing the planet and what we
can
do about it”)? More growth means using more
resources.

When the human population was counted in millions and resources were
sparse,
people could simply move to pastures new. But with 9 billion people
expected
around 2050, moving on is not an option. As politicians reconstruct the
global
economy, they should take heed. If we are to leave any kind of planet to our
children we need an economic system that lets us live within our
means.

59. - 62. questions

Many athletes credit drugs with improving their
performance, but some of them may want to thank their
brain instead. Mounting evidence suggests that the
boost from human growth hormone (HGH), an

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increasingly popular doping drug, might be caused by

the placebo effect. In a new double-blind trial funded
by the World Anti-Doping Agency, in which neither
researchers nor participants knew who was receiving
HGH and who was taking a placebo, the researchers
asked participants to guess whether or not they were
on the real drug. Then they examined the results of
the
group who guessed that they were getting HGH when,
in fact, they had received a placebo. That group
improved at four fitness tests measuring strength,
endurance, power and sprint capacity. The study
participants who guessed correctly that they were
taking a placebo did
not improve, according to preliminary results
presented at the Society for Endocrinology meeting
in June 2011. “The finding really shows the power of
the mind” said Ken Ho, an endocrinologist at the
Garvan Institute in Sydney, Australia, who led the
study. She maintains that many athletes are reaping
the benefits of the placebo effect, without knowing
whether what they are taking is beneficial or not.
Source: Scientific American Mind. October/November 2008

Are a Popular Doping Drug's Effects All in the Mind?

Athletes who take human growth hormone may be getting duped by the placebo
effect.

Many athletes credit drugs with improving their performance, but some of
them may want to thank their brain instead. Mounting evidence suggests
that the boost from human growth hormone (HGH), an increasingly popular
doping drug, might be caused by the placebo effect.

In a new double-blind trial funded by the World Anti-Doping Agency, in

which
neither researchers nor participants knew who was receiving HGH and who
was taking a placebo, the researchers asked participants to guess whether or
not
they were on the real drug. Then they examined the results of the group who
guessed that they were getting HGH when, in fact, they had received a
placebo.
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That group improved at four fitness tests measuring strength, endurance,

power
and sprint capacity. The study participants who guessed correctly that they
were
taking a placebo showed much less improvement, according to preliminary
results
presented at the Society for Endocrinology meeting in June. The researchers
are
currently analyzing the results of the other participants for future
publication.

“This finding really shows the power of the mind,” said Ken Ho, an
endocrinologist at the Garvan Institute in Sydney, Australia, who led the
study. “Many athletes are reaping the benefits of the placebo effect, without
knowing whether what they’re taking is beneficial or not.”

And in fact, HGH may not be helpful at all, reveals a recent review
published May 20 in the Annals of Internal Medicine. Endocrinologist Hau
Liu of Stanford University and his colleagues looked at 44 studies and found
that although HGH did increase athletes’ lean body mass, it did not lead to
improvements in athletic performance in double-blind trials.

The implications for athletes are serious, according to Ho. Many athletes
take a cocktail of supplements, vitamins and drugs, believing that they are
enhancing their game. “But it’s really the belief in the mind that improves
performance” in most cases, Ho says. “Athletes need to be cautious about
‘snake oil’ merchants.”

68. Question
Science does not produce a unified picture of the
environment on which all can agree, instead it
provides multiple views, each of which may be
valid from a particular ideological angle.
Source: American Scientist, Volume 94, 2006

Liberating Science from Politics

The notion that science can be used to reconcile political disputes is fundamentally
flawed
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Wouldn't it be wonderful if science—and scientists—were taken more

seriously in the political process? Wouldn't democracy be better served?
And wouldn't many difficult problems be more rationally resolved? Take the
debates over protecting the environment. It certainly seems that, here,
science should be able to cut through political controversy and enable
beneficial action. Yet experience mostly shows the opposite: Controversies
surrounding environmental problems as diverse as global climate change,
genetically modified foods, nuclear energy, biodiversity, air and water
pollution, and toxic wastes rarely seem to come to a satisfactory resolution.
They are instead characterized by long-term intractability and periodic
resurgence of bitter partisan dispute—all in the face of a continual
expansion of scientific understanding.

Blame for this unsatisfactory state of affairs is usually assigned to the

political process itself, especially to those who use science to advance particular
ideological agendas. If only, the complaint goes, those (a) conservatives (b)
liberals (c) environmentalists (d) industrialists or (e) ignorant members of
the public would understand the facts, or stop manipulating the facts for
their own political gain, we could arrive at rational solutions to the problems
we face.

Yet this sort of complaint—which I have heard, in one form or another, from
innumerable scientists—suffers from a profound misunderstanding of the
relation between science and politics. The idea that a set of scientific facts
can reconcile political differences and point the way toward a rational
solution is fundamentally flawed. The reality is that when political
controversy exists, the scientific enterprise is ideally suited to exacerbating
disagreement, rather than resolving it.

