Units, Dimensions and Measurement 35

60
Chapter

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Units, Dimensions and Measurement
Physical Quantity (3) Vector (magnitude and direction) : These quantities have

A quantity which can be measured and by which various physical

happenings can be explained and expressed in the form of laws is called a
physical quantity. For example length, mass, time, force etc.
On the other hand various happenings in life e.g., happiness, sorrow
etc. are not physical quantities because these can not be measured.
ID magnitude and direction both and can be added or subtracted with the help
of laws of vector algebra e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
Fundamental and Derived Quantities
(1) Fundamental quantities : Out of large number of physical
quantities which exist in nature, there are only few quantities which are
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independent of all other quantities and do not require the help of any other
Measurement is necessary to determine magnitude of a physical physical quantity for their definition, therefore these are called absolute
quantity, to compare two similar physical quantities and to prove physical quantities. These quantities are also called fundamental or basic quantities,
laws or equations. as all other quantities are based upon and can be expressed in terms of
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A physical quantity is represented completely by its magnitude and these quantities.

unit. For example, 10 metre means a length which is ten times the unit of (2) Derived quantities : All other physical quantities can be derived by
length. Here 10 represents the numerical value of the given quantity and suitable multiplication or division of different powers of fundamental
metre represents the unit of quantity under consideration. Thus in quantities. These are therefore called derived quantities.
expressing a physical quantity we choose a unit and then find that how
many times that unit is contained in the given physical quantity, i.e. If length is defined as a fundamental quantity then area and volume
are derived from length and are expressed in term of length with power 2
Physical quantity (Q) = Magnitude × Unit = n × u and 3 over the term of length.
Where, n represents the numerical value and u represents the unit.
Note :  In mechanics, Length, Mass and Time are arbitrarily
D

Thus while expressing definite amount of physical quantity, it is clear that

as the unit(u) changes, the magnitude(n) will also change but product ‘nu’ chosen as fundamental quantities. However this set of fundamental
will remain same. quantities is not a unique choice. In fact any three quantities in mechanics
1 can be termed as fundamental as all other quantities in mechanics can be
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i.e. n u = constant, or n1u1  n2u2  constant ;  n  expressed in terms of these. e.g. if speed and time are taken as fundamental
u quantities, length will become a derived quantity because then length will be
i.e. magnitude of a physical quantity and units are inversely expressed as Speed  Time. and if force and acceleration are taken as
proportional to each other .Larger the unit, smaller will be the magnitude. fundamental quantities, then mass will be defined as Force / acceleration
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(1) Ratio (numerical value only) : When a physical quantity is the and will be termed as a derived quantity.
ratio of two similar quantities, it has no unit. Fundamental and Derived Units
e.g. Relative density = Density of object/Density of water at 4 C
o

Normally each physical quantity requires a unit or standard for its

Refractive index = Velocity of light in air/Velocity of light in medium specification so it appears that there must be as many units as there are
Strain = Change in dimension/Original dimension physical quantities. However, it is not so. It has been found that if in
(2) Scalar (magnitude only) : These quantities do not have any mechanics we choose arbitrarily units of any three physical quantities we
direction e.g. Length, time, work, energy etc. can express the units of all other physical quantities in mechanics in terms
Magnitude of a physical quantity can be negative. In that case of these. Arbitrarily the physical quantities mass, length and time are chosen
negative sign indicates that the numerical value of the quantity under for this purpose. So any unit of mass, length and time in mechanics is called
consideration is negative. It does not specify the direction. a fundamental, absolute or base unit. Other units which can be expressed in
Scalar quantities can be added or subtracted with the help of ordinary terms of fundamental units, are called derived units. For example light year
laws of addition or subtraction. or km is a fundamental unit as it is a unit of length while s , m or kg/m are
–1 2

derived units as these are derived from units of time, mass and length.
 System of units : A complete set of units, both fundamental and 103 kilo k
derived for all kinds of physical quantities is called system of units. The
common systems are given below 102 hecto h

