AS AND A-

LEVEL
PHYSICS
Specification
For teaching from onwards
For AS and A-level exams in 2016 onwards
Version 1.3 1 June 2017
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level Physics 5
1.2 Support and resources to help you teach 6

2 Specification at a glance 8

3 Subject content 11
3.1 Measurements and their errors 11
3.2 Particles and radiation 12
3.3 Waves 18
3.4 Mechanics and materials 21
3.5 Electricity 27
3.6 Further mechanics and thermal physics (A-level only) 29
3.7 Fields and their consequences (A-level only) 33
3.8 Nuclear physics (A-level only) 41
3.9 Astrophysics (A-level only) 45
3.10 Medical physics (A-level only) 49
3.11 Engineering physics (A-level only) 54
3.12 Turning points in physics (A-level only) 59
3.13 Electronics (A-level only) 63

4 Scheme of assessment 69
4.1 Aims 69
4.2 Assessment objectives 70
4.3 Assessment weightings 71

5 General administration 73
5.1 Entries and codes 73
5.2 Overlaps with other qualifications 73
5.3 Awarding grades and reporting results 74
5.4 Re-sits and shelf life 74
5.5 Previous learning and prerequisites 74
5.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion 74
5.7 Working with AQA for the first time 75
5.8 Private candidates 75

6 Mathematical requirements and

exemplifications 77
6.1 Arithmetic and numerical computation 77
6.2 Handling data 78
6.3 Algebra 79

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 3
 6.4 Graphs 79
6.5 Geometry and trigonometry 81

7 AS practical assessment 83
7.1 Use of apparatus and techniques 83
7.2 Required practical activities 84
7.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers 84

8 A-level practical assessment 87

8.1 Use of apparatus and techniques 87
8.2 Required practical activities 88
8.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers 89
8.4 Practical skills to be assessed via endorsement 90

Are you using the latest version of this specification?

• You will always find the most up-to-date version of this specification on our website at
• We will write to you if there are significant changes to the specification.

4 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

1 Introduction
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level Physics
Relevant in the classroom and the real world
We involved over a thousand teachers in developing these specifications, to ensure that the
subject content is relevant to real world experiences and is interesting to teach and learn. We’ve
also presented it in a straightforward way, giving you the freedom to teach in the way that works for
your students.
These Physics specifications are a stepping stone to future study, which is why we also consulted
universities, to ensure these specifications allow students to develop the skills that they want to
see.
This approach has led to specifications that will support you to inspire students, nurture a passion
for Physics and lay the groundwork for further study in science or engineering.

The way you teach – your choice

Our specifications have been written in a context-free style. This means that you can select the
contexts and applications that you feel bring the subject alive. We have also produced a range of
excellent teaching resources that you can use alongside your own material.
The AS and A-level courses allow for a choice of starting points. You can choose a familiar starting
point for students, such as mechanics, or begin with fresh topics to create interest and a new
dimension to their knowledge, such as particle physics.
We’ve provided five optional topics as part of the full A-level course so students can focus on their
areas of interest:
• Astrophysics
• Medical physics
• Turning points in physics
• Engineering physics (re-branded Applied physics)
• Electronics.

Practical at the heart of science

Like you, we believe that Physics is fundamentally an experimental subject. These specifications
provide numerous opportunities to use practical experiences to link theory to reality, and equip
students with the essential practical skills they need.

Teach AS and A-level together

We’ve ensured that the AS and A-level are fully co-teachable. The AS exams include similar
questions to those in the A-level, with less difficulty.
We’ve created our A-level content with our GCSE in mind to make sure that there is a seamless
progression between qualifications. We’ve also followed ASE guidance on use of scientific
terminology across our science subjects.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 5
Assessment success
We’ve tested our specimen question papers with students, making sure they’re interesting,
straightforward and clear and hold no hidden surprises. To ensure that your students are rewarded
for the physics skills and knowledge they’ve developed, our exams include:
• specified content tested in each of the first two papers at A-level to help students prepare for
their exams
• a variety of assessment styles within each paper so students can confidently engage with the
questions
• multiple choice questions are included to allow for a wide breadth of Physics from the
specifications to be tested
With us, your students will get the results they deserve, from the exam board you trust.
You can find out about all our science qualifications at aqa.org.uk/science.

1.2 Support and resources to help you teach

We know that support and resources are vital for your teaching and that you have limited time to
find or develop good quality materials. So we’ve worked with experienced teachers to provide you
with a range of resources that will help you confidently plan, teach and prepare for exams.

Teaching resources
We have too many Physics resources to list here so visit aqa.org.uk/7408 to see them all. They
include:
• additional practice papers to help students prepare for exams
• guidance on how to plan both the AS and A-level courses with supporting schemes of work
for co-teaching
• several AQA-approved student textbooks reviewed by experienced senior examiners
• guidance on maths skills requirements with additional support via Exampro
• resources to support key topics (including the optional topics), with detailed lesson plans
written by experienced teachers
• training courses to help you deliver AQA Physics qualifications
• subject expertise courses for all teachers, from newly-qualified teachers who are just getting
started to experienced teachers looking for fresh inspiration.

Preparing for exams

Visit aqa.org.uk/7408 for everything you need to prepare for our exams, including:
• past papers, mark schemes and examiners’ reports
• sample papers and mark schemes
• Exampro: a searchable bank of past AQA exam questions
• exemplar student answers with examiner commentaries.

Analyse your students' results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

Find out which questions were the most challenging, how the results compare to previous years
and where your students need to improve. ERA, our free online results analysis tool, will help you
see where to focus your teaching. Register at aqa.org.uk/era

6 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

For information about results, including maintaining standards over time, grade boundaries and our
post-results services, visit aqa.org.uk/results

Keep your skills up to date with professional development

Wherever you are in your career, there’s always something new to learn. As well as subject-
specific training, we offer a range of courses to help boost your skills.
• Improve your teaching skills in areas including differentiation, teaching literacy and meeting
Ofsted requirements.
• Prepare for a new role with our leadership and management courses.
You can attend a course at venues around the country, in your school or online – whatever suits
your needs and availability. Find out more at coursesandevents.aqa.org.uk

Get help and support

Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at aqa.org.uk/7201
You can talk directly to the Physics subject team:
E: [email protected]
T: 01483 477 756

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 7
2 Specification at a glance
These qualifications are linear. Linear means that students will sit all the AS exams at the end of
their AS course and all the A-level exams at the end of their A-level course.