Consider the contested 2000 presidential election between George W. Bush

and Al Gore. Recall that the outcome hinged on Florida's 25 electoral votes
and that the vote count was incredibly close, with a margin of victory of
about 500 votes out of six million cast. The technical issues surrounding an
election are entirely straightforward—count the votes for each candidate and
see who has the higher number. The system is closed, the rules are clear, the
technical aspects are trivial,
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and the correct answer is an integer. What could be more amenable to

rational, fact-based analysis?

Here's a thought experiment: Suppose in the days immediately following the

election we had assigned a team of disinterested experts to determine the
correct result and declare the winner. Wouldn't this approach have quickly
yielded the right answer, in a manner untainted by political shenanigans?

Given the many complexities and irregularities associated with the vote
count (from "hanging chads" to poorly designed ballots), our team of
experts would have had to draw on the strengths of numerous disciplines,
perhaps including statistics, mechanical engineering, cognitive
neuroscience, material science, physiology and psychology, each of which
could contribute to the understanding of what actually went on during the
voting and vote-counting. Of course, once the experts began to make their
results known, other experts would need to review things, and
disagreements over methods, data and conclusions would undoubtedly
emerge. Crucially, any conclusion about actual vote tallies would have to be
governed not just by technical analysis of the performance of voting
technologies and voters, but also by rules about what constitutes a valid vote.
For example, the Miami Herald's unofficial recount showed that either
candidate could have been the winner depending on the criteria used to
judge the validity of cast ballots.

Can we really imagine that our multidisciplinary team of experts would have
achieved the consensus and legitimacy necessary to determine the "real
winner" in a manner that allowed the nation to move forward rapidly with
the business of democratic governance? Because it should be remembered
that the political and judicial process did just that: It conferred a final
decision in 36 days, not through a determination of technical fact (who won,
and by how many votes), but through the U.S. Supreme Court's decision to
accept the State of Florida's certification of a contested vote count that
showed George W. Bush to be the winner.

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State of the World

In the 2000 election, our political process did not turn to technical experts to
come up with an answer. In contrast, when environmental problems become
mired in politics, we often call on scientists to break the gridlock. This
approach is backwards. In seeking to address our environmental challenges,
we should instead (and regardless of our political preferences) look to the
lessons of the Florida vote count.

My central point is that scientific inquiry is inherently unsuitable for helping

to resolve political disputes. Even when a disagreement seems to be
amenable to technical analysis, the nature of science itself usually acts to
inflame rather than quench debate. One reason for this outcome is what I
would term an "excess of objectivity." Science seeks to come to grips with
the richness and complexity of nature through numerous disciplinary
approaches, each of which gives factual, yet always incomplete, views of
reality.

Consider climate change, which may variously be understood as a problem

of climate impacts, biodiversity, land use, energy use, water use, agricultural
productivity, public health, economic development, demographics and so
forth. Each of these concerns involves a variety of interests and values, of
potential winners and losers, and each depends on a body of relevant
knowledge to help define, understand, anticipate and respond to the
problem. The very wealth of reliable scientific information becomes an
obstacle to achieving any type of shared understanding of what climate
change "means." That is, the problem is not a lack of scientific input so
much as the contrary—a huge and evolving body of knowledge with
components that can be legitimately assembled and interpreted in different
ways to yield competing views of the issue at hand.

This result does not arise from the selective use of facts by partisan players
to support a particular position. There is no way to "add up" all the
information relevant to a complex problem like climate change to give a
"complete" picture of what is going on. So choices must be made, and
choices involve values. When
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an issue is both politically and scientifically contentious, one can usually

support one's point of view with an array of legitimate facts that seem no
less compelling than the facts assembled by those with a different
perspective. Subjectivity and objectivity, it turns out, are not separate and
immiscible realms, but opposite sides of the same coin. For every value,
there is often a legitimate supporting set of scientific results.

A second reason that science often makes things worse is that specific
disciplinary lenses often turn out to be especially compatible with particular
interests and values. My point is not that disciplines are ideologically
monolithic. But it seems entirely reasonable to expect that the formal
intellectual framework used by a scientist to understand some slice of the
world may be related to the values that person holds.

The ongoing controversy over genetically modified organisms in agriculture

provides a good example. Some disciplines, such as plant genetics, focus on
the modification of plants for human benefit, whereas others, such as
ecology, investigate the risks that transgenes might pose for ecosystems.
These two perspectives, equally fact-based and legitimate, nevertheless
reflect different ways of viewing nature (reductionist versus systemic) and
provide a factual basis for competing political perspectives (optimism about
the agricultural promise of genetically modified organisms versus concern
about their environmental risks). Indeed, social-science research has shown
that scientists' attitudes about risk (for instance, the dangers of nuclear
waste) are tied to disciplinary expertise.

