Academic Success Center Repository

Instructor's Course Code Course Topic Date Tutor's

Name Name in Full Name & ID
Montasir Yousof EEN338 Electromagnetic Vectors and 7/12/2021 Mohammad
Abdallah Fields and scalars, Tahmid Hassan
Qasymeh Waves coordinate
systems and
vector calculus

Vectors vs Scalars
A scalar is any quantity that has a quantity and possibly a sign (plus or minus). A vector is any
quantity with a length and a direction.

The algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, division and multiplication work with scalar
quantities. Addition and subtraction work with scalar quantities of the same type. Multiplication and
division work with scalar quantities of any kind.

On the other hand, vector operations are a bit complicated.

Usually, scalars are written with just a letter. Vectors are written with a letter, with an arrow over it.

Vectors are represented visually by arrows.

For the purpose of electromagnetics, vectors in a 3-dimensional space will be considered.

Vector operations
Vector quantities can be added and subtracted if they are of the same kind. However, division is not
defined for vectors. Multiplication is defined in a new way for vectors.

If a vector is defined as 𝐴⃗, −𝐴⃗ is the vector with the same length but the opposite direction. This
means that the start and finish ends get interchanged.

If a vector is multiplied with a positive scalar, its length is multiplied by the scalar, but the direction is
the same.

If a vector is divided with a positive scalar, its length is divided by the scalar, but the direction is the
same.

Two vectors can be added in either order.

𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗

Subtraction is defined as follows

𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + −𝐵
⃗⃗

Three-dimensional space has vectors that can be uniquely described as a linear sum of 3
independent basic vectors. Each vector lies in one unique dimension, so the 3 basic vectors are all
perpendicular to each other. The separate products of scalars and basic vectors are called the
components of the vectors. Each basic vector is of unit length.

The length of a vector is defined as the square root of the sum of the squares of each component.
This is done by putting the vector in an absolute value symbol, as in |𝐴⃗|.
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Any vector has a unit vector, which points in the direction of the vector, but has unit length. It is
found by dividing the vector with its length to reduce the length to one, while still maintaining the
same direction. It is represented with a hat on the top such as 𝐴̂.

Dividing a vector by another vector is undefined.

There are two types of vector multiplication: the dot product and the cross product.

Let there be three basic vectors, each having unit length; ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑢1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑢3

If there are two vectors 𝐴⃗ = 𝑎1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑢1 + 𝑎2⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2 + 𝑎3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢3 and 𝐵 𝑢1 + 𝑏2⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2 + 𝑏3⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑢3 the dot (scalar)
product 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗⃗is defined as

𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3
This operation gives a scalar result.

Another definition is

|𝐴⃗||𝐵
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃

Here, 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ when they are made to start on the same point.
𝜋 𝜋
If two vectors are perpendicular (𝜃 = ), the dot product goes to zero as cos = 0.
2 2

The cross (vector) product is given by the right-hand rule: if the right hand is taken and the fingers
are made to lie along the direction of vector 𝐴⃗ and then curl towards the direction of 𝐵 ⃗⃗ while the
thumb stays perpendicular to the fingers, the direction of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ can be found. This is the unit
vector 𝜂⃗.

The cross product is given by

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = | 𝐴⃗|| 𝐵
⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 𝜂⃗

Again, 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ when they are made to start on the same point.

To determine the vector exactly, use this formula:

𝑢1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑢2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗3
𝑢
⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐴 × 𝐵 = 1 𝑎2
| 𝑎 𝑎3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

𝑢1 (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑏2 𝑎3 ) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑢2 (𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑏1 𝑎3 ) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗(𝑎
𝑢3 1 𝑏2 − 𝑏1 𝑎2 )
If 2 vectors are parallel, the cross product will be zero as sin 0 = sin 𝜋 = 0.

Coordinate systems
To describe places, distances, and directions in 3D space, there needs to be a 3D coordinate system.
This coordinate system is centered on a point called an origin. The coordinate system is a way of
saying where a point is relative to the origin – it is NOT an absolute position. It tells the distance
from the origin along each dimension and also in which direction too.

There are 3 types of 3D coordinate systems. These are the rectangular, cylindrical and spherical
coordinates.
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The rectangular coordinates are (x,y,z). There are 3 axes, the x, y and z axes. Each axis extends in
both directions. The directions are defined by the right-hand rule, after choosing the direction of the
positive x and positive y directions. These axes are all perpendicular to each other. The rectangular
system is the most commonly used system for describing 3D space. This system is used to define the
cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
The cylindrical coordinate system is defined as follows. 𝜌 is the distance of the point from the origin
along the xy- plane. 𝜙 is the angle that is measured between the positive x-axis and the straight line
and the position of the point on the xy plane while rotating in the direction that goes towards the
positive y axis after starting from the positive x axis in the part of the xy plane that has positive x and
positive y coordinates. z is the height of the point over the xy-plane in the positive z direction.

The spherical coordinate system is defined as follows. 𝑟 is the distance of the point from the origin.
𝜙 is the angle that the positive x axis makes with the line that connects the origin to the position of
the line on the xy-plane; this angle is measured in the direction that causes a rotation starting from
the positive x axis to the positive y axis in the part of the xy plane that has positive x and positive y
coordinates. 𝜃 is the angle between the positive z and the line that joins the point to the origin; it is
measured in the direction that rotates from the positive z axis to the minus z axis.

To change from rectangular coordinates to spherical or cylindrical coordinates, use the conversions:

Rectangular coordinate Cylindrical equivalent Spherical coordinates

x 𝜌 cos 𝜙 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙
y 𝜌 sin 𝜙 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙
z z 𝑟 cos 𝜃
The order of the coordinates is as follows: (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) for the rectangular coordinate system, (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧)
for the cylindrical coordinate system and (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙) for the spherical coordinate system. The basic
vectors also follow the same pattern.

Each coordinate system has 3 basic unit vectors, which are all perpendicular to each other. Their
relative position is determined with the right-hand rule: if the first vector is represented by the
thumb, the index finger represents the second vector and the middle finger represents the third
vector, while the fingers are made all perpendicular to each other.

The rectangular coordinate system has ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,

𝑎𝑥 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑧 They point along the positive x, positive y and
positive z directions respectively.

The cylindrical coordinate system has ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,

𝑎𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝜌 points radially away from the origin and lies
on the xy- plane. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 is the vector that lies parallel the xy-plane and points in the direction of rotation
as 𝜙 increases. This vector is also perpendicular to the radial vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 and the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 is the
vector that points in the positive z direction.

The spherical coordinate system has ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,

𝑎𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 just points radially away from the origin. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙
is the vector that lies parallel the xy-plane and points in the direction of rotation as 𝜙 increases. This
vector is also perpendicular to the radial vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 and the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 is perpendicular to the line
that joins the point to the origin, is perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 and the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 and points in the
direction of rotation as 𝜃 increases.

In these systems, the unit vectors obey the right-hand rule too.
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Now, there is one important point. 3-D space is described using the rectangular coordinate system.
The cylindrical and coordinate systems are used to describe space in terms of the rectangular
coordinate system. They are used whenever there is cylindrical or spherical symmetry, respectively.