Subject content
Core content
1 Measurements and their errors (page 11)
2 Particles and radiation (page 12)
3 Waves (page 18)
4 Mechanics and materials (page 21)
5 Electricity (page 27)
6 Further mechanics and thermal physics (A-level only) (page 29)
7 Fields and their consequences (A-level only) (page 33)
8 Nuclear physics (A-level only) (page 41)
Options
9 Astrophysics (A-level only) (page 45)
10 Medical physics (A-level only) (page 49)
11 Engineering physics (A-level only) (page 54)
12 Turning points in physics (A-level only) (page 59)
13 Electronics (A-level only) (page 63)

AS
Assessments
Paper 1
What's assessed
Sections 1 - 5

Assessed
• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
• 70 marks
• 50% of AS

Questions
70 marks of short and long answer questions split by topic.

8 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

Paper 2
What's assessed
Sections 1 - 5

Assessed
• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
• 70 marks
• 50% of AS

Questions
Section A: 20 marks of short and long answer questions on practical skills and data analysis
Section B: 20 marks of short and long answer questions from across all areas of AS content
Section C: 30 multiple choice questions

A-level
Assessments
Paper 1

What's assessed
Sections 1 - 5 and 6.1 (Periodic motion)

Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours
• 85 marks
• 34% of A-level

Questions
60 marks of short and long answer questions and 25 multiple choice questions on content.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 9
 Paper 2

What's assessed
Sections 6.2 (Thermal Physics), 7 and 8
Assumed knowledge from sections 1 to 6.1

Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours
• 85 marks
• 34% of A-level

Questions
60 marks of short and long answer questions and 25 multiple choice questions on content.

Paper 3

What's assessed
Section A: Compulsory section: Practical skills and data analysis
Section B: Students enter for one of sections 9, 10, 11, 12 or 13

Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours
• 80 marks
• 32% of A-level

Questions
45 marks of short and long answer questions on practical experiments and data analysis.
35 marks of short and long answer questions on optional topic.

10 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3 Subject content
Sections 3.1 to 3.5 are designed to be covered in the first year of the A-level and are also the AS
subject content. So you can teach AS and A-level together.
These specifications are presented in a two column format. The left hand column contains the
specification content that all students must cover, and that can be assessed in the written papers.
The right hand column exemplifies the opportunities for skills to be developed throughout the
course. As such knowledge of individual experiments on the right hand side is not assumed
knowledge for the assessment. The codes in the right hand column refer to the skills in relevant
appendices. MS refers to the Mathematical Skills, AT refers to the Apparatus and Techniques and
PS refers to the Practical Skills.

3.1 Measurements and their errors

Content in this section is a continuing study for a student of physics. A working knowledge of the
specified fundamental (base) units of measurement is vital. Likewise, practical work in the subject
needs to be underpinned by an awareness of the nature of measurement errors and of their
numerical treatment. The ability to carry through reasonable estimations is a skill that is required
throughout the course and beyond.

3.1.1 Use of SI units and their prefixes

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Fundamental (base) units.

Use of mass, length, time, amount of substance,
temperature, electric current and their associated SI units.
SI units derived.
Knowledge and use of the SI prefixes, values and standard
form.
The fundamental unit of light intensity, the candela, is
excluded.
Students are not expected to recall definitions of the
fundamental quantities.
Dimensional analysis is not required.
Students should be able to use the prefixes:
T,G, M, k, c, m, μ, n, p, f ,
Students should be able to convert between different units
of the same quantity, eg J and eV, J and kW h.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 11
3.1.2 Limitation of physical measurements
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Random and systematic errors. PS 2.3

Precision, repeatability, reproducibility, resolution and Students should be able to identify
accuracy. random and systematic errors and
suggest ways to reduce or remove
Uncertainty:
them.
Absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties
PS 3.3
represent uncertainty in the final answer for a quantity.
Students should understand the link
Combination of absolute and percentage uncertainties. between the number of significant
figures in the value of a quantity and
Represent uncertainty in a data point on a graph using
its associated uncertainty.
error bars.
MS 1.5
Determine the uncertainties in the gradient and intercept of
a straight-line graph. Students should be able to combine
uncertainties in cases where the
Individual points on the graph may or may not have
measurements that give rise to the
associated error bars.
uncertainties are added, subtracted,
multiplied, divided, or raised to
powers. Combinations involving
trigonometric or logarithmic functions
will not be required.

3.1.3 Estimation of physical quantities

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Orders of magnitude. MS 1.4

Estimation of approximate values of physical quantities. Students should be able to estimate
approximate values of physical
quantities to the nearest order of
magnitude.
Students should be able to use
these estimates together with their
knowledge of physics to produce
further derived estimates also to the
nearest order of magnitude.

3.2 Particles and radiation

This section introduces students both to the fundamental properties of matter, and to
electromagnetic radiation and quantum phenomena. Teachers may wish to begin with this topic to
provide a new interest and knowledge dimension beyond GCSE. Through a study of these topics,
students become aware of the way ideas develop and evolve in physics. They will appreciate the

12 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

importance of international collaboration in the development of new experiments and theories in

this area of fundamental research.

3.2.1 Particles
3.2.1.1 Constituents of the atom
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Simple model of the atom, including the proton, neutron

and electron. Charge and mass of the proton, neutron and
electron in SI units and relative units.
The atomic mass unit (amu) is included in the A-level
Nuclear physics section.
Specific charge of the proton and the electron, and of
nuclei and ions.
Proton number Z , nucleon number A, nuclide notation.
A
Students should be familiar with the Z X notation.

Meaning of isotopes and the use of isotopic data.