A final reason that more science often doesn't help has to do with the
emergence of uncertainty. Again consider the 2000 election. There is no
reason to think that the complexities that emerged in Florida are not
commonly present in other elections as well. What made these issues
important was the closeness of the count combined with the extremely high
stakes of the election. In the parlance of scientific debate, the final vote
count became shrouded in "uncertainty." Had one candidate or another
achieved a decisive victory in Florida, these uncertainties would still have
existed, but they wouldn't have mattered.
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This observation provides a final key to understanding why science often

makes environmental controversies worse. Rising political stakes catalyse
scientific uncertainty. Science does not produce a unified picture of "the
environment" on which all can agree. Instead, it provides multiple views,
each of which may be valid from a particular disciplinary (or ideological)
angle. This diversity of perspectives manifests as an absence of coherence
and reliability in our scientific understanding at the system level. "More
research" is often prescribed as the antidote, but new results quite often
reveal previously unknown complexities, increasing the sense of uncertainty
and highlighting the differences between competing perspectives.

A Better Role for Science

Until the disputes about values that underlie environmental controversies are
brought openly into the democratic arena and adjudicated as such, science
will often just make matters worse. One clear indication of this unhealthy
dynamic can be seen when Congress holds hearings where dueling scientists
provide technical testimony in support of competing sides of a controversy.
Another sign is when reporters and public interest groups begin to call on
scientists to support one side or another of a controversy. In such cases,
opposing scientific views become a proxy for the conflicting values that
underlie the conflict.

One provocative way to nip this pathology in the bud would be to demand
that all scientists who are willing to make scientific statements on behalf of
a particular political position also indicate their own partisan preferences.
Another would be for scientists to impose on themselves a voluntary "quiet
period" during which they will not participate in the spectacle of dueling
scientists. Lawmakers and stakeholders, with no scientists to hide behind,
would thus have no choice but to proclaim their relevant interests and values
explicitly.

If such suggestions sound frivolous or even downright irrational, consider

that most important political actions, ranging from the Marshall Plan and
civil rights legislation to the response to Hurricane Katrina and even the
allocation of
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research and development funds, are made primarily on the basis not of
science but of social aspirations codified through political action. Indeed,
when most of the nation's environmental laws were enacted during the late
1960s and early 1970s, the state of the relevant science was at best
rudimentary. What made these laws possible was a political consensus—one
that has since disintegrated, even as our scientific understanding has
advanced tremendously.

And what then would become of science? One part of the answer is:
nothing. It will still be there, in the background, along with all the other
influences on people's knowledge, political interests and behavior. And
science will continue to alert us to problems that we might not otherwise
easily perceive. The crucial point, though, is that the most positive role for
science in support of decision making comes only after values are clarified
through political debate and after goals for the future are agreed on through
democratic means. Science can then help us chart the path to our goals, and
it can help us monitor how well we are following that path. Indeed, it is only
when science is thus liberated from politics that appropriate priorities for
scientific research in support of our social aspirations can actually emerge.

69. Question
The stocks of bluefin tuna, the most valuable fish
in the world, have plummeted to such paltry levels
that many scientists speculate that the fish could
be headed for extinction.
Source: Scientific American, March 4, 2010

The Deadliest Catch:

A Proposed Trade Ban Could Take Bluefin Tuna off the Menu
New DNA "fingerprint" techniques could aid this month's push for an
international trade ban

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END OF THE LINE:

At Tokyo's Tsukiji fish market, around 1,000 bluefin tuna are auctioned off
every day.

AdvertisementThis January a 511-pound monster of a bluefin tuna sold at

Tokyo’s Tsukiji fish market for $175,000—by far the highest price paid for
a fish in nine years. By that afternoon, customers at Kyubey, a Michelin-
starred restaurant a stone’s throw from the market, were dining on the tuna’s
fatty belly, or toro, the most opulent and rich cut from the most valuable fish
in the world.

Japanese diners could soon face much higher bills for bluefin. This month
a meeting of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) in Doha, Qatar, is slated to consider a proposal to ban all
commercial trade of the Northern bluefin, Thunnus thynnus, grouping it
with megafauna superstars such as the white rhino and the Asian elephant.
Japan imports about 80 percent of the total bluefin catch in the Atlantic and
Mediterranean, even as those stocks have plummeted to such paltry levels
that many scientists speculate that the fish could be headed for extinction.

Never before has such a commercially important animal been subject to an

international trade ban, and proponents have braced for furious opposition.
To qualify for a complete trade ban, CITES requires that the population of a
species must have declined to less than about 20 percent of its historic
population size or have suffered from an extremely high recent rate of
decline. And although it is no simple task to measure the total size of a
population that wanders from the Mediterranean to the Gulf of Mexico over
its decades-long life span, recent scientific committees organized by the
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the International
Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) agree that the
Northern bluefin meets the criteria.

Another condition of a CITES listing is that enforcement inspectors must

be able to identify the tuna—a task that turns out to be almost as difficult as
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measuring the population. There are three species of bluefin tuna—

Northern, Pacific and Southern—and even trained taxonomists have trouble
distinguishing Northern bluefin from its Pacific cousin.