(1) CGS system : This system is also called Gaussian system of units. 101 deca da
In this length, mass and time have been chosen as the fundamental 10 –1
deci d
quantities and corresponding fundamental units are centimetre (cm), gram
–2
(g) and second (s) respectively. 10 centi c
–3
(2) MKS system : This system is also called Giorgi system. In this 10 milli m
system also length, mass and time have been taken as fundamental –6
quantities, and the corresponding fundamental units are metre, kilogram
10 micro 
and second. 10 –9
nano n
(3) FPS system : In this system foot, pound and second are used

60
–12
10 pico p
respectively for measurements of length, mass and time. In this system force –15
is a derived quantity with unit poundal. 10 femto f
–18
(4) S. I. system : It is known as International system of units, and is 10 atto a
extended system of units applied to whole physics. There are seven
fundamental quantities in this system. These quantities and their units are Standards of Length, Mass and Time

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given in the following table
(1) Length : Standard metre is defined in terms of wavelength of
Table 1.1 : Unit and symbol of quantities light and is called atomic standard of length.
Quantity Unit Symbol The metre is the distance containing 1650763.73 wavelength in
vacuum of the radiation corresponding to orange red light emitted by an
Length metre m
atom of krypton-86.
Mass kilogram kg
Now a days metre is defined as length of the path travelled by light
Time
Electric Current
Temperature
Amount of Substance
second
ampere
Kelvin
mole mol
s
A
K
IDin vacuum in 1/299,7792, 45 part of a second.
(2) Mass : The mass of a cylinder made of platinum-iridium alloy
kept at International Bureau of Weights and Measures is defined as 1 kg.
On atomic scale, 1 kilogram is equivalent to the mass of 5.0188  10 25
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atoms of C (an isotope of carbon).
12

Luminous Intensity candela cd 6

(3) Time : 1 second is defined as the time interval of 9192631770

Besides the above seven fundamental units two supplementary units vibrations of radiation in Cs-133 atom. This radiation corresponds to the
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are also defined – transition between two hyperfine level of the ground state of Cs-133.

Radian (rad) for plane angle and Steradian (sr) for solid angle. Practical Units
(1) Length
Note :  Apart from fundamental and derived units we also use (i) 1 fermi = 1 fm = 10 m
–15

practical units very frequently. These may be fundamental or derived units (ii) 1 X-ray unit = 1XU = 10 m –13

e.g., light year is a practical unit (fundamental) of distance while horse power is a
practical unit (derived) of power. (iii) 1 angstrom = 1Å = 10 m = 10 cm = 10 mm = 0.1 mm
–10 –8 –7
D

 Practical units may or may not belong to a system but can be (iv) 1 micron = m = 10 m –6

expressed in any system of units (v) 1 astronomical unit = 1 A.U. = 1. 49  10 m 11

e.g., 1 mile = 1.6 km = 1.6 × 10 m.3

 1.5  10 m  10 km
11 8
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S.I. Prefixes (vi) 1 Light year = 1 ly = 9.46  10 m 15

(vii) 1 Parsec = 1pc = 3.26 light year

In physics we deal from very small ( micro ) to very large
(2) Mass
(macro ) magnitudes, as one side we talk about the atom while on the
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other side of universe, e.g., the mass of an electron is 9.1  10 kg –3 1

(i) Chandra Shekhar unit : 1 CSU = 1.4 times the mass of sun = 2.8 
10 kg
30

while that of the sun is 2  10 kg . To express such large or small

30

(ii) Metric tonne : 1 Metric tonne = 1000 kg

magnitudes we use the following prefixes :
(iii) Quintal : 1 Quintal = 100 kg
Table 1.2 : Prefixes and symbol (iv) Atomic mass unit (amu) : amu = 1.67  10 kg –27

Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Mass of proton or neutron is of the order of 1 amu

10 18
exa E
(3) Time
(i) Year : It is the time taken by the Earth to complete 1 revolution
15
10 peta P around the Sun in its orbit.
10 12
tera T (ii) Lunar month : It is the time taken by the Moon to complete 1
9
revolution around the Earth in its orbit.
10 giga G
1 L.M. = 27.3 days
6
10 mega M
 Units, Dimensions and Measurement 37

(iii) Solar day : It is the time taken by Earth to complete one Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, solid
rotation about its axis with respect to Sun. Since this time varies from day [M L T ]
0 0 0
angle, distance gradient, relative permittivity
to day, average solar day is calculated by taking average of the duration of (dielectric constant), relative permeability etc.
all the days in a year and this is called Average Solar day.
1 Solar year = 365.25 average solar day [M L T ]
0 2 –2
Latent heat and gravitational potential
1 Thermal capacity, gas constant, Boltzmann constant
or average solar day  the part of solar year [ML T  ]
2 –2 –1

