FITTINGS &

CONNECTIONS
Engr. Jan Christian R. Gimena
Instead of using a single complete unit of the
same material involving one manufacturing
operation which is ideal for an aircraft
structure. Aircraft structures today has a
structure of several main units held to other
units by main or primary fittings or
connections, with each unit incorporating
many primary and secondary connections
involving fittings, bolts, rivets, welding, etc.
The primary fittings involve more weight and
cost per unit volume than any other part of
the aerospace structure, and therefore fitting
and joint design plays an important part in
aerospace structural design.
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Economy in Fitting Design
The main goal of a structural design engineer is to use the least number of fittings in the structure particularly those
fittings connecting members that carry large loads. The following are things to remember in designing the fitting
layout:

• In a wing structure splicing the main beam

flanges or introducing fittings near the
centerline of the airplane are far more costly
1 than splices or fittings placed farther
outboard where member sizes and loads are
considerably smaller.

2
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1

• Avoid changes in direction of heavy

members such as wing beams and
2 fuselage longerons as these involve
heavy fittings.

3
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2

• If joints are necessary in continuous

beams place them near points of
3 inflection in order that the bending
moments to be transferred through the
joint be kept of small magnitude.

4
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3
• In column design with end fittings avoid
introducing eccentricities on the beam
and on the other hand make use of the
4 fitting to increase column end fixity thus
compensating some of the weight
increase due to fitting weight by saving in
the weight of the beam.
5
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4

• Poor layout of major fitting arrangement

5 may require very expensive tools and jigs
for shop fabrication and assembly.

6
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5

• Fittings likewise add considerably to the

cost of inspection and rejections of costly
6 fittings because of faulty workmanship or
materials are quite frequent, thus adding
greatly to the unit cost.

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Fitting Design Loads – Minimum Margin of Safety

The structure must have sufficient strength to carry the ultimate

or design loads without failure. The normal flight vehicle
structure involves many parts which are joined together by
various types of connections. In general, an additional blanket
factor of safety is required for design of these connections. This
blanket factor of safety is normally 1.15 to 1.20.

The stress analysis of most connections or fittings is more

complicated than for the primary structural members due to
such factors as combined stresses, stress concentration, bolt-
hole tightness, etc., thus an additional factor of safety is
necessary to give a similar degree of strength reliability for
connections as provided in the strength design of the members
being connected.

9
Aircraft Bolts and Bolt Fitting
The aircraft bolt is used primarily to transfer relatively large shear or tension loads from one structural member
to another. The figures below show three standard aircraft bolts in common use.
The hexagon head bolt is an Army-Navy standard bolt made
from SAE 2330-3.5 percent nickel steel; heat treated. The bolt head
is of sufficient size as to develop the full tensile strength of the bolt.
Mostly used for general applications involving tension or shear
loads.
The internal-wrenching bolt is a high strength steel bolt. The
head of the internal wrenching bolt is recessed to allow the
insertion of an internal wrench when installing or removing the
bolt It is especially suitable for main splice fittings because of its
high strength and the relatively small space required for the bolt
head.
The clevis bolt have slotted brazier type head and is referred to
as a shear bolt because its head is not designed to develop the
full tensile strength of the bolt. The clevis bolt is usually used
when a group or cluster of bolts is required to transfer a load by
shear loads on the bolts. The smaller bolt heads thus save weight
and also provide greater bolt head clearances.

The three bolts are also made from aluminum alloy for diameters over 1/4 inch. In many fittings designs weight can be saved by
using aluminum alloy bolts.
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General Rules in Using Bolts

• Bolt threads should not be

placed in bearing or shear.

1 2 3 4 5 6
• The length of the bolt
shank should be such that
not more than one thread
extends below fitting
surface, which can be done
by the use of washers.

1 2 3 4 5 6
• Bolts less than 3/8
diameter should not be used
in major fittings. For
steel bolts, 3/16inch
diameter should be the
smallest size to be used in
any fitting.

1 2 3 4 5 6
• Bolts connecting parts
having relative motion or
stress reversal should have
close tolerances to
decrease shock loads.

1 2 3 4 5 6
• For bolts connecting
members having relative
motion a lubricator should
be incorporated in the
surrounding parts of the
fitting; the fitting should
not be drilled to provide
lubrication.
1 2 3 4 5 6
• Bolts should be used in
double or multiple shear if
possible in order to
increase strength
efficiency in bolt shear
and to decrease bending
tendency on bolt.