The problem extends all the way to the plate. Late last year a team of
researchers from Columbia University and the American Museum of
Natural History examined 68 samples of tuna smuggled out of sushi
restaurants in New York City and Denver. They found that 19 of 31
restaurants either could not identify or misidentified the species of tuna they
were serving—for example, replacing bluefin with bigeye (or vice versa).
Of the nine samples of fish advertised as “white tuna,” they discovered that
five were not tuna at all but rather escolar, a fish banned as a health hazard
in Italy and Japan because it contains indigestible wax esters that can cause
diarrhea.

Traditional DNA analysis techniques could not identify the various species
of tuna; the fish are too genetically similar. Instead the researchers
introduced a new approach. Conventional DNA “barcoding” techniques
break apart DNA sequences into a jumbled bag of base pairs, then compare
how similar the bag is to a reference bag. The new approach looks at the
order of nucleotides in a DNA sequence at a specific location on the
genome. The approach enables positive identification of any tuna sample—
even one that is sitting on a bed of rice.

“Some sort of DNA-based identification will be a critical component for

making CITES an effective regulation,” says Jacob Lowenstein, one of the
co-authors of the research. “This will probably in the short term become the
standard tool for regulatory bodies.” And even if the CITES proposal fails,
there will still be much to enforce. ICCAT is charged with setting bluefin
catch quotas in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and by most accounts it has
done a terrible job of it. “ICCAT was convened and established in the 1960s
because of widespread concern by tuna fishermen over the decline of
bluefin tuna,” says Carl Safina, president of the Blue Ocean Institute. “Since
its inception the bluefin population has done nothing but go down.”

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Even though ICCAT sets catch quotas far higher than the recommendations
of its own scientific advisory board, poaching and smuggling are still
rampant. In 2007, for instance, ICCAT had set the quota for the Eastern
Atlantic and Mediterranean at 29,500 metric tons of bluefin, even though
scientists had recommended that ICCAT shut down the Mediterranean
fisheries for two months during spawning season and limit total catch to less
than 15,000 metric tons. Fishermen caught an estimated 61,000 tons, most
of it in the Mediterranean spawning grounds. Says Safina, “It’s an all-out
war on the fish at the moment.”

70. Question
Huntington’s has been described as the most
disastrous disease known to man because of its
peculiarly cruel characteristics, as it progressively
strips a person of control of his muscles, reason
and emotion.
Source: INTELLIGENT LIFE Magazine, Autumn 2009

BATTLING HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE

As a war reporter, Charles Sabine diced with death. Now he has an
incurable brain disorder, and terror is ever-present—yet he has no
symptoms. He talks to Laura Spinney ...

In 1996, an NBC war reporter and his crew were captured by a renegade
platoon of mujahideen guerrillas near the Bosnian town of Doboj. As the
sun set and the call to prayer went up, the reporter stared at a blood-
spattered wall while a young warrior pulled the pin from a grenade, replaced
it with his finger and pressed it to his head. The warrior closed his eyes and
prayed.

At that moment a military vehicle appeared, and the Bosnian colonel inside
it eventually secured the TV crew’s release, so Charles Sabine lived to tell
the tale. These days, when he tells it, his audience tends to consist of
doctors, scientists and families affected by Huntington’s disease. That’s
because in 2005 Sabine
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discovered he had the disease, a hereditary brain disorder. Not many people
are qualified to compare two of the most terrifying situations known to man,
but he is one of them. Of his brush with death in Bosnia, he says, “Not that
moment nor any other I’ve experienced instils more dread and terror than
this disease.”

Huntington’s has been described as the most disastrous disease known to man
because of its peculiarly cruel characteristics. It progressively strips a person
of
control of his muscles, reason and emotions—though not necessarily in that
order. It is caused by a mutation in a single gene, and if you have the
mutation, you will develop the disease; the only unknown is when.
Typically the first symptoms appear between the ages of 30 and 50, so many
people pass the disease on before discovering they have it. The risk of
inheriting it from an affected parent is one in two. The unlucky offspring
therefore get to watch their sick parent head into a long, slow decline,
knowing that the same fate awaits them. And there’s no cure.

Sabine is 49 and a gene carrier, but he doesn’t yet have any symptoms. The
first time he heard about Huntington’s disease was in 1994, when he was
following the Clintons’ presidential visit to the newly formed Czech
Republic. His mother rang to say that his father, who had been acting
strangely for some time, had been diagnosed with it. The gene had been
identified the previous year, and there was now a blood test available.
Sabine’s elder brother, John, who already had four children, rushed to have
the test and found that he too had the mutation. Their father died in 2001
and John now has physical symptoms, though cognitively and emotionally
he remains relatively intact. An uncle, it emerged belatedly, had died of the
disease in 1992. Believing the odds were in his favour, Sabine put off
having the test. But the not knowing was worse, and finally, in 2005, he bit
the bullet.

His first reaction, on receiving the news, was, “It’s the wrong result.” He
maintains that everybody who goes for the test believes they will be one of
the lucky ones, or they wouldn’t go, and he still feels angry about the way he
was told. “The neurologist effectively said, ‘You’ve got this disease, I’m
afraid there’s nothing
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you can do about it, so live your life the best you can.’” Yet treatments are in
the pipeline, and there’s evidence that simple lifestyle changes and keeping
one’s brain active can extend a gene carrier’s years of health. To be told the
situation is hopeless is no incentive for watching your diet or exercising,
Sabine says, yet to those affected, the extra two or three years they might
gain from living well would be priceless. As he says, “That’s also an extra
two or three years when a new treatment may be found.”

