TEMPERATURE

TEMPERATURE
HEAT:
• Form of energy which flows from one object to another due to temperature difference between two bodies.
• Total kinetic energy of molecules in a substance is directly related to heat.
TEMPERATURE:
• Degree of hotness or coldness.
• Average kinetic energy of molecules in a substance is directly related to temperature.
• Thermometers measure temperature.
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM:
• Two objects which allow flow of heat between them are in thermal contact.
• If two bodies in thermal contact reach a state where there is no transfer of heat from one body to other,
then the two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
• It is irrespective of shape, size or nature of two surfaces.
• Two bodies in thermal equilibrium have equal temperatures.
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
• If two bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body C, then A and B are in thermal
equilibrium.
TEMPERATURE SCALES:
• Two main types 1. Empirical scale 2. Theoretical
• Empirical (Celsius, Centigrade, Fahrenheit) and Theoretical (thermodynamic kelvin).
• A thermometer is based on the following properties.
1. A thermometric property
2. Fixed points
3. A numerical scale.
THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY:
• A physical quantity that is monotonic increasing or monotonic decreasing with temperature.
• It does not necessarily changes linearly with temperature.
Thermometer Physical thermometric property

Liquid in glass Length of liquid column

Constant volume gas thermometer Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas

Platinum Resistance thermometer Resistance of a coil

Thermoelectric thermometer e.m.f induced in thermocouple

THE FIXED POINTS:

• These are the temperatures where all thermometers show same readings.
1. Lower fixed point (ice point):
It is the temperature where ice and water are in thermal equilibrium at STP. It is 0˚C
2. Upper fixed point (steam point):
It is the temperature where water and steam are in thermal equilibrium at STP.
It is 100˚C
NUMERICAL SCALE:
• Fundamental interval. 100 divisions for centigrade, 180 for Fahrenheit, 100 for Kelvin.
EMPIRICAL SCALE OF TEMPERATURE:
• It is based on experimental results.
• General formula to find out the temp at any state is given by following expression
 X − X 0
• =
100 X 100 − X 0
X − X0
• =   100
X 100 − X 0
• Equation states that temp varies linearly, but in most cases it is not true.
• Fixed points stay same for all types of thermometers.

TYPES OF THERMOMETERS:
LIQUID IN GLASS:
• Most common type of thermometer,
• Expansion of liquid thread in capillary is calibrated for changes in temperature.
• Mercury or alcohol used.
l − l 0
• =  100
l100 − l 0
CONSTANT VOLUME GAS:
• It consists of a gas flask with a manometer.
• Pressure change is measured for changes in temperature.
p − p0
• =  100
p100 − p0
PLATINUM RESISTANCE:
• A platinum wire in wound non inductively on mica strip.
• Changes in resistance are measured for changes in temperature.
R − R0
• =  100
R100 − R0
THERMOELECTRIC (THERMOCOUPLE):
• Two different wire forming two junctions.
• E.m.f. induced due to temperature difference in two wires is measured.
E − E0
• =  100
E100 − E0
A COMPARISON OF THERMOMETERS
 Name of Thermometer Range (0C) Advantages Disadvantages

Mercury in glass -39 to 500 Portable Relatively small

Direct reading Not very accurate
Constant volume gas -270 to 1500 Very wide range Bulky
Very accurate Very inconvenient
Very sensitive Slow to use

Platinum resistance -200 to 1200 Wide range Not good for rapidly
Best for steady changing temperatures
differences in Large heat capacity
temperature
Most accurate in the
range -2000C to 6000C

Thermocouple -250 to 1500 Wide range Not accurate in the

Very small in size range -2000Cto 6000C
Good for both local and Same pair of wires
rapidly varying cannot be used for the
temperatures whole range.
Most accurate in the
range 6000C to 10650C
Thermistor -100 – 500 Fast output(response) Fragile
Reasonably Accurate Limited range
Inexpensive Requires repeated
Highly sensitive calibration
Requires a current
source
Non linear

THERMODYNAMIC SCALE OF TEMPERATURE:

• It is not an empirical scale.
• A physical thermometer cannot show thermodynamic temperature directly.
• It is based on the properties of ideal gas which exists only in theory.
 •
The property used to set the scale is the product of pressure (P) and the volume (V) of a fixed mass of an
ideal gas.
• Two fixed points assumed for this temperature scale are Absolute Zero and The Triple Point of Water.
ABSOLUTE ZERO OF TEMPERATURE:
• It is the temperature at which the pressure of an ideal gas becomes zero.
• Its value is set at 0K
• 0K = -273.150C

https://physics.uw
b.edu.pl/main/ptf/
fizyka2000/bec/im
ages/thermometer.
gif

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:

P P

0 T/ 0C 0 T/K
• Same shape for V- T graph for constant pressure
• Same shape for Ek – T graph for keeping other factors constant.
THE TRIPLE POINT OF WATER:
• It is the temperature at which the ice, water and water vapor are in thermal equilibrium.
• Its value is set at 273.16 K.
• 273.16 K = 0.010C
• It is more accurate than steam point hence preferred.
TRIPLE POINT CELL:

• It consists of a double walled glass container with pure water in the space between the walls.
• Air is evacuated from water enclosure and freezing mixture is filled in the center
• Ice , water and vapours are simultaneously present in thermal equilibrium at 0.61 kPa.
• The temperature is fixed at 273.16 K

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY:

• The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of the substance by 1 kelvin rise of temperature.
• Q = mc(T )
Q
• c=
m(T )
• Unit: Jkg-1k-1
• Examples; Specific Heat Capacity for Water = 4180 Jkg-1k-1 (good absorber of heat) and Specific Heat
Capacity for Copper = 400 Jkg-1k-1 (good conductor of heat).
• The heat capacity (C) of a body is a quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by 1 kelvin.
• ∆Q = C (∆T),
• Also, C = mc
• Specific heat capacities of solids can be determined by using electrical methods.
• Heat is given to a piece of test solid through electric heater and temperature change is measured using a
thermometer.
 • If I = current, V = potential difference, t = heating time in seconds, c = specific heat capacity of the material
(solid) and mass = m, then
• mc(T2 − T1 ) = ItV
ItV
• c=
m(T2 − T1 )

• Specific heat capacities of liquids can also be determined by using electrical methods.
• Heat is given to a test liquid in a calorimeter of mass M and heat capacity c 1 through electric heater and
temperature change is measured using a thermometer.
• If I = current, V = potential difference, t = heating time in seconds, c = specific heat capacity of the material
(liquid), then
• mc(T2 − T1 ) + Mc1 (T2 − T1 ) = ItV
ItV Mc1
• c= −
m(T2 − T1 ) m
• Specific heat capacity of water is doubled than ice, so it takes twice the time or twice the amount of heat to
raise the temperature of water by the same amount.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT:

• The amount of heat required per unit mass of a substance to change its state (change of phase) at a
characteristic/ constant temperature.
• Three states of matter. Solid, liquid and gas.
• Q = mL
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION:
• The amount of heat required per unit mass of a substance to change its state from solid to liquid at its
melting pint (Constant temperature) and vice versa is known as the specific latent heat of fusion of the
substance.
 • Unit: Jkg-1
• Q = mL
Q
• L=
m
• Specific Latent heat of fusion for ice = 3.34 x 105 J/kg.
• Thermometer does not show change in temperature during change of phase.
• The latent heat of fusion is required to break the bonds between solid molecules.
• Electrical method: A heater is inserted in the funnel of melting ice placed on a beaker,.
• if I = current, V = potential differrence, t = heating time, L = latent heat of fusion, mass of ice melted = m2 –
m1, then
• IVt = (m2 − m1 ) L ,(considering no heat is absorbed by the container)
IVt
• L=
m2 − m1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D5T7GZAuffc

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION:

• The amount of heat required per unit mass of a substance to change its state from liquid to the gaseous
phase and vice versa at constant temperature and atmospheric pressure is known as specific Latent heat of
vaporization.
• Q = mL
Q
• L=
m
• The specific latent heat of vaporization for water = 2.26 x 106Jkg -1 (7 times the specific latent heat of fusion
of ice).
• Hence time and amount of heat required to change water into steam is 7 times more than that ice changing
into water.
• The latent heat supplied is used to break the bonds between the molecules (solids and liquids), to increase
the potential energy of the molecules (liquids) and to do work against the external pressure (liquids to gas).
• Electrical method can be used to measure the specific latent heat of a substance.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LbZkFuJn_S4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDbo_vGOycU
 TEMPERATURE QUESTIONS 2008-2023 (SECTION 14.1 & 14.2)
1
2
3
4

TEMPERATURE 2008 – 2023 (ANSWERS) (SECTION 14.1 & 14.2)

1
2

4
 TEMPERATURE 2014 – 2023 (SECTION 14.2)
1
2
3
4
5
6

N/
41/
17
7

N/
42/
17
8

J/
42/
18
9

N/
42/
18
10

N/
41/
19
11

N/
42/
19
12

M/
42/
21
13

N/
41/
22
 TEMPERATURE 2014 – 2023 (ANSWERS) SECTION 14.3
1

2
3

5
6

N/
41/
17

N/
42/
17

J/
42/
18
9

N/
42/
18

10

N/
41/
19
11

N/
42/
19

12

M/
42/
21

13

N/
41/
22