1 2 3 4 5 6
Bolt Shear, Tension & Bending Strengths

Table 1 gives the section properties and the ultimate shear, tension and bending strengths
for AN Standard Steel bolts at room temperature.
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 Table 2 gives the tensile and double shear strengths of Steel Internal Wrenching bolts.

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 Table 3 gives ultimate shear, tension and bending strengths for aluminum alloy bolts.
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Bolts in Combined Shear and Tension
When bolts are subjected to both shear and tension loads, the resulting strength is
given by the following interaction equation:

3 2
𝑥 𝑦
+ = 1
𝑎3 𝑏 2
Where: x = shear load
y = tension load
a = shear allowable load (From Table 1)
b = tension allowable load (From Table 1)

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Methods of Failure of Single Bolt Fitting and the Allowable Failing Loads
Failure by Bolt Shear
In the figure below, the bushing is not continuous between the plates, but each of the
three plates have separate bushings. As the pull P is placed on the fitting it tends to
shear the bolt at sections (1-1) and (2-2), (Fig. a). Fig. b illustrates the forces or
pressures on the bolt and the failure which can take place if the stresses are sufficient.

Let Pu represent the maximum or

ultimate load on the fitting. This force
Pu must be resisted by the shear
strength of the bolt at the two sections
(1-1) and (2-2). Hence,

𝑃𝑢(𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟) = 𝐹𝑠𝑢 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 2

Where: Fsu = ultimate shearing stress for bolt material
A = cross-sectional area of bolt
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Failure by Bolt Bending
The main concern regarding bolt bending is that under the limit loads any bending
deflection of the bolt be not permanent as such deformation would make removal
of the bolt difficult.

Failure of Lug Portion of Fitting.

The lug portion of the fitting refers to that portion of the fitting that involves the
hole for the single bolt that connects the male and female parts of the fitting unit.
The simplified assumptions regarding failing action and the resulting equations
which follow have been widely used for quick approximate check of the lug
strength. The procedure which follows will be referred to as Method 1.

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Method 1 of Bolt and Lug Strength Analysis
Failure in Tension
The figure indicates how a fitting plate can pull apart due
to tension stresses on a section through the centerline of
the bolt hole. Both the male and female parts of the fitting
must transfer the load past the centerline of the hole, thus
both parts must be considered in the design of a fitting.
Equating the allowable load Pu to the ultimate resisting
tensile stresses at points (a) and (b) in the figure, we obtain
𝑃𝑢(𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) = 𝐹𝑡𝑢 ∙ 2𝑅 − 𝐷 𝑡
Where: Ftu = ultimate tensile strength of plate material.
A = cross-sectional area of bolt

The equation assumes that the tensile stress on the cross-section is uniform. This is not true as
the flow of stress around the hole causes a stress concentration. To take care of this stress
concentration requires a margin of safety of 25 percent.
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Failure by Bearing of Bushing on Plate
In the figure, the pull Pu causes the bolt (not shown) to
press against bushing wall which in turn presses against
the plate wall. If the pressure is high enough the plate
material adjacent to the hole will start to crush and flow
thus allowing the bolt and bushing to move which results
in the elongated hole as illustrated in Fig. b. Equating the
load Pu to the ultimate bearing strength on the bearing
surfaces we can write,

𝑃𝑢 = 𝐹𝑏𝑟 ∙ 𝐷 ∙ 𝑡

Where: Fbr = allowable bearing stress

D = diameter of bushing
t = plate thickness

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Failure by Bearing of Bolt Bushing
A bushing is pressed into the plate hole and thus it is considered as a tight fit. A fitting
bolt is usually considered as removable therefore a certain tolerance between the bolt
and bushing inside diameters is necessary in order to insert and remove bolt. If fitting is
subjected to reversible loads the small slop in the fitting tends to cause shock on the
fitting. Also, the fitting may be such that slight rotation takes place on the bolt, which
tends to cause wear between bolt and bushing. It is therefore customary to check the
bearing pressure between the bolt and the bushing since failure of the bushing could take
place in a manner explained in the previous article dealing with bearing of bushing on
plate. Then as before,

𝑃𝑢 = 𝐹𝑏𝑟 ∙ 𝐷 ∙ 𝑡

Where: Fbr = allowable bearing stress

D = bolt diameter
t = plate thickness
10/04/2023 25
A margin of safety of 50 percent should be maintained. If the fitting is
subjected to infrequent rotation under load but with load involving no shock
or vibration, require a margin of safety of 100 percent. If shock or vibration
with infrequent rotation is present, require a margin of safety of 150 percent.
Shock is considered to occur in such structures as landing gears, gun mounts,
hoisting, mooring and towing connections.
In general, it is good design practice to design lugs conservatively as the
weight of lugs is small relative to their importance in ensuring the safety of
the flight vehicle. Inaccuracies in manufacture are difficult to control. It is
good design practice to provide sufficient material to permit drilling for a
bushing if bushing is not used in original design. If castings are used as fittings,
much higher factors of safety on the limit loads are specified because of the
low ductility of the material in castings.
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Method 2 Lug Strength Analysis Under Axial Loading