If taking the test was difficult, telling the world the outcome wasn’t any
easier, and he waited another two and a half years to do that. Two things
drove him out of the closet: the thought of his mother who, he believes,
assumed like him that he had escaped the family curse, and the need to come
clean with his employer. It’s hard to think of many professions in which the
slightest slowing of the reflexes, or of the ability to make a decision or
recognise a face, could have more disastrous consequences, except perhaps
soldiering itself, and Sabine hasn’t worked for NBC since he told them in
early 2008, though he is still officially under contract to them.

“Most of the time, contact is less awful than the anticipation of it," Peter
Beaumont, the Observer’s foreign affairs editor, wrote recently about going
into battle. Anticipation is now a constant problem for Sabine, who wakes
up every morning thinking this could be his last day of good health. “If I trip
on the stairs, if I drop something or break a glass, that’s an early sign of the
disease,” he says. “I think about it all the time.”

To turn that preoccupation to constructive ends, and to keep himself busy, he

now travels the world, galvanising families to seek help and scientists to
seek a cure. The need to feel he is steering his own destiny has had other
consequences too. A once-heavy smoker whose every attempt to quit was
doomed to failure, upon receiving his diagnosis he offered himself the
meagre compensation that he could now give up giving up. Within a month,
however, he had smoked his last cigarette. “I needed to take some power
back over my life,” he says.

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Earlier this year he married his former producer at NBC, Nicole Bakshi, and
they now have a one-year-old daughter, Breezy, who does not have the
mutation. Bakshi “took him on”, as he puts it, in the full knowledge of what
awaited him, which he describes as “extraordinarily brave, or stupid”. She
admits that the prospect of looking after him daunts her, as does the thought
of the stressful and confusing experiences their daughter might be exposed
to as she grows up. But if you’re in love with someone, you don’t desert
them when they are diagnosed with cancer or multiple sclerosis, she says. So
why would you just because you received the bad news in advance?

For Sabine, she believes, taking the test was a kind of release. “Before I felt
that there was a lot of head-in-the-sand activity going on,” she says. “Getting
the diagnosis turned that around.” She thinks that he is more content now
than he has been since she has known him, which coincides roughly with the
time he has known the disease was in his family. Content, and mortally
afraid? Sabine struggles to explain. In his quarter-century working with
NBC, he witnessed carnage in Rwanda, astonishing acts of bravery in Iraq
and the way the Asian tsunami reduced people to indistinguishable mounds
of decomposing human flesh, yet he says, “None of those experiences really
meant anything until now.”

Now, in every tragedy he sees hope and the capacity of the human spirit to
overcome obstacles. That’s why, in his talks, he tells the tale of the 12-year-
old Kurdish girl he saw coming over a mountain pass on the Iran-Iraq
border, amid a vast sea of refugees. Shoeless, her face covered with freezing
mud, she had already walked 90 miles carrying her sister, a toddler, who
was unconscious, and she was determined to get her down the mountain
before nightfall. “All humans are capable of far more than you can ever
believe,” he tells the scientists he is urging to find a cure.

He met the Kurdish girl in 1991, before he knew the disease was in his
family. Twelve years later, he reported on the plight of patients abandoned in
the Al Rashid psychiatric hospital in Baghdad in the wake of the invasion.
Did the knowledge that he was at risk steer him towards that story? He
wouldn’t go so
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far as to say that, but he does say that he probably had more empathy with
the patients than he might have done had he not seen his father in the final
stages of the illness.

The second part of his answer concerns the future. Getting his diagnosis
spurred him to get on with things that he had avoided. Having put off
fatherhood for a long time, he took the plunge and is now loving it “for all
the corny reasons”. He seems almost apologetic as he says it, as if he were
listening to an echo. As if, from inside this very modern predicament—
knowing his own genetic flaw—he knew he was articulating an age-old
truism: that life is most precious when it is under threat.

HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE: THE BACKGROUND

Huntington’s disease is a disorder of the central nervous system affecting an
estimated 50,000 people in the European Union today. Previously known as
Huntington’s chorea, it causes the gradual loss of physical and then mental
and emotional faculties. Early symptoms include involuntary movements,
stumbling, clumsiness, memory lapses, depression and mood swings.
Although there is no known cure, drugs and exercise can help manage the
disease.