365.25 and entropy

(iv) Sedrial day : It is the time taken by earth to complete one rotation
about its axis with respect to a distant star. l g , m k , R g , where l = length
1 Solar year = 366.25 Sedrial day [M L T ]
0 0 1

g = acceleration due to gravity, m = mass, k =

= 365.25 average solar day
spring constant, R = Radius of earth
Thus 1 Sedrial day is less than 1 solar day.

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(v) Shake : It is an obsolete and practical unit of time. L/R, LC , RC where L = inductance, R=
[M L T ]
0 0 1

1 Shake = 10 sec –8

resistance, C = capacitance
Dimensions
V2 q2
When a derived quantity is expressed in terms of fundamental I 2 Rt, t, VIt, qV , LI 2 , , CV 2 where I =
R C
[ML T ]

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quantities, it is written as a product of different powers of the fundamental 2 –2

current, t = time, q = charge,

quantities. The powers to which fundamental quantities must be raised in
order to express the given physical quantity are called its dimensions. L = inductance, C = capacitance, R = resistance
To make it more clear, consider the physical quantity force
Force = mass × acceleration Important Dimensions of Complete Physics
mass  velocity
 Heat


time
mass  length/time
time
= mass × length × (time) –2
… (i)
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Thus, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and – 2 in
Quantity
Temperature (T)
Heat (Q)
Kelvin
Joule
Unit Dimension
[M L T  ]
0

[ML T ] 2
0 0

–2
1

[M L T  ]
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Specific Heat (c) Joule/kg-K 0 2 –2 –1

time.
Here the physical quantity that is expressed in terms of the basic Thermal capacity Joule/K [M L T  ]
1 2 –2 –1

quantities is enclosed in square brackets to indicate that the equation is Latent heat (L) Joule/kg [M L T ]
0 2 –2
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among the dimensions and not among the magnitudes.

Gas constant (R) Joule/mol-K [M L T  ]
1 2 –2 –1

Thus equation (i) can be written as [force] = [MLT ]. –2

Such an expression for a physical quantity in terms of the Boltzmann constant (k) Joule/K [M L T  ]
1 2 –2 –1

fundamental quantities is called the dimensional equation. If we consider Coefficient of thermal

only the R.H.S. of the equation, the expression is termed as dimensional Joule/m-s-K [M L T  ]
1 1 –3 –1

conductivity (K)
formula.
Thus, dimensional formula for force is, [MLT ]. –2 Stefan's constant () Watt/m -K 2 4
[M L T  ]
1 0 –3 –4

Wien's constant (b) Metre-K [M L T  ]

0 1 0 1

Quantities Having same Dimensions

D

Planck's constant (h) Joule-s [M L T ]

1 2 –1

Dimension Quantity Coefficient of Linear Expansion

Kelvin –1
[M L T  ]
()
0 0 0 –1

Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity,

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[M L T ]
0 0 –1

Mechanical equivalent of Heat

velocity gradient and decay constant Joule/Calorie [M L T ]
0 0 0

(J)
Work, internal energy, potential energy, kinetic [ML T ]
[M L T ]
1 2 –2
Vander wall’s constant (a) Newton-m 4 5 –2

energy, torque, moment of force

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Vander wall’s constant (b) m 3

[M L T ]
0 3 0

Pressure, stress, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus,

[M L T ]
1 –1 –2

modulus of rigidity, energy density Electricity

[M L T ]
1 1 –1
Momentum, impulse Quantity Unit Dimension
Acceleration due to gravity, gravitational field Electric charge (q) Coulomb [M L T A ]
0 0 1 1

[M L T ]
0 1 –2

intensity Electric current (I) Ampere [M L T A ]

0 0 0 1

[M L T ]
1 1 –2
Thrust, force, weight, energy gradient Capacitance (C) Coulomb/volt or Farad [M L T A ]
–1 –2 4 2

Electric potential (V) Joule/coulomb [M L T A ]