The important difference between

Method 1 and Method 2 is that curves
derived from test results give the stress
concentration factor to use for tension
on the net section and the shear out
failure as assumed in Method 1 has been
replaced by a combined shear-out
bearing failure. The figure shows the lug-
pin combinations and types of failure

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Bolt Bending Strength
Static tests of single bolt fittings will not show a failure due to bolt bending failure. However, it
is important that sufficient bending strength be provided to prevent permanent bending
deformation of the fitting bolt under the limit loads so that bolts can be readily removed in
maintenance operations. Furthermore, bolt bending weakness can cause peaking up a non-
uniform bearing pressure on the fitting lugs thus influencing the lug tension and shear
strength.
The unknown factor in bolt bending is the true value
of the bending moment on the bolt because the
moment arm to the resultant bearing forces is
unknown. An approximate method for determining
the arm (b) to use in calculating the bending moment
on bolt is given in the figure, which gives:

𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑏= + +𝑔
2 4
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. The Figure shows a single pin fitting. The lug material is AISI Steel, heat treated to 𝐹𝑡𝑢 = 125000 𝑝𝑠𝑖. The
bolt is AN steel, 𝐹𝑡𝑢 = 125000 𝑝𝑠𝑖. The bushing is steel with 𝐹𝑡𝑢 = 125000 𝑝𝑠𝑖. The fitting is subjected to
an ultimate tension load of 15650 𝑙𝑏. The fitting will be strength checked for the design load. The check
will be made by both Methods 1 and 2. 𝐹𝑐𝑦 = 113000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 for steel with 𝐹𝑡𝑢 = 125000 𝑝𝑠𝑖.

SOLUTION BY METHOD 1:
A fitting factor of safety of 1.15 will be used which
is standard practice for military airplanes.

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐹. 𝑆. ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.15 ∗ 15650 𝑙𝑏
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 17997.5 𝑙𝑏

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Check of Bolt Shear Strength:
Bolt is in double shear. From Table 1,single shear strength 𝑀𝑟 1968.4765625 𝑙𝑏. 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 0.25 𝑖𝑛
𝐹𝑏 = , 𝐹𝑏 =
of 1/2 inch diameter AN steel bolt is 14700 lb. Hence, 𝐼 0.003069 𝑖𝑛4
29400 𝑙𝑏
𝑃𝑢 = 2 ∗ 14700 𝑙𝑏 𝑀. 𝑆. = −1 𝐹𝑏 = 160351.62614044 𝑝𝑠𝑖
17997.5 𝑙𝑏
𝑃𝑢 = 29400 𝑙𝑏 𝑀. 𝑆. = 0.6335602167
From table 1, 𝐹𝑏 for AN steel bolts is 𝐹𝑏 = 180000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Check of Bending of Bolt:
Referring to the figure on Bolt bending, the moment arm 180000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
for calculating bending moment on bolt is, 𝑀. 𝑆. = −1
160351.62614044 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑏= + + 𝑔, (𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑔 𝑎𝑠 1Τ64 𝑖𝑛)
2 4 𝑀. 𝑆. = 0.1225330502
0.21875 𝑖𝑛 0.375 𝑖𝑛
𝑏= + + 0.015625 𝑖𝑛
2 4
𝑏 = 0.21875 𝑖𝑛 Check of Lug A:
𝑃𝑏 This lug is more critical than lug B since thickness of lug B
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 𝑏 is more than one-half of lug A.
2
17997.5 𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 0.21875 𝑖𝑛
2
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1968.4765625 𝑙𝑏. 𝑖𝑛
10/04/2023 30
Check of Tension through Bolt Hole:
𝑃𝑢 = 𝐹𝑡𝑢 ∗ 𝐴𝑡 Bearing Strength:
The bushing and lug have the same ultimate strength
𝑃𝑢 = 125000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ∗ 1.1875 𝑖𝑛 − 0.625 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 0.375 𝑖𝑛 (Ftu), thus bearing will be critical for bolt on bushing
𝑃𝑢 = 26367.1875 𝑙𝑏 since bearing area is less.
𝑃𝑢 = 𝐹𝑏𝑟 ∗ 𝐴𝑏𝑟
26367.1875 𝑙𝑏
𝑀. 𝑆. = −1
17997.5 𝑙𝑏 An extra 50 percent margin of safety is required or the
allowable bearing stress Fbr should be divided by 1.5.
𝑀. 𝑆. = 0.4650472288
To take care of stress concentration, Method 1 says 194000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑃𝑢 = ∗ 0.5𝑖𝑛 ∗ 0.375 𝑖𝑛
maintain a M.S. of .25, thus lug tensile strength is O.K. 1.5