To find the corresponding vectors in the cylindrical coordinate system or the spherical coordinate
system, the vectors in the rectangular coordinate system must undergo a conversion.

First, for writing rectangular coordinate vectors in terms of cylindrical coordinate vectors, the vector
𝑎𝑧 stays the same.

If there are two unit vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑢2 which are perpendicular to each other, a vector 𝑋⃗ = 𝑎𝑢
𝑢1 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 +
𝑏𝑢⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 can be resolved as follows:

𝑋⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢1 = (𝑎𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 ) ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝑏𝑢 𝑢1 = 𝑎

𝑋⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2 = (𝑎𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 ) ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝑏𝑢 𝑢2 = 𝑏
So, as
|𝐴⃗||𝐵
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃

𝑎𝑥 = |𝑎
𝑎𝜌 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜌 |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| 𝑎𝑥 | cos(𝜙) = cos 𝜙
𝜋
𝑎𝜌 ∙ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑦 = |𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑎 𝑦 cos (
𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| − 𝜙) = sin 𝜙
2
𝑎𝜌 = cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 + sin 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

𝜋
𝑎𝑥 = |𝑎
𝑎𝜙 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜙 |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| 𝑎𝑥 | cos ( + 𝜙) = − sin 𝜙
2
𝑎𝜙 ∙ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑦 = |𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑎 𝑦 cos (𝜙) = cos 𝜙
𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|

𝑎𝜙 = − sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 + cos 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

𝑎𝜌 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
𝑎𝜌 cos(𝜙) = cos 𝜙
𝜋
𝑎𝜙 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
𝑎𝜙 cos ( + 𝜙) = − sin 𝜙
2
𝑎𝑥 = cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜌 + −sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙
𝜋
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜌 = |𝑎
𝑦 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑎𝜌 cos ( − 𝜙) = sin 𝜙
𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
2
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 = |𝑎
𝑦 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑎 𝜙 cos (𝜙) = cos 𝜙
𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
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𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 = sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

To calculate the spherical coordinate vector equivalents of the rectangular coordinate vectors and
rectangular coordinate vector equivalents of the spherical coordinate vectors, the cylindrical
coordinate system should be use as an intermediary, as it helps deal with two sets of 2 dimensional
problems, which are easier to analyze than 3 dimensional problems.

𝑎𝑧 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 | cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
𝜋
𝑎𝜌 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
𝑎𝜌 cos( − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
2
𝑎𝑟 = cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 + sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌
𝜋
𝑎𝑧 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 | cos (𝜃 + ) = − sin 𝜃
2
𝑎𝜌 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 | cos(𝜃) = cos 𝜃

𝑎𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 + cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌

With the definition of the cylindrical coordinates, we find,

𝑎𝑟 = cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 + sin 𝜃 (cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + sin 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦)

𝑎𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 + cos 𝜃 (cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + sin 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 )

𝑎𝑟 = cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

𝑎𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 + cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

𝑎𝜙 = − sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 + cos 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

𝑎𝑟 = sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 + sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

𝑎𝜃 = cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 − sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

𝑎𝜙 = − sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 + cos 𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

𝑎𝑥 = cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜌 + −sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 = sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙
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𝑎𝜃 = |𝑎
𝑎𝜌 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜌 |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| 𝑎𝜃 | cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
𝜋
𝑎𝑟 = |𝑎
𝑎𝜌 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜌 |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| 𝑎𝑟 | cos( − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
2
𝑎𝜌 = cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃 + sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟
𝜋
𝑎𝜃 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 | cos( + 𝜃) = − sin 𝜃
2
𝑎𝑟 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 | cos(𝜃) = cos 𝜃
𝑎𝑧 = − sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃 + cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟

𝑎𝑥 = cos 𝜙 (cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃 + sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑟 + −sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 = sin 𝜙 (cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑟 + cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

𝑎𝑥 = cos 𝜙 cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃 + cos 𝜙 sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + −sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 = sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

𝑎𝑥 = cos 𝜙 sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟 + cos 𝜙 cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + −sin 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 = sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + cos 𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

𝑎𝑧 = − sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃 + cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 = cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 − sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃

The spherical and cylindrical vectors are expressed with rectangular vectors and similarly,
rectangular vectors are expressed with spherical and cylindrical vectors.

Differential lengths, surfaces and volumes

Using the coordinate systems, we can describe lines, surfaces and volumes.

A length element is a small one-dimensional structure; it is like a line.

An area is a two-dimensional structure.

A volume is a three- dimensional structure.

To find out how the three coordinate systems may be used to describe these structures for the sake
of integration, choose a random point with some coordinates and then extend very small
(differential) length elements along each dimension. Under these conditions, we can assume that
each is a cuboid with some dimensions.

Now, a volume is enclosed. This allows for defining a surface, which is an oriented area (it is given a
direction). The direction of the surface is the direction of the unit vector perpendicular to the surface
and pointing out of the volume that is surrounded by the surface.

If the rectangular coordinate system is used, there are 3 differentials, each extending along a unique
dimension:𝑑𝑥 in the x-dimension , 𝑑𝑦 in the y-dimension and 𝑑𝑧 in the z-dimension.

Any length element may be written as a linear combination of 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,

𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑦 and 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑧
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Any differential surface can be described as follows:

Surface Description of the differential surface

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 Has an area of 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 direction
−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 Has an area of 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 direction
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 Has an area of 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 direction
−𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 Has an area of 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 direction
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 Has an area of 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 direction
−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 Has an area of 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 direction

The differential volume in the rectangular coordinate system is 𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧.

If the cylindrical coordinate system is used, there are 3 differentials, each extending along a unique
dimension:𝑑𝜌 in the ρ-dimension , 𝜌𝑑𝜙 in the ϕ-dimension (as increasing ρ causes a circular arc to
be traced and the length of a circular arc is 𝜌𝜃, where 𝜌 is the radius of the circle the arc is a part of,
and 𝜃 is the angle covered by the arc at the center of that circle.) and 𝑑𝑧 in the z-dimension.

Any length element may be written as a linear combination of 𝑑𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,

𝑎𝜌 𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑎𝜙 and 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑧

Any differential surface can be described as follows:

Surface Description of the differential surface

𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 Has an area of 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 direction
−𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 Has an area of 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 direction
𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 Has an area of 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 direction
−𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 Has an area of 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 direction
𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 Has an area of 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 direction
−𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 Has an area of 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 direction

The differential volume in the cylindrical coordinate system is 𝑑𝜌 ∗ 𝜌𝑑𝜙 ∗ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧.