3.2.1.2 Stable and unstable nuclei

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The strong nuclear force; its role in keeping the nucleus AT i

stable; short-range attraction up to approximately 3 fm, Demonstration of the range of alpha
very-short range repulsion closer than approximately 0.5 particles using a cloud chamber,
fm. spark counter or Geiger counter.
Unstable nuclei; alpha and beta decay. MS 0.2
Equations for alpha decay, β− decay including the need for Use of prefixes for small and large
the neutrino. distance measurements.
The existence of the neutrino was hypothesised to
account for conservation of energy in beta decay.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 13
3.2.1.3 Particles, antiparticles and photons
Content Opportunities for skills
development

For every type of particle, there is a corresponding AT i

antiparticle.
Detection of gamma radiation.
Comparison of particle and antiparticle masses, charge
MS 1.1, 2.2
and rest energy in MeV.
Students could determine the
Students should know that the positron, antiproton, frequency and wavelength of the two
antineutron and antineutrino are the antiparticles of the gamma photons produced when a
electron, proton, neutron and neutrino respectively. ‘slow’ electron and a ‘slow' positron
Photon model of electromagnetic radiation, the Planck annihilate each other.
constant. The PET scanner could be used as
an application of annihilation.
E = hf = hc
λ

Knowledge of annihilation and pair production and the

energies involved.
2
The use of E = mc is not required in calculations.

3.2.1.4 Particle interactions

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Four fundamental interactions: gravity, electromagnetic, PS 1.2

weak nuclear, strong nuclear. (The strong nuclear force
Momentum transfer of a heavy ball
may be referred to as the strong interaction.)
thrown from one person to another.
The concept of exchange particles to explain forces
between elementary particles.
0
Knowledge of the gluon, Z and graviton will not be tested.
The electromagnetic force; virtual photons as the
exchange particle.
+
The weak interaction limited to β−and β decay, electron
+ −
capture and electron–proton collisions; W and W as the
exchange particles.
Simple diagrams to represent the above reactions or
interactions in terms of incoming and outgoing particles
and exchange particles.

14 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.2.1.5 Classification of particles

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Hadrons are subject to the strong interaction. AT k

The two classes of hadrons: Use of computer simulations of
particle collisions.
• baryons (proton, neutron) and antibaryons
(antiproton and antineutron) AT I
• mesons (pion, kaon). Cosmic ray showers as a source of
Baryon number as a quantum number. high energy particles including pions
and kaons; observation of stray
Conservation of baryon number. tracks in a cloud chamber; use of two
The proton is the only stable baryon into which other Geiger counters to detect a cosmic
baryons eventually decay. ray shower.
The pion as the exchange particle of the strong nuclear
force.
The kaon as a particle that can decay into pions.
Leptons: electron, muon, neutrino (electron and muon
types only) and their antiparticles.
Lepton number as a quantum number; conservation of
lepton number for muon leptons and for electron leptons.
The muon as a particle that decays into an electron.
Strange particles
Strange particles as particles that are produced through
the strong interaction and decay through the weak
interaction (eg kaons).
Strangeness (symbol s) as a quantum number to reflect
the fact that strange particles are always created in pairs.
Conservation of strangeness in strong interactions.
Strangeness can change by 0, +1 or -1 in weak
interactions.
Appreciation that particle physics relies on the
collaborative efforts of large teams of scientists and
engineers to validate new knowledge.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 15
3.2.1.6 Quarks and antiquarks
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Properties of quarks and antiquarks: charge, baryon

number and strangeness.
Combinations of quarks and antiquarks required for
baryons (proton and neutron only), antibaryons (antiproton
and antineutron only) and mesons (pion and kaon only).
Only knowledge of up (u), down (d) and strange (s) quarks
and their antiquarks will be tested.
The decay of the neutron should be known.

3.2.1.7 Applications of conservation laws

Content Opportunities for skills
development

+
Change of quark character in β−and in β decay.
Application of the conservation laws for charge, baryon
number, lepton number and strangeness to particle
interactions. The necessary data will be provided in
questions for particles outside those specified.
Students should recognise that energy and momentum
are conserved in interactions.

3.2.2 Electromagnetic radiation and quantum phenomena

3.2.2.1 The photoelectric effect
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Threshold frequency; photon explanation of threshold PS 3.2 / MS 2.3

frequency.
Demonstration of the photoelectric
Work function ϕ, stopping potential. effect using a photocell or an
electroscope with a zinc plate
Photoelectric equation: h f = ϕ + Ek (max attachment and UV lamp.
Ek (max is the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.
The experimental determination of stopping potential is not
required.

16 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.2.2.2 Collisions of electrons with atoms

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Ionisation and excitation; understanding of ionisation and

excitation in the fluorescent tube.
The electron volt.
Students will be expected to be able to convert eV into J
and vice versa.

3.2.2.3 Energy levels and photon emission

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Line spectra (eg of atomic hydrogen) as evidence for AT j / MS 0.1, 0.2

transitions between discrete energy levels in atoms.
Observation of line spectra using a
h f = E1 − E2 diffraction grating.

In questions, energy levels may be quoted in J or eV.

3.2.2.4 Wave-particle duality

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Students should know that electron diffraction suggests PS 1.2

that particles possess wave properties and the
Demonstration using an electron
photoelectric effect suggests that electromagnetic waves
diffraction tube.
have a particulate nature.
MS 1.1, 2.3
Details of particular methods of particle diffraction are not
expected. Use prefixes when expressing
h
wavelength values.
de Broglie wavelength λ = mv where mv is the momentum.

Students should be able to explain how and why the

amount of diffraction changes when the momentum of the
particle is changed.
Appreciation of how knowledge and understanding of the
nature of matter changes over time.
Appreciation that such changes need to be evaluated
through peer review and validated by the scientific
community.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 17
3.3 Waves
GCSE studies of wave phenomena are extended through a development of knowledge of the
characteristics, properties, and applications of travelling waves and stationary waves. Topics
treated include refraction, diffraction, superposition and interference.

3.3.1 Progressive and stationary waves

3.3.1.1 Progressive waves
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Oscillation of the particles of the medium; PS 2.3 / MS 0.1, 4.7 / AT a, b

amplitude, frequency, wavelength, speed, phase, phase Laboratory experiment to determine
difference, c = f λ f = T1 the speed of sound in free air using
direct timing or standing waves with a
Phase difference may be measured as angles (radians graphical analysis.
and degrees) or as fractions of a cycle.