1 2 –3 –1

[M L T ]
1 2 –1
Angular momentum and Planck’s constant
Permittivity of free Coulomb 2
[M L T A ]
space ( )
–1 –3 4 2

Newton - metre 2
Surface tension, Surface energy (energy per unit 0

[M L T ]
1 0 –2

Dielectric constant (K) Unitless [M L T ]

area) 0 0 0

Resistance (R) Volt/Ampere or ohm [M L T A ]

1 2 –3 –2
 38 Units, Dimensions and Measurement

Quantity Unit Dimension (i) Gravitational constant : According to Newton’s law of gravitation
Resistivity or Specific m 1m 2 Fr 2
Ohm-metre [M L T A ] FG or G 
resistance ()
1 3 –3 –2

2
r m1m 2
volt  second Substituting the dimensions of all physical quantities
Coefficient of Self- or henry
[M L T A ]
ampere [MLT 2 ][L2 ]
1 2 –2 –2

induction (L)
or ohm-second [G]   [M 1 L3 T  2 ]
[M ][M ]
Magnetic flux () Volt-second or weber [M L T A ]
1 2 –2 –1

E
newton (ii) Plank constant : According to Planck E  h or h 

ampere  metre
Substituting the dimensions of all physical quantities
Joule
Magnetic induction (B) [M L T A ]
1 0 –2 –1

60
ampere  metre [ML2 T 2 ]
2
[h]   [ML2 T 1 ]
volt  second [T 1 ]
or Tesla
metre 2
(iii) Coefficient of viscosity : According to Poiseuille’s formula
Magnetic Intensity (H) Ampere/metre [M L T A ]
0 –1 0 1

dV pr 4 pr 4
Magnetic Dipole Ampere-metre [M L T A ]  or  
8l

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2 0 2 0 1

Moment (M) dt 8 l(dV / dt)

Newton Substituting the dimensions of all physical quantities
ampere 2 1
[ML T 2
][L ] 4
[]   [ML1 T 1 ]
Joule 3
[L][L / T ]
or
ampere 2  metre (3) To convert a physical quantity from one system to the other : The
Permeability of Free
Space ( ) 0
or

or
Volt  second
ampere  metre
Ohm  sec ond
metre
[M L T A ]
1 1 –2 –2

ID
measure of a physical quantity is nu = constant
If a physical quantity X has dimensional formula [M L T ] and if
(derived) units of that physical quantity in two systems are [M 1a Lb1 T1c ]
a b c

and [M 2a Lb2 T2c ] respectively and n and n be the numerical values in the
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1 2

henry
or two systems respectively, then n1 [u1 ]  n 2 [u 2 ]
metre
Surface charge density
Coulomb metre 2 [M L T A ]
0 –2 1 1
 n1 [M 1a Lb1 T1c ]  n 2 [M 2a Lb2 T2c ]
()
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Electric dipole moment [M L T A ]

Coulomb  metre  M  L  T 
a b c
0 1 1 1

(p)
 n 2  n1  1   1   1 
Conductance (G) (1/R) ohm 1 [M L T A ]
–1 –2 3 2

 M 2   L 2   T2 
Conductivity () (1/) ohm 1metre 1 [M L T A ]
–1 –3 3 2

where M , L and T are fundamental units of mass, length and time

1 1 1

Current density (J) Ampere/m 2

ML TA
0 –2 0 1
in the first (known) system and M , L and T are fundamental units of mass,
2 2 2

Intensity of electric Volt/metre, length and time in the second (unknown) system. Thus knowing the values
D

MLT A
1 1 –3 –1

of fundamental units in two systems and numerical value in one system, the
field (E) Newton/coulomb
numerical value in other system may be evaluated.
Rydberg constant (R) m –1
ML T
0 –1 0

Example : (i) conversion of Newton into Dyne.