If the spherical coordinate system is used, there are 3 differentials, each extending along a unique
dimension:𝑑𝑟 in the r-dimension , 𝑟𝑑𝜃 in the 𝜃-dimension (as increasing 𝜃 causes a circular arc to be
traced and the length of a circular arc is 𝑟𝜃, where 𝑟 is the radius of the circle the arc is a part of, and
𝜃 is the angle covered by the arc at the center of that circle) and 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 in the 𝜙-dimension (as
increasing 𝜙 causes a circular arc to be traced and the length of this circular arc is 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙, where
𝑟 sin 𝜃 is the radius of the circle parallel to the xy-plane the arc is a part of , and 𝑑𝜙 is the angle
covered by the arc at the center of that circle).
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Any length element may be written as a linear combination of 𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,

𝑎𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑎𝜙 and 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝜃

Any differential surface can be described as follows:

Surface Description of the differential surface

𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 Has an area of 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 and faces outward
from the volume it surrounds in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃
direction
−𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 Has an area of 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 and faces outward
from the volume it surrounds in the −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃
direction
𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ∗ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟 Has an area of 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ∗ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 and faces outward from the
volume it surrounds in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 direction
𝑎𝑟 = −𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ∗ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟 Has an area of 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ∗ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 and faces outward from the
volume it surrounds in the −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 direction
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 Has an area of 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝜙 direction
−𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 Has an area of 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 and faces outward from
the volume it surrounds in the −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 direction

The differential volume in the rectangular coordinate system is 𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ∗ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 =

𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜃.

Every differential surface has the orientation vector perpendicular to itself.

These can be used to evaluate integrals involving scalar quantities.

To integrate functions over a surface or volume, construct an integral with respect to 2 or 3 variables
respectively; each variable should be placed with its limits. Integrate the function with respect to the
innermost variable within its own limits, and then repeat again to integrate the resulting function,
starting with the next innermost variable within its own limits. When an integration is done with
respect to one variable, the other variables are treated like constants.

For continuous functions over a certain range, it is possible to change the starting order of
integration to help with the evaluation. However, the limits must be connected to the corresponding
variables.

Some vector calculus

To introduce the concept of vector calculus, it is important to remember what differentiation and
integration mean.

Differentiation finds out the rate at which the output of a function changes per unit increment of the
input from a given value of the input. Integration, which is usually understood as “finding the area
under a curve”, is actually a weighted sum, where values of the function are weighted with a
uniform weight in a given interval. The integral is defined as the limit of the weighted sum, as the
weights approach 0 and the number of values taken approaches infinity.
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⃗⃗). This is
Let there be a vector function. The set of vectors produced is called a vector field (𝑉
produced by assigning functions of 3 variables to multiply the basic unit vectors with to compose the
output vectors with given inputs.

As there is more than one input, the usual definition of differentiation should be modified. Let all
input variables stay fixed except for one that is changed. The change per unit increment of that
variable that is not fixed is called the partial derivative with respect to that variable.

If a small change is made to the input variable, the change of the value of the function due to that
change is that change times the partial derivative of that variable.

If 3 variables are used to create a function, the total change is found by multiplying the small
changes of each variable with the corresponding partial derivatives of each variable.

These are defined in the rectangular coordinates.

Now, incrementing 𝑥 with 𝑑𝑥 is like moving a distance 𝑑𝑥 in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝑥 direction.

Incrementing 𝑦 with 𝑑𝑦 is like moving a distance 𝑑𝑦 in the 𝑎

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 direction.

Incrementing 𝑧 with 𝑑𝑧 is like moving a distance 𝑑𝑧 in the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝑧 direction.
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕
So, if there is a scalar function 𝑣, 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑧.

Using the definition of the dot product for 3D vectors and the rectangular coordinate systems, we
can write
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑣 = ( 𝑎𝑥 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦+ 𝑎 ∙ (𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
The first vector
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
( 𝑎𝑥 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦+ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
is important, as it can be used to find out the rate of change per unit increment of movement in any
arbitrary direction, without any constraints.

This can be rewritten as

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
( 𝑎𝑥 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦+ 𝑎 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
The operator
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
( 𝑎𝑥 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦+ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
Is so important in terms of multivariable differentiation that it is given a symbol ∇, and it is called the
del vector.

If the scalar function is now expressed in terms of cylindrical coordinates, we may write
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝜌 + 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
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The incremental movement in the spherical coordinate system in spherical vectors may be written
as

𝑑𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

Using the definition of the dot product for 3D vectors, we get

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝜌 + 𝑑𝜙 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕
=( ) (𝑑𝜌) + ( ) (𝜌𝑑𝜙) + ( ) (𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕
=( 𝑎 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎 + ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎 ∙ (𝑑𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜙 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
If the scalar function is now expressed in terms of spherical coordinates, we may write
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑑𝜙
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙
The incremental movement in the spherical coordinate system in spherical vectors may be written
as

𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

Using the definition of the dot product for 3D vectors, we get

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑑𝜙
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙
𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕
=( ) (𝑑𝑟) + ( ) (𝑟𝑑𝜃) + ( ) (𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙
𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕
= ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎 ∙ (𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) 𝑎𝜌 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝜙
The gradient is important as it reveals the direction of the displacement that gives the largest change
in the variable per unit incremental movement.

Now, for vector fields, there are two types of integrals that can be thought of.

The line integral of a vector field along a curve C is the limit of the weighted sum of the dot products
of the vector field and the vectors elements of the curve C if the curve C is divided uniformly, as the
number of vector elements approaches infinity and the length of each vector element approaches 0.

This is the integral

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗
∫𝑉
C

If the path is closed (the start and end points of the curve are the same),

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗
∮𝑉
𝐶

⃗⃗ on the closed curve 𝑆.

This becomes the circulation of the vector field 𝑉
 Academic Success Center Repository

⃗⃗ through a closed oriented surface S is the limit of the weighted

The flux or flow of a vector field 𝑉
sum of the dot products of the vector field and the normal vectors of the surface elements
multiplied by the area of the corresponding surface elements as the number of surface elements
approaches infinity and the area of each surface element approaches 0.

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
∮𝑉
𝑆

Note: the normal vector of a surface is the unit vector that is perpendicular to the surface and shows
the direction of orientation of the surface.

Curl and divergence

Next, we have two other concepts: curl and divergence. These apply to vector fields.

Divergence is the tendency of a vector field to spread out. Technically, it is the amount of flow out of
a volume per unit volume as the volume approaches 0.

To approach the problem in the rectangular coordinate system, consider a small cuboid with sides
𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦 and 𝑑𝑧. It exists at a place with a point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) at its center. Assume that this cuboid is in a
⃗⃗. The vector field is of the form 𝑉𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
vector field 𝑉 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + 𝑉𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑧 Here, 𝑉𝑥 , 𝑉𝑦 and 𝑉𝑧 are the x-
component, y-component and z-component respectively of the vector field 𝑉 ⃗⃗.

If the faces perpendicular to the x axis are considered, namely

−𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥

and

𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥

For the face

𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝑥 1 𝜕𝑉𝑦 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 + ∗ (𝑑𝑥)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ (𝑑𝑥)) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ (𝑑𝑥)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

For the face

−𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝑥 1 𝜕𝑉𝑦 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1

−𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 − ∗ (𝑑𝑥)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ (𝑑𝑥)) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ (𝑑𝑥)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

Movement is along the x axis, so only partial derivatives with respect to x and dx increments are
included.
 Academic Success Center Repository

The total flow along the x directions is

𝜕𝑉𝑥 1 𝜕𝑉𝑥 1
−𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑥 − ∗ (𝑑𝑥)) + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑥 + ∗ (𝑑𝑥))
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

So,
𝜕𝑉𝑥 1 𝜕𝑉𝑥 1
−𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑉𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝑥) + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑉𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑉𝑥 1 𝜕𝑉𝑥 1
= −𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑉𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝑥) + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑉𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑉𝑥
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
If the faces perpendicular to the y axis are considered, namely

−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

and

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

For the face

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝑥 1 𝜕𝑉𝑦 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 + ∗ (𝑑𝑦)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ (𝑑𝑦)) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ (𝑑𝑦)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

For the face

−𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝑥 1 𝜕𝑉𝑦 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1

−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 − ∗ (𝑑𝑦)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ (𝑑𝑦)) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ (𝑑𝑦)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

Movement is along the y axis, so only partial derivatives with respect to y and dy increments are
included.