3.3.1.2 Longitudinal and transverse waves

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Nature of longitudinal and transverse waves. PS 2.2, 2.4 / MS 1.2, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5 /
AT i
Examples to include: sound, electromagnetic waves, and
waves on a string. Students can investigate the factors
that determine the speed of a water
Students will be expected to know the direction of
wave.
displacement of particles/fields relative to the direction of
energy propagation and that all electromagnetic waves
travel at the same speed in a vacuum.
Polarisation as evidence for the nature of transverse
waves.
Applications of polarisers to include Polaroid material and
the alignment of aerials for transmission and reception.
Malus’s law will not be expected.

18 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.3.1.3 Principle of superposition of waves and formation of stationary waves

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Stationary waves. MS 4.7 / PS 1.2, 2.1 / AT i

Nodes and antinodes on strings. Students can investigate the factors
that determine the frequency of
1 T
f = 2l μ for first harmonic. stationary wave patterns of a
stretched string.
The formation of stationary waves by two waves of the
same frequency travelling in opposite directions.
A graphical explanation of formation of stationary waves
will be expected.
Stationary waves formed on a string and those produced
with microwaves and sound waves should be considered.
Stationary waves on strings will be described in terms of
harmonics. The terms fundamental (for first harmonic) and
overtone will not be used.

Required practical 1: Investigation into the variation of

the frequency of stationary waves on a string with length,
tension and mass per unit length of the string.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 19
3.3.2 Refraction, diffraction and interference
3.3.2.1 Interference
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Path difference. Coherence. AT i

Interference and diffraction using a laser as a source of Investigation of two-source
monochromatic light. interference with sound, light and
microwave radiation.
Young’s double-slit experiment: the use of two coherent
sources or the use of a single source with double slits to
produce an interference pattern.

Fringe spacing, w = λD
s

Production of interference pattern using white light.

Students are expected to show awareness of safety
issues associated with using lasers.
Students will not be required to describe how a laser
works.
Students will be expected to describe and explain
interference produced with sound and electromagnetic
waves.
Appreciation of how knowledge and understanding of
nature of electromagnetic radiation has changed over
time.

Required practical 2: Investigation of interference effects

to include the Young’s slit experiment and interference by
a diffraction grating.

20 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.3.2.2 Diffraction
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Appearance of the diffraction pattern from a single slit

using monochromatic and white light.
Qualitative treatment of the variation of the width of the
central diffraction maximum with wavelength and slit width.
The graph of intensity against angular separation is not
required.
Plane transmission diffraction grating at normal incidence.
Derivation of dsinθ = nλ
Use of the spectrometer will not be tested.
Applications of diffraction gratings.

3.3.2.3 Refraction at a plane surface

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Refractive index of a substance, n = cc MS 0.6, 4.1

s

Students should recall that the refractive index of air is

approximately 1.
Snell’s law of refraction for a boundary
n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2
n
Total internal reflection sin θc = n2
1

Simple treatment of fibre optics including the function of

the cladding.
Optical fibres will be limited to step index only.
Material and modal dispersion.
Students are expected to understand the principles and
consequences of pulse broadening and absorption.

3.4 Mechanics and materials

Vectors and their treatment are introduced followed by development of the student’s knowledge
and understanding of forces, energy and momentum. The section continues with a study of
materials considered in terms of their bulk properties and tensile strength. As with earlier topics,
this section and also the following section Electricity would provide a good starting point for
students who prefer to begin by consolidating work.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 21
3.4.1 Force, energy and momentum
3.4.1.1 Scalars and vectors
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Nature of scalars and vectors. MS 0.6, 4.2, 4.4, 4.5 / PS 1.1

Examples should include: Investigation of the conditions for
equilibrium for three coplanar forces
velocity/speed, mass, force/weight, acceleration,
acting at a point using a force board.
displacement/distance.
Addition of vectors by calculation or scale drawing.
Calculations will be limited to two vectors at right angles.
Scale drawings may involve vectors at angles other than
90°.
Resolution of vectors into two components at right angles
to each other.
Examples should include components of forces along and
perpendicular to an inclined plane.
Problems may be solved either by the use of resolved
forces or the use of a closed triangle.
Conditions for equilibrium for two or three coplanar forces
acting at a point. Appreciation of the meaning of
equilibrium in the context of an object at rest or moving
with constant velocity.

3.4.1.2 Moments
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Moment of a force about a point.

Moment defined as force × perpendicular distance from
the point to the line of action of the force.
Couple as a pair of equal and opposite coplanar forces.
Moment of couple defined as force × perpendicular
distance between the lines of action of the forces.
Principle of moments.
Centre of mass.
Knowledge that the position of the centre of mass of
uniform regular solid is at its centre.

22 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.4.1.3 Motion along a straight line

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration. MS 3.6, 3.7 / PS 1.1, 3.1

∆s Distinguish between instantaneous

v= ∆t velocity and average velocity.
∆v MS 3.5, 3.6
a= ∆t
Measurements and calculations from
Calculations may include average and instantaneous
displacement–time, velocity–time and
speeds and velocities.
acceleration–time graphs.
Representation by graphical methods of uniform and non-
MS 0.5, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
uniform acceleration.
Calculations involving motion in a
Significance of areas of velocity–time and acceleration–
straight line.
time graphs and gradients of displacement–time and
velocity–time graphs for uniform and non-uniform
acceleration eg graphs for motion of bouncing ball.
Equations for uniform acceleration:
v = u + at
u+v
s= 2 t
2
s = ut + at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
Acceleration due to gravity, g.

Required practical 3: Determination of g by a freefall MS 0.3, 1.2, 3.7 / AT d

method. Students should be able to identify
random and systematic errors in the
experiment and suggest ways to
remove them.
MS 3.9
Determine g from a graph.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 23
3.4.1.4 Projectile motion
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Independent effect of motion in horizontal and vertical PS 2.2, 3.1

directions of a uniform gravitational field. Problems will be
Investigation of the factors that
solvable using the equations of uniform acceleration.
determine the motion of an object
Qualitative treatment of friction. through a fluid.
Distinctions between static and dynamic friction will not be
tested.
Qualitative treatment of lift and drag forces.
Terminal speed.
Knowledge that air resistance increases with speed.
Qualitative understanding of the effect of air resistance on
the trajectory of a projectile and on the factors that affect
the maximum speed of a vehicle.