72. Question
Most measurements of happiness are by
standardized questionnaires or interview
schedules. It could also be done by informed
observers – those who know the individual well
and see them
regularly. ---- Yet, another form of measurement is
to investigate a person’s memory and check
whether they feel predominantly happy or unhappy
about their past. Finally, there are some crude but
ever-developing physical measures looking
at everything from brain scanning to saliva
levels.
Source: The Fulfilling Workplace: The Organization’s Role in Achieving Individual and Organizational Health
(Psychological and Behavioural Aspects of Risk) (Book)
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HAPPINESS AT WORK
The word “happiness” means several different things (joy, satisfaction) and
therefore many psychologists prefer the term “subjective well-being”
(SWB) which is an umbrella term that includes the various types of
evaluation of one’s life one might make. It can include self-esteem, joy and
feelings of fulfilment. The essence is that the person himself/herself is
making the evaluation of life. Thus the person herself or himself is the
expert here: is my life going well, according to the standards that I choose to
use?

It has also been suggested that there are three primary components of SWB:
general satisfaction, the presence of pleasant affect and the absence of
negative emotions including anger, anxiety, guilt, sadness and shame. More
importantly SWB covers a wide scale from ecstasy to agony: from extreme
happiness to great gloom and despondency. It relates to long-term states, not
just momentary moods. It is not sufficient but probably a necessary criterion
for mental or psychological health.

Many researchers have listed a number of myths about the nature and cause
of happiness. These include the following which are widely believed but
wrong:
• happiness depends mainly on the quality and quantity of things that
happen to you;
• people are less happy than they used to be;
• people with a serious physical disability are always less happy;
• young people in the prime of life are much happier than older people;
• people whoexperiencegreat happiness also experiencegreat unhappiness;
• more intelligent people are generally happier than less intelligent people;
• children add significantly to the happiness of married couples;
• acquiring lots of money makes people much happier in the long run;
• men are overall happier than women;
• pursuing happiness paradoxically ensures you lose it.

The first books on the psychology of happiness started appearing in the 1980s.
Then a few specialist academic journals began to appear but it was not until the
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turn of the millennium that the positive psychology movement was

galvanized into action by significant grant money as well as research focus
of many famous psychologists. The psychology of happiness attempts to
answer some very fundamental questions pursued over the years by
philosophers, theologians and politicians. The first series of questions are
really about definition and measurement of happiness; the second are about
why certain groups are as happy or unhappy as they are; and the third group
of questions concern what does one have to do (or not to do) to increase
happiness.

Most measurements of happiness are by standardized questionnaires or

interview schedules. On the other hand it could be done by informed
observers: those people who know the individual well and see them
regularly. There is also experience sampling when people have to report how
happy they are many times a day, week or month when a beeper goes off
and these ratings are aggregate. Yet another is to investigate a person’s
memory and check for whether they feel predominantly happy or unhappy
about their past. Finally there are some, as yet crude, but ever developing
physical measures, looking at everything from brain scanning to saliva
cortisol measures. It is not very difficult to measure happiness reliably and
validly.

The relatively recent advent of studies on happiness, sometimes called SWB

has led to a science of well-being (Huppert, Baylis & Keverne, 2005).
Argyle (2001) noted that different researchers had identified different
components of happiness such as life satisfaction, positive affect, self-
acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy and environmental
mastery. It constitutes joy, satisfaction and other related positive emotions.

Myers (1992) noted the stable and unstable characteristics of happy people.
They tend to be creative, energetic, decisive, flexible and sociable. They
also tend to be more forgiving, loving, trusting and responsible. They
tolerate frustration better and are more willing to help those in need. In short
they feel good, so do good. Diener (2000) has defined SWB as how people
cognitively and emotionally evaluate their lives. It has an evaluative (good-
bad) as well as a hedonic (pleasant-
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unpleasant) dimension.

Positive psychology is the study of factors and processes that lead to positive
emotions, virtuous behaviours and optimal performance in individuals and
groups. Although a few, mainly “self psychologists,” were always interested
in health, adjustment and peak performance, the study of happiness was
thought to be unimportant, even trivial.

Finding work and leisure activities that really engage your skills and
passions help a great deal. Taking regular exercise, and sleeping and eating
well helps keep up a good mood. Investing time and care in relationships is
a very important feature of happiness. Affirming others, helping others and
regularly expressing gratitude for life increases happiness. As does having a
sense of purpose and hope that may be best described as faith.

Myers’s (1992) suggestions for a happier life are:

“1. Realise that enduring happiness doesn’t come from success. People
adapt to changing circumstances—even to wealth or a disability. Thus
wealth is life health: its utter absence breeds misery, but having it (or any
circumstances we long for) doesn’t guarantee happiness.

2. Take control of your time. Happy people feel in control of their lives. To
master your use of time, set goals and break them into daily aims. Although
we often overestimate how much we will accomplish in any given day
(leaving us frustrated) we generally underestimate how much we can
accomplish in a year, given just a little progress every day.

3. Act happy. We can sometimes act ourselves into a happier frame of mind.
Manipulated into a smiling expression, people feel better; when they scowl,
the whole world seems to scowl back. So put on a happy face. Talk as if you
feel positive self-esteem, are optimistic, and are outgoing. Going through
the motions can trigger the emotions.

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4. Seek work and leisure that engages your skills. Happy people often are
in a zone called “flow” - absorbed in tasks that challenge but don’t
overwhelm them. The most expensive forms of leisure (sitting on a yacht)
often provide less flow experience than gardening, socialising, or craft work.