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Application of Dimensional Analysis The Newton is the S.I. unit of force and has dimensional formula
(1) To find the unit of a physical quantity in a given system of units [MLT ].
–2

: To write the definition or formula for the physical quantity we find its So 1 N = 1 kg-m/ sec 2

dimensions. Now in the dimensional formula replacing M, L and T by the

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a b c
fundamental units of the required system we get the unit of physical  M  L  T 
quantity. However, sometimes to this unit we further assign a specific name, By using n 2  n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
e.g., Work = Force  Displacement
1 1 2
So [W] = [MLT ]  [L] = [ML T ]  kg   m   sec 
 1    
–2 2 –2


So its unit in C.G.S. system will be g cm /s which is called erg while
2 2  gm   cm   sec 
in M.K.S. system will be kg-m /s which is called joule.
2 2
1 1
 10 3 gm   10 2 cm   sec  2
(2) To find dimensions of physical constant or coefficients : As  1       10
5

dimensions of a physical quantity are unique, we write any formula or  gm   cm   sec 

equation incorporating the given constant and then by substituting the
dimensional formulae of all other quantities, we can find the dimensions of  1 N = 10 Dyne 5

the required constant or coefficient. (ii) Conversion of gravitational constant (G) from C.G.S. to M.K.S.
system
 Units, Dimensions and Measurement 39

The value of G in C.G.S. system is 6.67  10 C.G.S. units while its –8 If the above relation is dimensionally correct then by substituting
dimensional formula is [M L T ] –1 3 –2 the dimensions of quantities –
[T] = [M] [L] [LT ] or [M L T ] = [M L T ]
So G = 6.67  10 cm /g s
x y –2 z 0 0 1 x y+z –2 z

–8 3 2

Equating the exponents of similar quantities x = 0, y = 1/2 and z = –

a b c
 M  L  T  1/2
By using n 2  n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2  l
So the required physical relation becomes T  K
1 3 2 g
 gm   cm   sec 
 6 .67  10 8    m   sec 
 kg      The value of dimensionless constant is found (2 ) through

2 1 l
8  gm   cm   sec 
3 experiments so T  2

60
 6 .67  10  3   2    g
 10 gm   10 cm   sec 
(ii) Stoke’s law : When a small sphere moves at low speed through a
11 fluid, the viscous force F, opposes the motion, is found experimentally to
 6.67  10
depend on the radius r, the velocity of the sphere v and the viscosity  of
 G = 6.67  10 M.K.S. units –11

the fluid.
(4) To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation

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: This is based on the ‘principle of homogeneity’. According to this principle So F = f (, r, v)
the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation must be the
If the function is product of power functions of , r and v,
same.
F  K x r y v z ; where K is dimensionless constant.
If X  A  (BC)2  DEF ,
If the above relation is dimensionally correct
then according to principle of homogeneity

[X] = [A] = [(BC) ]  [ DEF] 2

If the dimensions of each term on both sides are same, the equation
is dimensionally correct, otherwise not. A dimensionally correct equation
may or may not be physically correct.
ID [MLT 2 ]  [ML1T 1 ]x [L]y [LT 1 ]z

or [MLT 2 ]  [M x L x y  z T  x z ]
Equating the exponents of similar quantities
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x = 1; – x + y + z = 1 and – x – z = – 2
Example : (i) F  mv 2 / r 2 Solving these for x, y and z, we get x = y = z = 1
By substituting dimension of the physical quantities in the above
So equation (i) becomes F = Krv
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relation, [MLT 2 ]  [M ][LT 1 ]2 /[L]2

On experimental grounds, K = 6; so F = 6rv
2 2
i.e. [MLT ]  [MT ] This is the famous Stoke’s law.
As in the above equation dimensions of both sides are not same; this Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
formula is not correct dimensionally, so can never be physically.
Although dimensional analysis is very useful it cannot lead us too far
(ii) s  ut  (1 / 2)at 2 as,
D

By substituting dimension of the physical quantities in the above (1) If dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique as
relation many physical quantities have same dimensions. For example if the
[L] = [LT ][T] – [LT ][T ]
–1 –2 2
dimensional formula of a physical quantity is [ML2 T 2 ] it may be work or
U

i.e. [L] = [L] – [L] energy or torque.