3.4.1.5 Newton’s laws of motion

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Knowledge and application of the three laws of motion in PS 4.1 / MS 0.5, 3.2 / AT a, b, d
appropriate situations.
Students can verify Newton’s second
F = ma for situations where the mass is constant. law of motion.
MS 4.1, 4.2
Students can use free-body
diagrams.

24 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.4.1.6 Momentum
Content Opportunities for skills
development

momentum = mass × velocity MS 2.2, 2.3

Conservation of linear momentum. Students can apply conservation of
momentum and rate of change of
Principle applied quantitatively to problems in one momentum to a range of examples.
dimension.
∆ mv
Force as the rate of change of momentum, F = ∆t

Impulse = change in momentum

F∆t = ∆ mv , where F is constant.
Significance of the area under a force–time graph.
Quantitative questions may be set on forces that vary with
time. Impact forces are related to contact times (eg kicking
a football, crumple zones, packaging).
Elastic and inelastic collisions; explosions.
Appreciation of momentum conservation issues in the
context of ethical transport design.

3.4.1.7 Work, energy and power

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Energy transferred, W = Fscos θ MS 0.3 / PS 3.3, 4.1 / AT a, b, f.

∆W Investigate the efficiency of an
rate of doing work = rate of energy transfer, P = ∆t electric motor being used to raise a
= Fv mass through a measured height.
Quantitative questions may be set on variable forces. Students should be able to identify
random and systematic errors in the
Significance of the area under a force–displacement experiment and suggest ways to
graph. remove them.
useful output power
efficiency = input power

Efficiency can be expressed as a percentage.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 25
3.4.1.8 Conservation of energy
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Principle of conservation of energy. MS 0.4, 2.2

∆Ep = mg∆h and Ek = 12 mv2 Estimate the energy that can be

derived from food consumption.
Quantitative and qualitative application of energy
conservation to examples involving gravitational potential
energy, kinetic energy, and work done against resistive
forces.

3.4.2 Materials
3.4.2.1 Bulk properties of solids
Content Opportunities for skills
development

m
Density, ρ = V MS 0.2, 4.3 / PS 3.3, 4.1
Students can compare the use of
Hooke’s law, elastic limit, analogue and digital meters.
F = k∆L , k as stiffness and spring constant. MS 0.4, 4.3 / AT e
Tensile strain and tensile stress. Estimate the volume of an object
Elastic strain energy, breaking stress. leading to an estimate of its density.

energy stored = 12 F∆L

= area under force−extension graph
Description of plastic behaviour, fracture and brittle
behaviour linked to force–extension graphs.
Quantitative and qualitative application of energy
conservation to examples involving elastic strain energy
and energy to deform.
Spring energy transformed to kinetic and gravitational
potential energy.
Interpretation of simple stress–strain curves.
Appreciation of energy conservation issues in the context
of ethical transport design.

26 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.4.2.2 The Young modulus

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Young modulus = tensile stress FL MS 3.1

tensile strain = A ∆ L

Use of stress–strain graphs to find the Young modulus.

(One simple method of measurement is required.)

Required practical 4: Determination of the Young

modulus by a simple method.

3.5 Electricity
This section builds on and develops earlier study of these phenomena from GCSE. It provides
opportunities for the development of practical skills at an early stage in the course and lays the
groundwork for later study of the many electrical applications that are important to society.

3.5.1 Current electricity

3.5.1.1 Basics of electricity
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Electric current as the rate of flow of charge; potential AT b, f

difference as work done per unit charge.
Students can construct circuits from
I= ∆Q
, V =W the range of components.
∆t Q

Resistance defined as R = VI

3.5.1.2 Current–voltage characteristics

Content Opportunities for skills
development

For an ohmic conductor, semiconductor diode, and

filament lamp.
Ohm’s law as a special case where I ∝ V under constant
physical conditions.
Unless specifically stated in questions, ammeters and
voltmeters should be treated as ideal (having zero and
infinite resistance respectively).
Questions can be set where either I or V is on the
horizontal axis of the characteristic graph.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 27
3.5.1.3 Resistivity
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Resistivity, ρ = RA MS 3.2, 4.3 / PS 1.2 / AT a, b, f, g

L
Investigation of the variation of
Description of the qualitative effect of temperature on the resistance of a thermistor with
resistance of metal conductors and thermistors. temperature.
Only negative temperature coefficient (ntc) thermistors will
be considered.
Applications of thermistors to include temperature sensors
and resistance–temperature graphs.
Superconductivity as a property of certain materials which
have zero resistivity at and below a critical temperature
which depends on the material.
Applications of superconductors to include the production
of strong magnetic fields and the reduction of energy loss
in transmission of electric power.
Critical field will not be assessed.

Required practical 5: Determination of resistivity of a wire

using a micrometer, ammeter and voltmeter.

3.5.1.4 Circuits
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Resistors: MS 0.3 / PS 4.1 / AT a, b, f, g

in series, RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … Students can construct circuits with
various component configurations
in parallel, R1 = R1 + R1 + R1 + … and measure currents and potential
T 1 2 3
differences.
Energ y and power equations: E = IV t;
V2
P = IV = I 2R = R

The relationships between currents, voltages and

resistances in series and parallel circuits, including cells in
series and identical cells in parallel.
Conservation of charge and conservation of energy in dc
circuits.

28 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.5.1.5 Potential divider

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The potential divider used to supply constant or variable MS 3.2 / PS 4.1 / AT f

potential difference from a power supply.
Students can investigate the
The use of the potentiometer as a measuring instrument is behaviour of a potential divider
not required. circuit.
Examples should include the use of variable resistors, MS 3.2 / AT g
thermistors, and light dependent resistors (LDR) in the
Students should design and
potential divider.
construct potential divider circuits to
achieve various outcomes.

3.5.1.6 Electromotive force and internal resistance

Content Opportunities for skills
development

E
ε= Q , ε= I R+r
Terminal pd; emf
Students will be expected to understand and perform
calculations for circuits in which the internal resistance of
the supply is not negligible.

Required practical 6: Investigation of the emf and MS 3.1, 3.3 / PS 2.2, 3.1 / AT f
internal resistance of electric cells and batteries by
measuring the variation of the terminal pd of the cell with
current in it.