𝑃𝑢 = 24250 𝑙𝑏
Check of Shear Out Strength of Lug:
24250 𝑙𝑏
𝑃𝑢 = 𝐹𝑠𝑢 ∗ 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐹𝑠𝑢 = 82000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑀. 𝑆. = −1
17997.5 𝑙𝑏
𝑃𝑢 = 82000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ∗ 0. 59375 𝑖𝑛 − 0.3125 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 2 ∗ 0.375 𝑖𝑛 𝑀. 𝑆. = 0.3474093624
𝑃𝑢 = 17296.875 𝑙𝑏

31
 Tension Across the Net Section.

10/04/2023 32
SOLUTION BY METHOD 2:
Figure D1.12 says that a M.S. of 0.15 is appropriate over
Bolt Shear Strength and Bolt Bending Strength are that of all required fitting factors of safety, thus our M.S.
calculated in the same manner as in Method 1 and thus of 0.4357462842 provides more than this additional M.S.
the calculations will not be repeated. of 0.15.

Shear Bearing Strength:

Tension Net Section:
𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑢 = 𝐾𝑏𝑟𝑢 ∗ 𝐹𝑡𝑢 ∗ 𝐴𝑏𝑟
𝑃𝑢 = 𝐾𝑡 ∗ 𝐹𝑡𝑢 ∗ 𝐴𝑡
Kt is the tension efficiency factor to take care of stress Kbru is the shear-bearing efficiency factor and is
concentration due to the hole and is determined from obtained from Figure D1.13.
Figure D1.12. Table D1.3 says to use curve number 1 for 𝐷 Τ𝑡 = 0.625 𝑖𝑛Τ0.375 𝑖𝑛 = 1.66666666666667
all steels. To use Figure D1.12 requires the ratio
𝑒Τ𝐷 = 0. 59375 𝑖𝑛Τ0.625 𝑖𝑛 = 0.95
𝑊 Τ𝐷 = 1.1875 𝑖𝑛Τ0.625 𝑖𝑛 = 1.9 . Then from
Figure D1.12, we read 𝐾𝑡 = 0.98. Whence, From Figure D1.13, we read 𝐾𝑏𝑟𝑢 = 0.8
𝑃𝑢 = 0.98 ∗ 125000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ∗ 1. 1875 𝑖𝑛 − 0. 625 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 0.375 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑢 = 0.8 ∗ 125000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ∗ 0.625 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 0.375 𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑢 = 25839. 84375 𝑙𝑏 𝑃𝑢 = 23437.5 𝑙𝑏

25839. 84375 𝑙𝑏 23437.5𝑙𝑏

𝑀. 𝑆. = −1 𝑀. 𝑆. = −1
17997.5 𝑙𝑏 17997.5 𝑙𝑏
𝑀. 𝑆. = 0.4357462842 𝑀. 𝑆. = 0.3022642034
33
10/04/2023 34
 The reader should note shear out strength by Method 2
is considerably larger than by Method 1. Figure D1.13
says a 0.15 M.S. is appropriate, thus our 0.3022642034 is
satisfactory.
GENERAL CONCLUSION:
Bushing Yield:
Since all margins of safety are positive, the strength
𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑦 = 1.85 ∗ 𝐹𝑐𝑦 ∗ 𝐴𝑏𝑟 , 𝐹𝑐𝑦 = 113000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 for steel
with 𝐹𝑡𝑢 = 125000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
of fitting unit is satisfactory. It could be redesigned
to save weight. Moving the hole slightly back of the
𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑦 = 1.85 ∗ 113000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ∗ 0.5 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 0.375 𝑖𝑛 center of the lug radius would help shear out
𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑦 = 39196.875 𝑙𝑏 strength. This change would permit decreasing the
thickness of lug slightly. Decreasing the lug
39196.875 𝑙𝑏 thickness would decrease the bolt bending
𝑀. 𝑆. = −1 moment and possibly permit use of 7/16 diameter
17997.5 𝑙𝑏
bolt. We should redesign the lug.
𝑀. 𝑆. = 1.1779066537

35