As in the above equation dimensions of each term on both sides are (2) Numerical constant having no dimensions [K] such as (1/2), 1 or
same, so this equation is dimensionally correct. However, from equations of 2 etc. cannot be deduced by the methods of dimensions.
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motion we know that s  ut  (1 / 2)at 2 (3) The method of dimensions can not be used to derive relations
(5) As a research tool to derive new relations : If one knows the other than product of power functions. For example,
dependency of a physical quantity on other quantities and if the dependency
s  u t  (1 / 2) a t 2 or y  a sin t
is of the product type, then using the method of dimensional analysis,
relation between the quantities can be derived. cannot be derived by using this theory (try if you can). However, the
Example : (i) Time period of a simple pendulum. dimensional correctness of these can be checked.
Let time period of a simple pendulum is a function of mass of the bob (4) The method of dimensions cannot be applied to derive formula
(m), effective length (l), acceleration due to gravity (g) then assuming the if in mechanics a physical quantity depends on more than 3 physical
function to be product of power function of m, l and g quantities as then there will be less number (= 3) of equations than the
unknowns (>3). However still we can check correctness of the given
i.e., T  Km x l y g z ; where K = dimensionless constant
equation dimensionally. For example T  2 I mgl can not be derived by
theory of dimensions but its dimensional correctness can be checked.
 40 Units, Dimensions and Measurement
(5) Even if a physical quantity depends on 3 physical quantities, out Example : x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off,
of which two have same dimensions, the formula cannot be derived by again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding off.
theory of dimensions, e.g., formula for the frequency of a tuning fork
(5) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the
f  (d / L2 ) v cannot be derived by theory of dimensions but can be preceding digit is raised by one, if it is odd.
checked. Example : x = 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8,
again x = 16.150 is rounded off to 16.2.
Significant Figures
Significant figures in the measured value of a physical quantity tell Significant Figures in Calculation
the number of digits in which we have confidence. Larger the number of In most of the experiments, the observations of various
significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is the accuracy of the measurements are to be combined mathematically, i.e., added, subtracted,
measurement. The reverse is also true. multiplied or divided to achieve the final result. Since, all the observations in
measurements do not have the same precision, it is natural that the final

60
The following rules are observed in counting the number of
result cannot be more precise than the least precise measurement. The
significant figures in a given measured quantity.
following two rules should be followed to obtain the proper number of
(1) All non-zero digits are significant. significant figures in any calculation.
Example : 42.3 has three significant figures. (1) The result of an addition or subtraction in the number having
243.4 has four significant figures. different precisions should be reported to the same number of decimal places

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24.123 has five significant figures. as present in the number having the least number of decimal places. The rule
is illustrated by the following examples :
(2) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears between two non-
zero digits. (i) 33.3  (has only one decimal place)

Example : 5.03 has three significant figures. 3.11

+ 0.313
5.604 has four significant figures.
4.004 has four significant figures.
(3) Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are
never significant.
Example : 0.543 has three significant figures.
ID (ii)
36.723

Answer = 36.7
3.1421
 (answer should be reported to
one decimal place)
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0.045 has two significant figures. 0.241
0.006 has one significant figure. + 0.09  (has 2 decimal places)
(4) Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number are 3.4731  (answer should be reported
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significant. to 2 decimal places)

Example : 4.330 has four significant figures. Answer = 3.47
433.00 has five significant figures. (iii) 62.831  (has 3 decimal places)
343.000 has six significant figures. – 24.5492
(5) In exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number
38.2818  (answer should be reported to 3
of significant figures.
decimal places after rounding off)
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Example : 1.32  10 has three significant figures.

–2

Answer = 38.282
1.32  10 has three significant figures.
4

(2) The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the

Rounding Off same number of significant figures as possessed by the least precise term
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While rounding off measurements, we use the following rules by used in the calculation. The rule is illustrated by the following examples :
convention: (i) 142.06
(1) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit  0.23  (two significant figures)
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is left unchanged.
32.6738  (answer should have two
Example : x  7.82 is rounded off to 7.8,
significant figures)
again x  3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.
Answer = 33
(2) If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding
digit is raised by one. (ii) 51.028
Example : x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9,  1.31  (three significant figures)
again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8. 66.84668
(3) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, Answer = 66.8
then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example : x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, 0 .90
(iii)  0 .2112676
again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8. 4 .26
(4) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then preceding Answer = 0.21
digit is left unchanged, if it is even.
 Units, Dimensions and Measurement 41