3.6 Further mechanics and thermal physics (A-level only)

The earlier study of mechanics is further advanced through a consideration of circular motion and
simple harmonic motion (the harmonic oscillator). A further section allows the thermal properties of
materials, the properties and nature of ideal gases, and the molecular kinetic theory to be studied
in depth.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 29
3.6.1 Periodic motion (A-level only)
3.6.1.1 Circular motion (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Motion in a circular path at constant speed implies there is MS 0.4

an acceleration and requires a centripetal force.
Estimate the acceleration and
v
Magnitude of angular speed ω = r = 2π f centripetal force in situations that
involve rotation.
Radian measure of angle.
Direction of angular velocity will not be considered.
2
Centripetal acceleration a = vr = ω r
2

The derivation of the centripetal acceleration formula will

not be examined.
2
Centripetal force F = mv
2
r = mω r

3.6.1.2 Simple harmonic motion (SHM) (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Analysis of characteristics of simple harmonic motion AT i, k

(SHM).
Data loggers can be used to produce
Condition for SHM: a ∝ − x s − t, v − t and a − t graphs for SHM.
Defining equation: a = − ω x
2
MS 3.6, 3.8, 3.9, 3.12
Sketch relationships between x, v, a
x = Acos ωt and v = ± ω A2 − x2
and t for simple harmonic oscillators.
Graphical representations linking the variations of x, v and
a with time.
Appreciation that the v − t graph is derived from the
gradient of the x − t graph and that the a − t graph is
derived from the gradient of the v − t graph.
Maximum speed = ωA

Maximum acceleration = ω A
2

30 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.6.1.3 Simple harmonic systems (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Study of mass-spring system: T = 2π m MS 4.6 / AT b, c

k
Students should recognise the use of
Study of simple pendulum: T = 2π gl the small-angle approximation in the
derivation of the time period for
Questions may involve other harmonic oscillators (eg examples of approximate SHM.
liquid in U-tube) but full information will be provided in
questions where necessary.
Variation of Ek, Ep, and total energy with both
displacement and time.
Effects of damping on oscillations.

Required practical 7: Investigation into simple harmonic

motion using a mass–spring system and a simple
pendulum.

3.6.1.4 Forced vibrations and resonance (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Qualitative treatment of free and forced vibrations. AT g, i, k

Resonance and the effects of damping on the sharpness Investigation of the factors that
of resonance. determine the resonant frequency of
a driven system.
Examples of these effects in mechanical systems and
situations involving stationary waves.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 31
3.6.2 Thermal physics (A-level only)
3.6.2.1 Thermal energy transfer (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Internal energy is the sum of the randomly distributed MS 1.5 / PS 2.3 / AT a, b, d, f

kinetic energies and potential energies of the particles in a
Investigate the factors that affect the
body.
change in temperature of a
The internal energy of a system is increased when energy substance using an electrical method
is transferred to it by heating or when work is done on it or the method of mixtures.
(and vice versa), eg a qualitative treatment of the first law
Students should be able to identify
of thermodynamics.
random and systematic errors in the
Appreciation that during a change of state the potential experiment and suggest ways to
energies of the particle ensemble are changing but not the remove them.
kinetic energies. Calculations involving transfer of energy.
PS 1.1, 4.1 / AT k
For a change of temperature: Q = mc ∆ θ where c is Investigate, with a data logger and
specific heat capacity. temperature sensor, the change in
Calculations including continuous flow. temperature with time of a substance
undergoing a phase change when
For a change of state Q = ml where l is the specific latent energy is supplied at a constant rate.
heat.

3.6.2.2 Ideal gases (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Gas laws as experimental relationships between p, V , T

and the mass of the gas.
Concept of absolute zero of temperature.
Ideal gas equation: pV = nRT for n moles and pV = NkT
for N molecules.
Work done = p∆V
Avogadro constant N A, molar gas constant R, Boltzmann
constant k
Molar mass and molecular mass.

Required practical 8: Investigation of Boyle's law MS 3.3, 3.4, 3.14 / AT a

(constant temperature) and Charles’s law (constant
pressure) for a gas.

32 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.6.2.3 Molecular kinetic theory model (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Brownian motion as evidence for existence of atoms.

Explanation of relationships between p, V and T in terms
of a simple molecular model.
Students should understand that the gas laws are
empirical in nature whereas the kinetic theory model
arises from theory.
2
Assumptions leading to pV = 13 Nm crms including
derivation of the equation and calculations.
A simple algebraic approach involving conservation of
momentum is required.
Appreciation that for an ideal gas internal energy is kinetic
energy of the atoms.
Use of average molecular kinetic energy =
1 2 3RT
2 m crms = 32 kT = 2N A

Appreciation of how knowledge and understanding of the

behaviour of a gas has changed over time.

3.7 Fields and their consequences (A-level only)

The concept of field is one of the great unifying ideas in physics. The ideas of gravitation,
electrostatics and magnetic field theory are developed within the topic to emphasise this
unification. Many ideas from mechanics and electricity from earlier in the course support this and
are further developed. Practical applications considered include: planetary and satellite orbits,
capacitance and capacitors, their charge and discharge through resistors, and electromagnetic
induction. These topics have considerable impact on modern society.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 33
3.7.1 Fields (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Concept of a force field as a region in which a body

experiences a non-contact force.
Students should recognise that a force field can be
represented as a vector, the direction of which must be
determined by inspection.
Force fields arise from the interaction of mass, of static
charge, and between moving charges.
Similarities and differences between gravitational and
electrostatic forces:
Similarities: Both have inverse-square force laws that have
many characteristics in common, eg use of field lines, use
of potential concept, equipotential surfaces etc
Differences: masses always attract, but charges may
attract or repel

3.7.2 Gravitational fields (A-level only)

3.7.2.1 Newton's law (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Gravity as a universal attractive force acting between all MS 0.4

matter.
Students can estimate the
Magnitude of force between point masses: F =
Gm1m2 gravitational force between a variety
r2 of objects.
where G is the gravitational constant.