5. Join the ‘movement’ movement. An avalanche of research reveals that

aerobic exercise can relieve mild depression and anxiety as it promotes
health and energy. Sound minds reside in sound bodies. Off your duffs,
couch potatoes.

6. Give your body the sleep it wants. Happy people live active vigorous
lives yet reserve time for renewing sleep and solitude. Many people suffer
from a sleep debt, with resulting fatigue, diminished alertness and gloomy
moods.

7. Give priority to close relationships. Intimate friendships with those who

care deeply about you can help you weather difficult times. Confiding is
good for soul and body. Resolve to nurture your closest relationship by not
taking your loved ones for granted, by displaying to them the sort of
kindness you display to others, by affirming them, by playing together and
sharing together. To rejuvenate your affections, resolve in such ways to act
lovingly.

8. Focus beyond the self. Reach out to those in need. Happiness increases
helpfulness (those who feel good do good). But doing good also makes one
feel good.

9. Keep a gratitude journal. Those who pause each day to reflect on some
positive aspect of their lives (their health, friends, family, freedom,
education, senses, natural surroundings and so on) experience heightened
well-being.

10. Nurture your spiritual self. For many people faith provides a support
community, a reason to focus beyond self, and a sense of purpose and
hope. Study after study finds that actively religious people are happier
and that they cope better with crises.”
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Positive psychology (Seligman, 2002; Linley, 2008) shifts the focus to

exploring and attempting to correct or change personal weakness to a study
of strengths and virtues. Its aim is to promote authentic happiness and the
good life and thereby promote health. A starting point for positive
psychology for both popular writers and researchers has been to try to list
and categorize strengths and values.

73. Question
Everything in the factories of the future will be
run by smarter software. Digitization in
manufacturing will have as widespread an effect
as in other industries that have gone digital,
including photography, publishing and films.
Such effects will not be confined to large
manufacturers, either. ---- Launching new and
innovative products will become easier and
cheaper for them.
Source: The Economist, Apr 21st 2012

A third industrial revolution

As manufacturing goes digital, it will change out of all recognition, says
Paul Markillie. And some of the business of making things will return to
rich countries

OUTSIDE THE SPRAWLING Frankfurt Messe, home of innumerable

German trade fairs, stands the “Hammering Man”, a 21-metre kinetic statue
that steadily raises and lowers its arm to bash a piece of metal with a
hammer. Jonathan Borofsky, the artist who built it, says it is a celebration of
the worker using his mind and hands to create the world we live in. That is a
familiar story. But now the tools are changing in a number of remarkable
ways that will transform the future of manufacturing.

One of those big trade fairs held in Frankfurt is EuroMold, which shows
machines for making prototypes of products, the tools needed to put those
things into production and all manner of other manufacturing kit. Old-
school
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engineers worked with lathes, drills, stamping presses and moulding

machines. These still exist, but EuroMold exhibits no oily machinery tended
by men in overalls. Hall after hall is full of squeaky-clean American, Asian
and European machine tools, all highly automated. Most of their operators,
men and women, sit in front of computer screens. Nowhere will you find a
hammer.

And at the most recent EuroMold fair, last November, another group of
machines was on display: three-dimensional (3D) printers. Instead of
bashing, bending and cutting material the way it always has been, 3D
printers build things by depositing material, layer by layer. That is why the
process is more properly described as additive manufacturing. An American
firm, 3D Systems, used one of its 3D printers to print a hammer for your
correspondent, complete with a natty wood-effect handle and a metallised
head.

This is what manufacturing will be like in the future. Ask a factory today to
make you a single hammer to your own design and you will be presented
with a bill for thousands of dollars. The makers would have to produce a
mould, cast the head, machine it to a suitable finish, turn a wooden handle
and then assemble the parts. To do that for one hammer would be
prohibitively expensive. If you are producing thousands of hammers, each
one of them will be much cheaper, thanks to economies of scale. For a 3D
printer, though, economies of scale matter much less. Its software can be
endlessly tweaked and it can make just about anything. The cost of setting
up the machine is the same whether it makes one thing or as many things as
can fit inside the machine; like a two-dimensional office printer that pushes
out one letter or many different ones until the ink cartridge and paper need
replacing, it will keep going, at about the same cost for each item.

Additive manufacturing is not yet good enough to make a car or an iPhone,

but it is already being used to make specialist parts for cars and customised
covers for iPhones. Although it is still a relatively young technology, most
people probably already own something that was made with the help of a 3D
printer. It might be a pair of shoes, printed in solid form as a design
prototype before being
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produced in bulk. It could be a hearing aid, individually tailored to the shape

of the user’s ear. Or it could be a piece of jewellery, cast from a mould made
by a 3D printer or produced directly using a growing number of printable
materials.