The total flow along the y directions is

𝜕𝑉𝑦 1 𝜕𝑉𝑦 1
−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ (𝑑𝑦)) + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑥 + ∗ (𝑑𝑦))
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

So,
 Academic Success Center Repository

𝜕𝑉𝑦 1 𝜕𝑉𝑦 1
−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑉𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝑦) + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑉𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑉𝑦 1 𝜕𝑉𝑦 1
= −𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑉𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝑦) + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑉𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑉𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦
If the faces perpendicular to the z axis are considered, namely

−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
and

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

For the face

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝑥 1 𝜕𝑉𝑦 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 + ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

For the face

−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝑥 1 𝜕𝑉𝑦 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1

−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 − ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Movement is along the z axis, so only partial derivatives with respect to z and dz increments are
included.

The total flow along the z directions is

𝜕𝑉𝑧 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ (𝑑𝑧))
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
So,
𝜕𝑉𝑧 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑉𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ∗ (𝑑𝑧) + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑉𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ∗ (𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉𝑧 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑉𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ∗ (𝑑𝑧) + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑉𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ∗ (𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
 Academic Success Center Repository

The total outward flux is

𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The divergence is then

1 𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧

(𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 )= + +
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Using the definition of the dot product, we can write

𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
+ + =( 𝑎𝑥 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦+ 𝑎 ∙ (𝑉𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 + 𝑉𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
To approach the problem in the cylindrical coordinate system, consider a small segment with sides
𝑑𝜌, 𝜌𝑑𝜙 and 𝑑𝑧. It exists at a place with a point (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧) at its center. Assume that this cuboid is in a
⃗⃗. The vector field is of the form 𝑉𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
vector field 𝑉 𝑎𝜌 + 𝑉𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + 𝑉𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑧 Here, 𝑉𝜌 , 𝑉𝜙 and 𝑉𝑧 are the 𝜌 -
component, 𝜙 -component and z-component respectively of the vector field 𝑉 ⃗⃗.

If the faces perpendicular to the 𝜌 axis are considered, namely

1
−(𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌
2
and
1
(𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌
2
For the face
1
(𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌
2

The flux that is received is

1 𝜕𝑉𝜌 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
(𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 + ∗ (𝑑𝜌)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ (𝑑𝜌)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌 2
𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
+ (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ (𝑑𝜌)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝜌 2
For the face
1
−(𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌
2

The flux that is received is

 Academic Success Center Repository

1 𝜕𝑉𝜌 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
−(𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 − ∗ (𝑑𝜌)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ (𝑑𝜌)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌 2
𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
+ (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ (𝑑𝜌)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝜌 2
Movement is along the 𝜌 dimension, so only partial derivatives with respect to 𝜌 and 𝑑𝜌 increments
are included.

The total flow along the 𝜌 directions is

1 𝜕𝑉𝜌 1 1 𝜕𝑉𝜌 1
−(𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝜌 − ∗ (𝑑𝜌)) + (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝜌 + ∗ (𝑑𝜌))
2 𝜕𝜌 2 2 𝜕𝜌 2

So,
1 1 𝜕𝑉𝜌 1 1 1 𝜕𝑉𝜌
−(𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 𝑉𝜌 + (𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝜌) + (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧𝑉𝜌 + (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
2 2 𝜕𝜌 2 2 2 𝜕𝜌
1
∗ (𝑑𝜌)
2
𝜕𝑉𝜌 𝜕𝑉𝜌 𝜕
= (𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧𝑉𝜌 + (𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝜌) = 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ( 𝜌 + 𝑉𝜌 ) = 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧( (𝜌𝑉𝜌 ))
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌

𝜕𝑉𝜌 𝜕
𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ( 𝜌 + 𝑉𝜌 ) = 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ( (𝜌𝑉𝜌 ))
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌

If the faces perpendicular to the 𝜙 directions are considered, namely

−𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙

and

𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙

For the face

𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝜌 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 + ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

For the face

−𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝜌 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1

−𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2
 Academic Success Center Repository

Movement is along the 𝜙 dimension, so only partial derivatives with respect to 𝜙 and 𝑑𝜙 increments
are included.

The total flow along the 𝜙 directions is

𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
−𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ (𝑑𝜙))
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

So,
𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
−𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑉𝜙 + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝜙) + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑉𝜙 + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2
𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
= −𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑉𝜙 + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝜙) + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑉𝜙 + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧 ∗ (𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2
𝜕𝑉𝜙
𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝜙
If the faces perpendicular to the z axis are considered, namely

−𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
and

𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
For the face
𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝜌 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 + ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

For the face

−𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝜌 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1

−𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 − ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Movement is along the z axis, so only partial derivatives with respect to z and dz increments are
included.

The total flow along the z directions is

𝜕𝑉𝑧 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
−𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ (𝑑𝑧)) + 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ (𝑑𝑧))
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
So,
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𝜕𝑉𝑧 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
−𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑉𝑧 + 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ∗ (𝑑𝑧) + 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑉𝑧 + 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ∗ (𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉𝑧 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1
−𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑉𝑧 + 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ∗ (𝑑𝑧) + 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑉𝑧 + 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ∗ (𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉𝑧
𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
The total outward flux is

𝜕 𝜕𝑉𝜙 𝜕𝑉𝑧
𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ( (𝜌𝑉𝜌 )) + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

The divergence is then

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉𝜙 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1 𝜕 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 𝜕𝑉𝑧

(𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ( (𝜌𝑉𝜌 )) + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 )= (𝜌𝑉𝜌 ) + +
𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

To approach the problem in the spherical coordinate system, consider a small segment with sides
𝑑𝑟, 𝑟𝑑𝜃 and 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙. It exists at a place with a point (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙) at its center. Assume that this cuboid
⃗⃗. The vector field is of the form 𝑉𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
is in a vector field 𝑉 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑉𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + 𝑉𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝜙 Here, 𝑉𝑟 , 𝑉𝜃 and 𝑉𝜙 are the
𝑟 -component, 𝜃 -component and 𝜙-component respectively of the vector field 𝑉 ⃗⃗.

If the faces perpendicular to the 𝑟 direction are considered, namely

−𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟
and

𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟
For the face
(𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟

The flux that is received is

1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1
(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 + ∗ (𝑑𝑟)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ (𝑑𝑟)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2
𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
+ (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ (𝑑𝑟)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 )
𝜕𝑟 2

For the face

−(𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟

The flux that is received is

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1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1
−(𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ (𝑑𝑟)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ (𝑑𝑟)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2
𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
+ (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ (𝑑𝑟)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 )
𝜕𝑟 2

Movement is along the 𝑟 dimension, so only partial derivatives with respect to 𝑟 and 𝑑𝑟 increments
are included.