3.7.2.2 Gravitational field strength (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Representation of a gravitational field by gravitational field

lines.
F
g as force per unit mass as defined by g = m

Magnitude of g in a radial field given by g = GM

2
r

34 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.7.2.3 Gravitational potential (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Understanding of definition of gravitational potential, MS 3.8, 3.9

including zero value at infinity.
Students use graphical
Understanding of gravitational potential difference. representations to investigate
relationships between v, r and g.
Work done in moving mass m given by ∆W = m∆V
Equipotential surfaces.
Idea that no work is done when moving along an
equipotential surface.

V in a radial field given by V = − GM

r

Significance of the negative sign.

Graphical representations of variations of g and V with r.

V related to g by: g = − ∆∆Vr

∆ V from area under graph of g against r.

3.7.2.4 Orbits of planets and satellites (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Orbital period and speed related to radius of circular orbit; MS 0.4

2 3
derivation of T ∝ r Estimate various parameters of
Energy considerations for an orbiting satellite. planetary orbits, eg kinetic energy of
a planet in orbit.
Total energy of an orbiting satellite.
MS 3.11
Escape velocity.
Use logarithmic plots to show
Synchronous orbits. relationships between T and r for
Use of satellites in low orbits and geostationary orbits, to given data.
include plane and radius of geostationary orbit.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 35
3.7.3 Electric fields (A-level only)
3.7.3.1 Coulomb's law (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Force between point charges in a vacuum: MS 0.3, 2.3

F= 1 Q1Q2 Students can estimate the magnitude

4πε0 r2
of the electrostatic force between
various charge configurations.
Permittivity of free space, ε0
Appreciation that air can be treated as a vacuum when
calculating force between charges.
For a charged sphere, charge may be considered to be at
the centre.
Comparison of magnitude of gravitational and electrostatic
forces between subatomic particles.

3.7.3.2 Electric field strength (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Representation of electric fields by electric field lines. PS 1.2, 2.2 / AT b

Electric field strength. Students can investigate the patterns
F
of various field configurations using
E as force per unit charge defined by E = Q conducting paper (2D) or electrolytic
tank (3D).
Magnitude of E in a uniform field given by E = Vd

Derivation from work done moving charge between plates:

Fd = QΔV
Trajectory of moving charged particle entering a uniform
electric field initially at right angles.
1 Q
Magnitude of E in a radial field given by E = 4πε 2
0 r

36 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.7.3.3 Electric potential (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Understanding of definition of absolute electric potential,

including zero value at infinity, and of electric potential
difference.
Work done in moving charge Q given by ∆ W = Q ∆ V
Equipotential surfaces.
No work done moving charge along an equipotential
surface.
1 Q
Magnitude of V in a radial field given by V = 4πε
0 r

Graphical representations of variations of E and V with r.

∆V
V related to E by E = ∆r

∆V from the area under graph of E against r.

3.7.4 Capacitance (A-level only)

3.7.4.1 Capacitance (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Q
Definition of capacitance: C = V

3.7.4.2 Parallel plate capacitor (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Aε0εr PS 1.2, 2.2, 4.3 / AT f, g

Dielectric action in a capacitor C = d
Determine the relative permittivity of
Relative permittivity and dielectric constant. a dielectric using a parallel-plate
Students should be able to describe the action of a simple capacitor.
polar molecule that rotates in the presence of an electric Investigate the relationship between
field. C and the dimensions of a parallel-
plate capacitor eg using a
capacitance meter.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 37
3.7.4.3 Energy stored by a capacitor (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Interpretation of the area under a graph of charge against

pd.
2
1 Q
E = 12 QV = 12 CV 2 = 2 C

3.7.4.4 Capacitor charge and discharge (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Graphical representation of charging and discharging of

capacitors through resistors. Corresponding graphs for Q,
V and I against time for charging and discharging.
Interpretation of gradients and areas under graphs where
appropriate.
Time constant RC .
Calculation of time constants including their determination
from graphical data.
Time to halve, T ½ = 0.69RC
t
− RC
Quantitative treatment of capacitor discharge, Q = Q0e

Use of the corresponding equations for V and I .

Quantitative treatment of capacitor charge,
t
Q = Q0 1 − e− RC

Required practical 9: Investigation of the charge and MS 3.8, 3.10, 3.11 / PS 2.2, 2.3 / AT
discharge of capacitors. Analysis techniques should f, k
include log-linear plotting leading to a determination of the
time constant, RC

38 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.7.5 Magnetic fields (A-level only)

3.7.5.1 Magnetic flux density (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field:

F = BIl when field is perpendicular to current.
Fleming’s left hand rule.
Magnetic flux density B and definition of the tesla.

Required practical 10: Investigate how the force on a

wire varies with flux density, current and length of wire
using a top pan balance.

3.7.5.2 Moving charges in a magnetic field (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Force on charged particles moving in a magnetic field, MS 4.3

F = BQv when the field is perpendicular to velocity. Convert between 2D representations
Direction of force on positive and negative charged and 3D situations.
particles.
Circular path of particles; application in devices such as
the cyclotron.

3.7.5.3 Magnetic flux and flux linkage (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Magnetic flux defined by Φ = BA where B is normal to A.

Flux linkage as NΦ where N is the number of turns
cutting the flux.
Flux and flux linkage passing through a rectangular coil
rotated in a magnetic field:
flux linkage NΦ = BANcosθ

Required practical 11: Investigate, using a search coil

and oscilloscope, the effect on magnetic flux linkage of
varying the angle between a search coil and magnetic field
direction.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 39
3.7.5.4 Electromagnetic induction (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Simple experimental phenomena.

Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws.
Magnitude of induced emf = rate of change of flux linkage
ε = N ∆∆Φt
Applications such as a straight conductor moving in a
magnetic field.
emf induced in a coil rotating uniformly in a magnetic field:
ε = BANωsin ωt

3.7.5.5 Alternating currents (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Sinusoidal voltages and currents only; root mean square,

peak and peak-to-peak values for sinusoidal waveforms
only.
I0 V0
I rms = 2
; V rms = 2

Application to the calculation of mains electricity peak and

peak-to-peak voltage values.
Use of an oscilloscope as a dc and ac voltmeter, to
measure time intervals and frequencies, and to display ac
waveforms.
No details of the structure of the instrument are required
but familiarity with the operation of the controls is
expected.