Order of Magnitude x = absolute error in calculation of x

i.e. sum of a and b.
In scientific notation the numbers are expressed as, Number
The maximum absolute error in x is x  (a  b)
 M  10 x . Where M is a number lies between 1 and 10 and x is integer.
Order of magnitude of quantity is the power of 10 required to represent the (a  b)
Percentage error in the value of x   100%
quantity. For determining this power, the value of the quantity has to be ab
rounded off. While rounding off, we ignore the last digit which is less than (2) Error in difference of the quantities : Suppose x = a – b
5. If the last digit is 5 or more than five, the preceding digit is increased by
one. For example, Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
b = absolute error in measurement of b
(1) Speed of light in vacuum
x = absolute error in calculation of x i.e. difference of a and b.
 3  10 8 ms 1  10 8 m / s (ignoring 3 < 5) The maximum absolute error in x is x  (a  b)
(2) Mass of electron  9.1  10 31 kg  10 30 kg (as 9.1 > 5). (a  b)

60
Percentage error in the value of x   100%
ab
Errors of Measurement
(3) Error in product of quantities :
The measuring process is essentially a process of comparison. Inspite
of our best efforts, the measured value of a quantity is always somewhat Suppose x = a  b
different from its actual value, or true value. This difference in the true Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
value and measured value of a quantity is called error of measurement.

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b = absolute error in measurement of b
(1) Absolute error : Absolute error in the measurement of a physical
quantity is the magnitude of the difference between the true value and the x = absolute error in calculation of x i.e. product of a and b.
measured value of the quantity. x  a b 
The maximum fractional error in x is    
Let a physical quantity be measured n times. Let the measured value x  a b 
be a , a , a , ….. a . The arithmetic mean of these value is
1 2 3 n
Percentage error in the value of x
a  a2  ......  an
am  1 = (% error in value of a) + (% error in value of b)
n
Usually, a is taken as the true value of the quantity, if the same is
unknown otherwise.

are
m

By definition, absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity

ID (4) Error in division of quantities : Suppose x 

Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,

b = absolute error in measurement of b
a
b
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a1  am  a1 x = absolute error in calculation of x i.e. division of a and b.
a2  am  a2 x  a b 
The maximum fractional error in x is    
…………. x  a b 
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an  am  an Percentage error in the value of x

The absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in = (% error in value of a) + (% error in value of b)
certain other cases. an
(2) Mean absolute error : It is the arithmetic mean of the (5) Error in quantity raised to some power : Suppose x 
magnitudes of absolute errors in all the measurements of the quantity. It is bm
represented by a. Thus Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
| a1 |  | a2 | ..... | an | b = absolute error in measurement of b
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a  x = absolute error in calculation of x

n
Hence the final result of measurement may be written as x  a b 
The maximum fractional error in x is   n m 
a  am  a x  a b 
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This implies that any measurement of the quantity is likely to lie Percentage error in the value of x
between (am  a) and (am  a). = n (% error in value of a) + m (%error in value of b)
(3) Relative error or Fractional error : The relative error or
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fractional error of measurement is defined as the ratio of mean absolute

error to the mean value of the quantity measured. Thus
Mean absolute error a
Relative error or Fractional error  
Mean value am
(4) Percentage error : When the relative/fractional error is expressed
in percentage, we call it percentage error. Thus  The standard of Weight and Measures Act was passed in India in
1976. It recommended the use of SI in all fields of science, technology,
a
Percentage error   100% trade and industry.
am
 The dimensions of many physical quantities, especially those in
Propagation of Errors heat, thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism in terms of mass,
length and time alone become irrational. Therefore, SI is adopted which
(1) Error in sum of the quantities : Suppose x = a + b
uses 7 basic units.
Let a = absolute error in measurement of a
 The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which
b = absolute error in measurement of b
 42 Units, Dimensions and Measurement
basic units (not fundamental units alone) should be raised to represent
the derived unit of that physical quantity.
 A measurement of a physical quantity is said to be accurate if the
systematic error in its measurement is relatively very low. On the other
 The dimensional formula is very helpful in writing the unit of a hand, the measurement of a physical quantity is said to be precise if the
physical quantity in terms of the basic units. random error is small.
 The dimensions of a physical quantity do not depend on the system  A measurement is most accurate if its observed value is very close
of units. to the true value.
 A physical quantity that does not have any unit must be
dimensionless.  Errors are always additive in nature.
 The pure numbers are dimensionless.  For greater accuracy, the quantity with higher power should have
least error.
 Generally, the symbols of those basic units, whose dimension
(power) in the dimensional formula is zero, are omitted from the  The absolute error in each measurement is equal to the least count

60
dimensional formula. of the measuring instrument.
 It is wrong to say that the dimensions of force are MLT . On the
–2

 Percentage error = relative error × 100.

other hand we should say that the dimensional formula for force is MLT –2

and that the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and –2 in  The unit and dimensions of the absolute error are same as that of
time. quantity itself.