The total flow along the 𝑟 directions is

1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1
−(𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝑟 − ∗ (𝑑𝑟)) + (𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝑟 + ∗ (𝑑𝑟))
2 𝜕𝑟 2 2 𝜕𝑟 2
So,
1 1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 1
−(𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 𝑉𝑟 + (𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ∗ (𝑑𝑟) + (𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃𝑉𝑟
2 2 𝜕𝑟 2 2
1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1
+ (𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ∗ (𝑑𝑟)
2 𝜕𝑟 2
2 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1
= −2𝑟𝑑𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 𝑉𝑟 + (2𝑟 2 + 𝑑𝑟 2 ) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ∗ (𝑑𝑟)
4 𝜕𝑟 2
1 𝜕𝑉𝑟
= 𝑑𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 (2𝑟𝑉𝑟 + (𝑟 2 + 𝑑𝑟 2 ) )
4 𝜕𝑟
As the increment 𝑑𝑟 approaches 0, we get
𝜕𝑉𝑟
= 𝑑𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 (2𝑟𝑉𝑟 + (𝑟 2 ) )
𝜕𝑟
We then get

𝜕(𝑟 2 𝑉𝑟 )
𝑑𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ( )
𝜕𝑟

If the faces perpendicular to the 𝜃 directions are considered, namely

−𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
and

𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
For the face
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃

The flux that is received is

1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1
𝑟 sin (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 + ∗ (𝑑𝜃)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ (𝑑𝜃)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2
𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
+ (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ (𝑑𝜃)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 )
𝜕𝜃 2

For the face

−𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
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The flux that is received is

1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1
−𝑟 sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ (𝑑𝜃)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ (𝑑𝜃)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2
𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
+ (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ (𝑑𝜃)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 )
𝜕𝜃 2

Movement is along the 𝜃 dimension, so only partial derivatives with respect to 𝜃 and 𝑑𝜃 increments
are included.

The total flow along the 𝜃 directions is

1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1
−𝑟 sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ (𝑑𝜃)) + 𝑟 sin (𝜃 + 𝜃) 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ (𝑑𝜃))
2 𝜕𝜃 2 2 𝜕𝜃 2
So,

Using the identity

2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = (sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵))

And the identity

2 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = (sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵))

1 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1 1
−𝑟 sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑉𝜃 + 𝑟 sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 ∗ (𝑑𝜃) + 𝑟 sin (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙𝑉𝜃
2 2 𝜕𝜃 2 2
1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1
+ 𝑟 sin (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜙 ∗ (𝑑𝜃)
2 𝜕𝜃 2
1 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃
= 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑉𝜃 (− sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃) + sin (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃)) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙
2 2 𝜕𝜃
1 1 1
∗ (𝑑𝜃) (sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃) + sin (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃))
2 2 2
1 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃
= 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑉𝜃 (sin (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) − sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃)) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙
2 2 𝜕𝜃
1 1 1
∗ (𝑑𝜃) (sin (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) + sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃))
2 2 2
1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1 1
= 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑉𝜃 ∗ (2 cos(𝜃) sin 𝑑𝜃) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 ∗ (𝑑𝜃) (2 sin(𝜃) cos ( 𝑑𝜃))
2 𝜕𝜃 2 2
As the increment 𝑑𝜃 approaches 0, we get
1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1 1
𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑉𝜃 ∗ (2 cos(𝜃) 𝑑𝜃) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 ∗ (𝑑𝜃) (2 sin(𝜃) cos ( ∗ 0))
2 𝜕𝜃 2 2
Because sin 𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 when 𝑥 ≈ 0.
𝜕𝑉𝜃
𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑉𝜃 ∗ (cos(𝜃)𝑑𝜃) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 ∗ (𝑑𝜃)(sin(𝜃) (1))
𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑉𝜃
𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜃 ∗ (𝑉𝜃 cos(𝜃)) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜃 ∗ ( sin(𝜃))
𝜕𝜃
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𝜕𝑉𝜃
𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜃 ∗ (𝑉𝜃 cos(𝜃) + sin(𝜃))
𝜕𝜃
Using the product rule of differentiation, we get

𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 sin(𝜃))
𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜃 ∗ ( )
𝜕𝜃

If the faces perpendicular to the 𝜙 direction are considered, namely

−𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

and

𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

For the face

𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 )
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

For the face

−𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙

The flux that is received is

𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1

−𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 )
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

Movement is along the 𝜙 direction, so only partial derivatives with respect to 𝜙 and 𝑑𝜙 increments
are included.

The total flow along the z directions is

𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
−𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ (𝑑𝜙)) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ (𝑑𝜙))
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

So,
𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
−𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑉𝜙 + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ (𝑑𝜙) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑉𝜙 + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ (𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2
𝜕𝑉𝜙 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙 1
−𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑉𝜙 + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ (𝑑𝜙) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑉𝜙 + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ (𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2
The total outward flux is
𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝜕𝑉𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝜙
𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙
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The divergence is then

1 𝜕(𝑟 2 𝑉𝑟 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 sin(𝜃)) 𝜕𝑉𝜙

2
(𝑑𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 ( ) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜃 ∗ ( ) + 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 )
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙
1 𝜕(𝑟 2 𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 sin(𝜃)) 1 𝜕𝑉𝜙
= 2( )+ ( )+
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙

The increments added to the surface vectors in the given dimensions are added to include the effect
of the geometry of the coordinate system on the equation.

In the spherical and cylindrical coordinates, the substitutions have to be done to change vectors in
the rectangular coordinate systems to the appropriate forms in the respective coordinate systems.

To interpret the divergence, it is as if the divergence measures how much the vector field tends to
point away from a given point.

Curl means the tendency of a vector field to twist in a certain region. Technically, it means the
normal vector of the corresponding oriented closed surface that gives the maximum circulation per
unit area at a given point as the area that makes up the surface approaches 0.

Note: Circulation is taken counterclockwise depending on the orientation of the surface; the right-
hand rule is used with the thumb in the direction of the orientation vector, so that the fingers curl in
the direction of the circulation.

When using the right-hand rule to find the positions of the vectors as viewed by the viewer, let one
finger point to the viewer, another point to the right and the other point upwards.

To approach the problem in the cylindrical coordinate system, take the three surfaces 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑧
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 and 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑦

For the surface

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧

This rectangle has a point (x,y,z) at its center and is in a vector field 𝑉𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + 𝑉𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

If the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 vector is taken to point towards the viewer, the positive x axis will point to the right and the
positive y axis will point upwards. Therefore, +𝑑𝑥𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 will be at the bottom of the rectangle
1 1
(− 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), +𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 will be to the right (+ 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), −𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥
2 2
1
will be on the top (+ 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) and −𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 will be on the left
1
(− 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟).
2

To calculate the line integral across each segment, the increments must also be added.
1
For the segment +𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 (− 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), we have
2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(+𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 ) ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1
(𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦)(+𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 2
1
For the segment +𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 (+ 2 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), we have
 Academic Success Center Repository

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(+𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑦 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1
(𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥)(+𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 2
1
For the segment −𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 (+ 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) , we have

𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(−𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 ) ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1
(𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦)(−𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 2
1
For the segment −𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 (− 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) , we have
2

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(−𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑦 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1
(𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥)(−𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 2
The total circulation is found to be

𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 )

(𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥)(−𝑑𝑦) + (𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦)(−𝑑𝑥) + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥)(+𝑑𝑦) + (𝑉𝑥 −
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦
1
∗ 𝑑𝑦)(+𝑑𝑥)
2
𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1
(−𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) (𝑑𝑦) + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) (+𝑑𝑦) + (−𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦) (𝑑𝑥) + (𝑉𝑥
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 )
− ∗ 𝑑𝑦)(+𝑑𝑥) = ( ∗ 𝑑𝑥)(𝑑𝑦) + (− 𝑑𝑦)(𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
The circulation per unit area is

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 )

( 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

For the surface

𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥

This rectangle has a point (x,y,z) at its center and is in a vector field 𝑉𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + 𝑉𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

If the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 vector is taken to point towards the viewer, the positive y axis will point to the right and the
positive z axis will point upwards. Therefore, +𝑑𝑦𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 will be at the bottom of the rectangle
1 1
(− 2 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), +𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 will be to the right (+ 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), −𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 will
1
be on the top (+ 2 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) and −𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 will be on the left
1
(− 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟).