But additive manufacturing is only one of a number of breakthroughs

leading to the factory of the future, and conventional production equipment
is becoming smarter and more flexible, too. Volkswagen has a new
production strategy called Modularer Querbaukasten, or MQB. By
standardising the parameters of certain components, such as the mounting
points of engines, the German carmaker hopes to be able to produce all its
models on the same production line. The process is being introduced this
year, but will gather pace as new models are launched over the next decade.
Eventually it should allow its factories in America, Europe and China to
produce locally whatever vehicle each market requires.

They don’t make them like that any more

Factories are becoming vastly more efficient, thanks to automated milling
machines that can swap their own tools, cut in multiple directions and “feel”
if something is going wrong, together with robots equipped with vision and
other sensing systems. Nissan’s British factory in Sunderland, opened in
1986, is now one of the most productive in Europe. In 1999 it built 271,157
cars with 4,594 people. Last year it made 480,485 vehicles—more than any
other car factory in Britain, ever—with just 5,462 people.

“You can’t make some of this modern stuff using old manual tools,” says
Colin Smith, director of engineering and technology for Rolls-Royce, a
British company that makes jet engines and other power systems. “The days
of huge factories full of lots of people are not there any more.”

As the number of people directly employed in making things declines, the

cost of labour as a proportion of the total cost of production will diminish
too. This will encourage makers to move some of the work back to rich
countries, not least because new manufacturing techniques make it cheaper
and faster to
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respond to changing local tastes.

The materials being used to make things are changing as well. Carbon-fibre
composites, for instance, are replacing steel and aluminium in products
ranging from mountain bikes to airliners. And sometimes it will not be
machines doing the making, but micro-organisms that have been genetically
engineered for the task.

Everything in the factories of the future will be run by smarter software.

Digitisation in manufacturing will have a disruptive effect every bit as big as
in other industries that have gone digital, such as office equipment,
telecoms,
photography, music, publishing and films. And the effects will not be
confined
to large manufacturers; indeed, they will need to watch out because much of
what is coming will empower small and medium-sized firms and individual
entrepreneurs. Launching novel products will become easier and cheaper.
Communities offering 3D printing and other production services that are a
bit like Facebook are already forming online—a new phenomenon which
might be called social manufacturing.

The consequences of all these changes, this report will argue, amount to a
third industrial revolution. The first began in Britain in the late 18th century
with the mechanization of the textile industry. In the following decades the
use of machines to make things, instead of crafting them by hand, spread
around the world. The second industrial revolution began in America in the
early 20th century with the assembly line, which ushered in the era of mass
production.

As manufacturing goes digital, a third great change is now gathering pace. It

will allow things to be made economically in much smaller numbers, more
flexibly and with a much lower input of labour, thanks to new materials,
completely new processes such as 3D printing, easy-to-use robots and new
collaborative manufacturing services available online. The wheel is almost
coming full circle, turning away from mass manufacturing and towards
much more individualised production. And that in turn could bring some of
the jobs back to rich countries
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that long ago lost them to the emerging world.

75. Question
Stephen Hawking, the famed theoretical physicist
diagnosed with Lou Gehrig’s disease, lost the
ability to speak thirty years ago. In the meantime,
a computerized voice generated by an infrared
sensor inside Hawking’s mouth has allowed him
to communicate. According to a recent report,
however, the muscles controlling the device have
been deteriorating, limiting him to as little as one
word per minute. ---- This is a horrifying prospect
for the scientific community that has benefitted
greatly from his findings. But a new device
recording brain functions at an unprecedented level
of detail was developed and has been proposed to
improve Hawking’s ability to communicate once
again.
Source: The Washington Post, 11:57 AM ET, 06/25/2012

Stephen Hawking to demonstrate iBrain technology next

month
Physicist and best-selling author Stephen Hawking appears in Seattle, June
16. (Ted S. Warren - AP) Scientists may have discovered a way to
successfully “hack” the brain of one of the world’s most renowned
scientists.

Stephen Hawking, the famed theoretical physicist diagnosed with Lou

Gehrig’s disease, lost the ability to speak 30 years ago. In the meantime, a
computerized voice generated by an infrared sensor inside Hawking’s mouth
has allowed him to communicate. According to a January report in The
Telegraph, however, the muscles controlling the device have been
deteriorating, limiting him to as little as one word per minute, according to
his assistant Judith Croasdell.

Neurovigil's iBrain headband records brainwave data while the user is

sleeping. The data can be used to monitor sleep activity, which could help
researchers
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identify disease patterns. (COURTESY OF NEUROVIGIL)

Without a new means of communication, Hawking runs the risk of being

rendered mute -- a horrifying prospect for the scientific community that has
benefitted greatly from his findings.

But a new device called the iBrain may significantly improve Hawkings’s
ability to communicate. The device was developed by Stanford University
professor Philip Low and can record brain function at an unprecedented
level of detail, The Telegraph reported Monday. The two scientists,
Hawking and Low, have been working on the device for over a year and
plan to demonstrate it in Hawking’s home town of Cambridge, England next
month.

Low is the CEO of NeuroVigil, the San Diego-based company that created
the iBrain. The device was created with the intention of using it as an at-
home sleep monitoring device.

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