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 Physical quantities defined as the ratio of two similar quantities are  Absolute error is not dimensionless quantity.
dimensionless.
 The physical relation involving logarithm, exponential,
 Relative error is dimensionless quantity.
trigonometric ratios, numerical factors etc. cannot be derived by the value of 1 part on main scale (s)
method of dimensional analysis.  Least Count =
Number of parts on vernier scale (n)
 Physical relations involving addition or subtraction sign cannot be
derived by the method of dimensional analysis.
 If units or dimensions of two physical quantities are same, these
need not represent the same physical characteristics. For example torque
and work have the same units and dimensions but their physical
characteristics are different.
ID  Least count of vernier callipers
value of 1 part of  value of 1 part of 
=  
 main scale (s)   vernie r scale (v)


 Least count of vernier calliper = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

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 The standard units must not change with space and time. That is where MSD = Main Scale Division
why atomic standard of length and time have been defined. Attempts are
being made to define the atomic standard for mass as well.
VSD = Vernier Scale Division
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Pitch(p)
 The unit of time, the second, was initially defined in terms of the  Least count of screw guaze =
rotation of the earth around the sun as well as that about its own axis. No. of parts on circular scale (n)
This time standard is subjected to variation with time. Therefore, the
atomic standard of time has been defined.
 Smaller the least count, higher is the accuracy of measurement.

 Any repetitive phenomenon, such as an oscillating pendulum,  Larger the number of significant figures after the decimal in a
measurement, higher is the accuracy of measurement.
spinning of earth about its axis, etc can be used to measure time.
 Significant figures do not change if we measure a physical quantity
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 The product of numerical value of the physical quantity (n) and its in different units.
unit (U) remains constant.
That is : nU = constant or nU = n U .  Significant figures retained after mathematical operation (like
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) should be equal to the
1 1 2 2
U

 The product of numerical value (n) and unit (U) of a physical minimum significant figures involved in any physical quantity in the
quantity is called magnitude of the physical quantity. given operation.
Thus : Magnitude = nU  Significant figures are the number of digits upto which we are sure
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 Poiseuille (unit of viscosity) = pascal (unit of pressure) × second. about their accuracy.
That is : Pl : Pa- s.  If a number is without a decimal and ends in one or more zeros,
 The unit of power of lens (dioptre) gives the ability of the lens to then all the zeros at the end of the number may not be significant. To
converge or diverge the rays refracted through it. make the number of significant figures clear, it is suggested that the
number may be written in exponential form. For example 20300 may be
 The order of magnitude of a quantity means its value (in suitable expressed as 203.00×10 , to suggest that all the zeros at the end of 20300
2

power of 10) nearest to the actual value of the quantity. are significant.

 Angle is exceptional physical quantity, which though is a ratio of  1 inch = 2.54 cm

two similar physical quantities (angle = arc / radius) but still requires a 1 foot = 12 inches = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m
unit (degrees or radians) to specify it along with its numerical value.
1 mile = 5280 ft = 1.609 km
 Solid angle subtended at a point inside the closed surface is 4
steradian.  1 yard = 0.9144 m
 Units, Dimensions and Measurement 43

 1 slug = 14.59 kg
 1 barn = 10 m –28 2

 1 liter = 10 cm = 10 m
3 3 –3 3

5
 1 km/h = m/s
18
1 m/s = 3.6 km/h
 1 g/cm = 1000 kg/m
3 3

 1 atm. = 76 cm of Hg = 1.013 × 10 N/m 5 2

60
1 N/m = Pa (Pascal)
2

 When we add or subtract two measured quantities, the absolute

error in the final result is equal to the sum of the absolute errors in the
measured quantities.
 When we multiply or divide two measured quantities, the relative

E3
error in the final result is equal to the sum of the relative errors in the
measured quantities.

ID
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