To calculate the line integral across each segment, the increments must also be added.
 Academic Success Center Repository

1
For the segment +𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 (− 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), we have
2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(+𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑦 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1
(𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) (+𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑧 2
1
For the segment +𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 (+ 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), we have

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(+𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ) ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1
(𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) (+𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑦 2
1
For the segment −𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 (+ 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) , we have
2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(−𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑦 ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1
(𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧)(−𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑧 2
1
For the segment −𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 (− 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) , we have
2

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(−𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ) ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1
(𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦)(−𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑦 2
The total circulation is found to be

𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑦) (−𝑑𝑧) + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧)(−𝑑𝑦) + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) (+𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1
+ (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) (+𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(−𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) (𝑑𝑧) + (−𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) (𝑑𝑦) + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑦) (+𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1
+ (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) (+𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 )
=( ∗ 𝑑𝑦)(𝑑𝑧) + (− 𝑑𝑦)(𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The circulation per unit area is

1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 )

(( ∗ 𝑑𝑦) (𝑑𝑧) + (− 𝑑𝑦) (𝑑𝑧)) = ( − )
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Academic Success Center Repository

For the surface

𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦

This rectangle has a point (x,y,z) at its center and is in a vector field 𝑉𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + 𝑉𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧

If the 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 vector is taken to point towards the viewer, the positive z axis will point to the right and the
positive x axis will point upwards. Therefore, +𝑑𝑧𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 will be at the bottom of the rectangle
1 1
(− 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), +𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 will be to the right (+ 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), −𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 will
2 2
1
be on the top (+ 2 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) and −𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 will be on the left
1
(− 2 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟).

To calculate the line integral across each segment, the increments must also be added.
1
For the segment +𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 (− 2 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), we have

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(+𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ) ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1
(𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) (+𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 2
1
For the segment +𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 (+ 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), we have
2

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(+𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 ) ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1
(𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) (+𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑧 2
1
For the segment −𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 (+ 2 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) , we have

𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(−𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ) ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1
(𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) (−𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 2
1
For the segment −𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 (− 2 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) , we have

𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

(−𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 ) ∙ ((𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + (𝑉𝑦 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1
(𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧)(−𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑧 2
The total circulation is found to be
 Academic Success Center Repository

𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1

(𝑉𝑥 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧)(−𝑑𝑥) + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) (−𝑑𝑧) + (𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) (+𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2
( )
𝜕 𝑉𝑧 1
+ (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) (+𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 1

(−𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧)(𝑑𝑥) + (−𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) (𝑑𝑧) + (𝑉𝑥 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) (+𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1
+ (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑥) (+𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 )
=( ∗ 𝑑𝑧)(𝑑𝑥) + (− 𝑑𝑥)(𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
The circulation per unit area is

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑥 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 )

(( ∗ 𝑑𝑧)(𝑑𝑥) + (− 𝑑𝑥)(𝑑𝑧)) = ( − )
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

The curl will be

𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑦 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑥 )

( − )𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + ( − )𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦+( − ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

If the cylindrical coordinate system is used, the surfaces used are

𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌

𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙

If the face

𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
is considered, and the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 is taken to point towards the viewer, the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 vector points to the right and
the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 points upwards.

This rectangle has a point (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧) at its center and is in a vector field 𝑉𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + 𝑉𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + 𝑉𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
1
The appropriate line elements are +𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 (− 2 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),

1 1 1
+ (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (+ 𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), −𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 (+ 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) and
2 2 2
1 1
− (𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (− 𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)
2 2

1
For the segment +𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 (− 2 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)

𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1

+𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1
+𝑑𝜌 (𝑉𝜌 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2
 Academic Success Center Repository

1 1
For the segment + (𝜌 + 2 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (+ 2 𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)

1
+ (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙
2
𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1
∙ ((𝑉𝜌 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
(𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
2 𝜕𝜌 2
1
For the segment −𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 (+ 2 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)

𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1

−𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1
−𝑑𝜌 (𝑉𝜌 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2
1 1
For the segment − (𝜌 − 2 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (− 2 𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜌 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧) 1

− (𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 −
𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∗ 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
− (𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
2 𝜕𝜌 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1
− (𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) − 𝑑𝜌 (𝑉𝜌 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜙 2
1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1
+ (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 (𝑉𝜌 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜙 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1

(−𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 (− (𝑉𝜌 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) + (𝑉𝜌 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙))
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
2 𝜕𝜌 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )
(−𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜙
1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
2 𝜕𝜌 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )

(−𝜌)𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + ( + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜌 2 2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜙
𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝜌)𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
𝜕𝜌 2 2 𝜕𝜌 2
 Academic Success Center Repository

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )

(𝜌)𝑑𝜙(−1) (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + ( + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜌 2 2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜙
𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝜌)𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
𝜕𝜌 2 2 𝜕𝜌 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )

(𝜌)𝑑𝜙 (−𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + ( + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜌 2 2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜙
𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝜌)𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
𝜕𝜌 2 2 𝜕𝜌 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )

(𝜌)𝑑𝜙 ( ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + ( + 𝑑𝜌) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜙
1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
2 𝜕𝜌 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )
(𝜌)𝑑𝜙 ( ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + ( +𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙(𝑉𝜙 ) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )
(𝜌)𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌 ( ) + ( +𝑑𝜌)𝑑𝜙(𝑉𝜙 ) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )
𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌 ((𝜌) ( ) + (𝑉𝜙 )) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙

𝜕(𝜌𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )
𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌 (( )) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙

The total circulation per unit area seen by this face is

1 𝜕(𝜌𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝜌𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )

∗ (𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌 (( )) + 𝑑𝜌 (− ∗ 𝑑𝜙)) = (( )− )
𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙

If the face

𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌

is considered and the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝜌 vector is taken to point to the viewer, then the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 points to the right
and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 points upwards.

This rectangle has a point (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧) at its center and is in a vector field 𝑉𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + 𝑉𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + 𝑉𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
1
The four relevant edges are +𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (− 2 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
1 1
+𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 (+ 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), −𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (+ 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) and
2 2
1
−𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗(−
𝑧 2
𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟).
1
For the segment +𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (− 2 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)
 Academic Success Center Repository

𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

+𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2
1
𝑎𝑧 (+ 2 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
For the segment +𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)

𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

+𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1
+𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2
1
For the segment−𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (+ 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)
2

𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

−𝜌𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
−𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗(−
For the segment−𝑑𝑧𝑎 𝑧 2
𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟).

𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1

−𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1
−𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2

The total circulation is

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1

+𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) − 𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1
− 𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2
 Academic Success Center Repository

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1

+𝜌𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) + 𝜌𝑑𝜙 (−𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1
+ 𝑑𝑧 (−𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 )
+𝑑𝑧 ( ∗ 𝑑𝜙) + 𝜌𝑑𝜙 (− ∗ 𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

The circulation per unit area is

1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 )

(+𝑑𝑧 ( ∗ 𝑑𝜙) + 𝜌𝑑𝜙 (− ∗ 𝑑𝑧)) = −
𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

If the face

𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙

is considered, and the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝜙 vector is taken to point towards the viewer, the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 axis points to the right
and the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 points upwards.

This shape lies in a vector field 𝑉𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝜌 + 𝑉𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + 𝑉𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 . Moreover, the center of this shape is (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧).
1 1
The relevant edges are +𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗(−
𝑧 𝑑𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), +𝑑𝜌𝑎
2 𝜌 (+ 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
2
1 1
−𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗(+
𝑧 𝑑𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) and −𝑑𝜌𝑎
2 𝜌 (− 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟).
2

1
If the segment +𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗(−
𝑧 2
𝑑𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) is considered,

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 )

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 − ∗
+𝑑𝑧𝑎 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 )
𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
2 𝜕𝜌
1
If the segment +𝑑𝜌𝑎 𝜌 (+ 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) is considered,
2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 )

+𝑑𝜌𝑎 𝜌 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 + ∗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )
𝑑𝜌 (𝑉𝜌 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧)
2 𝜕𝑧
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗(+
If the segment−𝑑𝑧𝑎 𝑧 𝑑𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) is considered,
2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 )

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 + ∗
−𝑑𝑧𝑎 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝜌

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 )
−𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
2 𝜕𝜌
1
If the segment−𝑑𝜌𝑎 𝜌 (− 2 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟).is considered,
 Academic Success Center Repository

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 )

−𝑑𝜌𝑎 𝜌 ∙ ((𝑉𝜌 − ∗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑧
2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )
−𝑑𝜌 (𝑉𝜌 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧)
2 𝜕𝑧

The total circulation is found to be

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 )

𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑧 − ∗ 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 (𝑉𝜌 + ∗ 𝑑𝑧) − 𝑑𝑧 (𝑉𝑧 + ∗ 𝑑𝜌)
2 𝜕𝜌 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝜌
1 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )
− 𝑑𝜌 (𝑉𝜌 − ∗ 𝑑𝑧)
2 𝜕𝑧

𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )
𝑑𝑧 (− 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 ( 𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑧

The circulation per unit area on this face is

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 )

(𝑑𝑧 (− 𝑑𝜌) + 𝑑𝜌 ( 𝑑𝑧)) = ( − )
𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝜌

The curl in the cylindrical coordinate system will be

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑧 ) 1 𝜕(𝜌𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜌 )

( − ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + ( − ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + (( )− ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙

In the spherical coordinate system, the faces to be considered are:

𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝑟

𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃

𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙

If the face

𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝑟
is taken, and the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 vector is taken to point to the viewer, the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 vector points to the right and the
𝑎𝜙 points upwards.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

The face lies in a vector field 𝑉𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝑟 + 𝑉𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + 𝑉𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝜙 It is also centered at the point (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙).
1
The relevant edges that are considered are +𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎 𝜃 (− 2 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
1 1
+𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (+ 2 𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), −𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎 𝜃 (+ 2 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
1
and−𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (− 2 𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟).

1
For the edge +𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎 𝜃 (− 2 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),

𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1

+𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2
 Academic Success Center Repository

𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1
+𝑟𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2
1
For the edge +𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (+ 𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
2

1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
+𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2
𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝜃 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
2 𝜕𝜃 2
1
For the edge −𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎 𝜃 (+ 2 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),

𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1

−𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1
−𝑟𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2
1
For the edge −𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 (− 2 𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),

1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
−𝑟 sin(𝜃 − 𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2
𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝜃 2

1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
−𝑟 sin(𝜃 − 𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
2 𝜕𝜃 2

The total circulation on this face is

𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1

+𝑟𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝜙) + 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃) − 𝑟𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜙 2
1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
− 𝑟 sin(𝜃 − 𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
2 𝜕𝜃 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+𝑟𝑑𝜃 (− 𝑑𝜙) + 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜃 2
1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1
− 𝑟 sin(𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
2 𝜕𝜃 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 1
+𝑟𝑑𝜃 (− 𝑑𝜙) + (𝑟 sin (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 − 𝑟 sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 ) (𝑉𝜙 )
𝜕𝜙 2 2
1 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
+ (𝑟 sin (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 + 𝑟 sin (𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 ) ( ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
2 2 𝜕𝜃 2

Using the identity

2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = (sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵))

 Academic Success Center Repository

And the identity

2 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = (sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵))

𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
+𝑟𝑑𝜃 (− 𝑑𝜙) + (2𝑟 cos(𝜃) sin ( 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙) (𝑉𝜙 )
𝜕𝜙 2
1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
+ (2𝑟 sin(𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 cos ( 𝑑𝜃) ) ( ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
2 𝜕𝜃 2
1 1 1
As sin(2 𝜃) ≈ 2 𝜃, cos(2 𝜃) ≈ 1 when 𝜃 → 0

𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1
+𝑟𝑑𝜃 (− 𝑑𝜙) + (2𝑟 cos(𝜃) ( 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙) (𝑉𝜙 ) + (2𝑟 sin(𝜃) 𝑑𝜙(1) ) ( ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜃 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 )
+𝑟𝑑𝜃 (− 𝑑𝜙) + (𝑟 cos(𝜃) (𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙)(𝑉𝜙 ) + (𝑟 sin(𝜃) 𝑑𝜙(1) ) ( 𝑑𝜃)
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜃

𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 )
+𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 (− ) + 𝑟 (𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜙 ((cos(𝜃))(𝑉𝜙 ) + (sin(𝜃)) ( ))
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜃

𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 )
+𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 ((− ) + (cos(𝜃))(𝑉𝜙 ) + (sin(𝜃)) ( ))
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜃

Applying the product rule, we deduce

𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 sin(𝜃))

+𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 ((− )+ )
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜃

The circulation per unit area is

1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 sin(𝜃)) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 sin(𝜃))

∗ +𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 ((− )+ )= ∗ ((− )+ )
𝑟2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜃

If the face

𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃

is taken, and the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝜃 vector is taken to point to the viewer, the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 vector points to the upwards and
the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 points to the right.

The face lies in a vector field 𝑉𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝑟 + 𝑉𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + 𝑉𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝜙 It is also centered at the point (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙).
1
The relevant edges that are considered are +𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑎 𝜙 (− 𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
2
1 1
+𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 (+ 𝑑𝜙𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), −𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑎 𝜙 (+ 𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
2
1
an−𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 (− 𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)d.
2

1
For the edge +𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑎 𝜙 (− 2 𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
 Academic Success Center Repository

1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
+ (𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2
𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝑟 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
(𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟 )
2 𝜕𝑟 2
1
For the edge +𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 (+ 𝑑𝜙𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1

+𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝜙 2

𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1
+𝑑𝑟 (𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 2
1
For the edge −𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑎 𝜙 (+ 2 𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
−(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2
𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝑟 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
−(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟)
2 𝜕𝑟 2
1
For the edge −𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 (− 2 𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),

𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1

−𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1
−𝑑𝑟 (𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
𝜕𝜃 2

The total circulation on this face is

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1
(𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟 ) + 𝑑𝑟 (𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝜙)
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝜙 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1
−(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) − 𝑑𝑟 (𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 )

(𝑟) ((sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟 )) − (sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟))) + 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝜙

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
− ( 𝑑𝑟) (sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ((𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟)) + (sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟)))
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2
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𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1
(𝑟) ((sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 (− 𝑑𝑟 ))) + 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝜙) − ( 𝑑𝑟) (sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 ((2𝑉𝜙 )))
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜙 2

𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 )
sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟 (−𝑟 ) − (𝑑𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)(𝑉𝜙 ) + ( 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙)
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜙

Using the product rule of differentiation, we get

𝜕(𝑟𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕(𝑉𝑟 )
(− sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟 ( )+ ( 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙))
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜙

The circulation per unit area is:

1 𝜕(𝑟𝑉𝜙 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕(𝑟𝑉𝜙 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 )

∗ (− sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟 ( )+ ( 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙)) = (− ( )+ ( ))
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙

If the face

𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙

is taken, and the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝜙 vector is taken to point to the viewer, the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 vector points to the right and the
𝑎𝜃 points upwards.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

The face lies in a vector field 𝑉𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝑟 + 𝑉𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + 𝑉𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝜙 It is also centered at the point (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙).
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 (− 𝑑𝜃𝑎
The relevant edges that are considered are +𝑑𝑟𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
2
1 1
𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 (+ 2 𝑑𝑟𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 (+ 2 𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟), −𝑑𝑟𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
an−𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎 𝜃 (+ 2 𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)d.
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 (− 2 𝑑𝜃𝑎
For the edge +𝑑𝑟𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)

𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1

+𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1
+𝑑𝑟 (𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
𝜕𝜃 2
1
For the edge 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 (+ 2 𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1

(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2

1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟)
2 𝜕𝑟 2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 (+ 2 𝑑𝜃𝑎
For the edge −𝑑𝑟𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),
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𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1

−𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 + (𝑉𝜙 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1
−𝑑𝑟 (𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
𝜕𝜃 2
1
For the edge −𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 (+ 2 𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟),

1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1
− (𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟) 𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜃 ∙ ((𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2
𝜕(𝑉𝜙 ) 1
+ (𝑉𝜙 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝑟 2

1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1
− (𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟) 𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟)
2 𝜕𝑟 2

The total circulation on this face is

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 1

+𝑑𝑟 (𝑉𝑟 − ∗ 𝑑𝜃) + (𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) − 𝑑𝑟 (𝑉𝑟 + ∗ 𝑑𝜃)
𝜕𝜃 2 2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1
− (𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟) 𝑑𝜃 (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟)
2 𝜕𝑟 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1

+𝑑𝑟 (− 𝑑𝜃) + (𝑟)𝑑𝜃 ((𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) − (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟))
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2
1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝜃 ) 1
+ ( 𝑑𝑟) 𝑑𝜃 ((𝑉𝜃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑟) + (𝑉𝜃 − ∗ 𝑑𝑟))
2 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1
+𝑑𝑟 (− 𝑑𝜃) + (𝑟)𝑑𝜃 ( ∗ 𝑑𝑟) + ( 𝑑𝑟) 𝑑𝜃(2𝑉𝜃 )
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 2

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 )
+𝑑𝑟 (− 𝑑𝜃) + (𝑟)𝑑𝜃 ( ∗ 𝑑𝑟) + (𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃(𝑉𝜃 )
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟

Using the product rule of differentiation, we get

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 )
+𝑑𝑟 (− 𝑑𝜃) + (𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃 ((𝑟) ( ) + (𝑉𝜃 ))
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟

𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 ) 𝜕 (𝑟𝑉𝜃 )
+𝑑𝑟 (− 𝑑𝜃) + (𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃 ( )
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟

The circulation per unit area is:

1 𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 𝜕 (𝑟𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕 (𝑟𝑉𝜃 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 )

(+𝑑𝑟 (− 𝑑𝜃) + (𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃 ( )) = ( − )
𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

The curl in the cylindrical coordinate system is

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1 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 sin(𝜃)) 𝜕 (𝑉𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕(𝑟𝑉𝜙 )

∗( − ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + ( ( )− ( )) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
1 𝜕 (𝑟𝑉𝜃 ) 𝜕 (𝑉𝑟 )
+ ( − ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

The product rule of differentiation

(𝑢𝑣)′ = 𝑢𝑣 ′ + 𝑢′ 𝑣

is often used to collect terms together.

Moreover, further identities used are

sin 𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 for small values of x

cos 𝑥 → 1 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 0
2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)
2 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)

The divergence of a vector 𝑉 ⃗⃗ is represented as ∇ ∙ 𝑉

⃗⃗, to signal the fact that the output will be a
scalar, as is the case with taking dot products.

⃗⃗ is represented as ∇ × 𝑉
The curl of a vector 𝑉 ⃗⃗ , to signal the fact that the output will be a vector, as is
the case with taking cross products.

Curl and divergence are defined for vector quantities and not for scalar ones. The gradient alone
operates on scalars.

The divergence theorem and Stokes’s Theorem

Take any arbitrary closed surface that contains a volume. Let that volume be broken up into many
small cells, each with a differential volume that is surrounded by its own surface. Any flow out of a
cell would flow into the neighboring cells. Therefore, inside the volume, all flow values cancel each
⃗⃗
other, leaving only those on the surface. Therefore, for a vector field 𝑉

∮ ∇ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑑𝑣 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝑉 𝑆

This is the divergence theorem.

Take any arbitrary closed area that contains a surface. Let that area be broken up into many small
cells, each with a differential surface that is surrounded by its own curve. Any circulation around a
cell would circulate by the sides of the neighboring cells in the opposite direction. Therefore, inside
the surface, all circulation values cancel each other, leaving only those on the curve. Therefore, for a
⃗⃗
vector field 𝑉

𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮∇ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝐶 𝑆

This is Stokes’s theorem.

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The Laplacian
The Laplacian of a scalar is just the divergence of the gradient of that scalar quantity.

The Laplacian of a vector is just the gradient of the of divergence of that vector quantity minus the
curl of the curl of that vector quantity.

Classification of vector fields

Vector fields that have no divergence are solenoidal. They have no tendency to point away from a
certain point.

Vector fields that have no curl are irrotational.

The divergence of the curl of any vector field is 0.

The curl of the gradient of any scalar field is 0.

Any vector field can be written as the sum of the gradient of a scalar quantity and the curl of a
vector quantity.

References
[1]M. Sadiku, Elements of electromagnetics, 6th ed. New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press, 2015.