40 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.7.5.6 The operation of a transformer (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

N V MS 0.3 / AT b, h
The transformer equation: N s = V s
p p
Investigate relationships between
I V currents, voltages and numbers of
Transformer efficiency = I SV S
P P coils in transformers.
Production of eddy currents.
Causes of inefficiencies in a transformer.
Transmission of electrical power at high voltage including
calculations of power loss in transmission lines.

3.8 Nuclear physics (A-level only)

This section builds on the work of Particles and radiation to link the properties of the nucleus to the
production of nuclear power through the characteristics of the nucleus, the properties of unstable
nuclei, and the link between energy and mass. Students should become aware of the physics that
underpins nuclear energy production and also of the impact that it can have on society.

3.8.1 Radioactivity (A-level only)

3.8.1.1 Rutherford scattering (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Qualitative study of Rutherford scattering.

Appreciation of how knowledge and understanding of the
structure of the nucleus has changed over time.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 41
3.8.1.2 α, β and γ radiation (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Their properties and experimental identification using

simple absorption experiments; applications eg to relative
hazards of exposure to humans.
Applications also include thickness measurements of
aluminium foil paper and steel.

Inverse-square law for γ radiation: I = k2

x

Experimental verification of inverse-square law.

Applications eg to safe handling of radioactive sources.
Background radiation; examples of its origins and
experimental elimination from calculations.
Appreciation of balance between risk and benefits in the
uses of radiation in medicine.

Required practical 12: Investigation of the inverse-

square law for gamma radiation.

3.8.1.3 Radioactive decay (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Random nature of radioactive decay; constant decay MS 1.3, 3.10, 3.11 / PS 3.1, 3.2
probability of a given nucleus; Investigate the decay equation using
∆N a variety of approaches (including
= − λN
∆t the use of experimental data, dice
simulations etc) and a variety of
N = N 0e− λt analytical methods.
Use of activity, A = λN
Modelling with constant decay probability.
Questions may be set which require students to use
A = A0e−λt
Questions may also involve use of molar mass or the
Avogadro constant.

Half-life equation: T ½ = lnλ2

Determination of half-life from graphical decay data

including decay curves and log graphs.
Applications eg relevance to storage of radioactive waste,
radioactive dating etc.

42 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.8.1.4 Nuclear instability (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Graph of N against Z for stable nuclei.

+
Possible decay modes of unstable nuclei including α, β ,
β− and electron capture.
Changes in N and Z caused by radioactive decay and
representation in simple decay equations.
Questions may use nuclear energy level diagrams.
Existence of nuclear excited states; γ ray emission;
application eg use of technetium-99m as a γ source in
medical diagnosis.

3.8.1.5 Nuclear radius (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Estimate of radius from closest approach of alpha particles MS 1.4

and determination of radius from electron diffraction.
Make order of magnitude
Knowledge of typical values for nuclear radius. calculations of the radius of different
atomic nuclei.
Students will need to be familiar with the Coulomb
equation for the closest approach estimate.
Dependence of radius on nucleon number:

R = R0 A1/3 derived from experimental data.

Interpretation of equation as evidence for constant density
of nuclear material.
Calculation of nuclear density.
Students should be familiar with the graph of intensity
against angle for electron diffraction by a nucleus.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 43
3.8.1.6 Mass and energy (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

2
Appreciation that E = mc applies to all energy changes,
Simple calculations involving mass difference and binding
energy.
Atomic mass unit, u.
Conversion of units; 1 u = 931.5 MeV.
Fission and fusion processes.
Simple calculations from nuclear masses of energy
released in fission and fusion reactions.
Graph of average binding energy per nucleon against
nucleon number.
Students may be expected to identify, on the plot, the
regions where nuclei will release energy when undergoing
fission/fusion.
Appreciation that knowledge of the physics of nuclear
energy allows society to use science to inform decision
making.

3.8.1.7 Induced fission (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Fission induced by thermal neutrons; possibility of a chain

reaction; critical mass.
The functions of the moderator, control rods, and coolant
in a thermal nuclear reactor.
Details of particular reactors are not required.
Students should have studied a simple mechanical model
of moderation by elastic collisions.
Factors affecting the choice of materials for the moderator,
control rods and coolant. Examples of materials used for
these functions.

44 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.8.1.8 Safety aspects (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Fuel used, remote handling of fuel, shielding, emergency

shut-down.
Production, remote handling, and storage of radioactive
waste materials.
Appreciation of balance between risk and benefits in the
development of nuclear power.

3.9 Astrophysics (A-level only)

Fundamental physical principles are applied to the study and interpretation of the Universe.
Students gain deeper insight into the behaviour of objects at great distances from Earth and
discover the ways in which information from these objects can be gathered. The underlying
physical principles of the devices used are covered and some indication is given of the new
information gained by the use of radio astronomy. The discovery of exoplanets is an example of
the way in which new information is gained by astronomers.

3.9.1 Telescopes (A-level only)

3.9.1.1 Astronomical telescope consisting of two converging lenses (A-level only)
Content

Ray diagram to show the image formation in normal adjustment.

Angular magnification in normal adjustment.
angle subtended by image at eye
M= angle subtended by object at unaided eye

Focal lengths of the lenses.

fo
M= fe

3.9.1.2 Reflecting telescopes (A-level only)

Content

Cassegrain arrangement using a parabolic concave primary mirror and convex secondary mirror.
Ray diagram to show path of rays through the telescope up to the eyepiece.
Relative merits of reflectors and refractors including a qualitative treatment of spherical and
chromatic aberration.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 45
3.9.1.3 Single dish radio telescopes, I-R, U-V and X-ray telescopes (A-level only)
Content

Similarities and differences of radio telescopes compared to optical telescopes. Discussion

should include structure, positioning and use, together with comparisons of resolving and
collecting powers.

3.9.1.4 Advantages of large diameter telescopes (A-level only)

Content

Minimum angular resolution of telescope.

λ
Rayleigh criterion, θ ≈ D

Collecting power is proportional to diameter2.

Students should be familiar with the rad as the unit of angle.
Comparison of the eye and CCD as detectors in terms of quantum efficiency, resolution, and
convenience of use.
No knowledge of the structure of the CCD is required.

3.9.2 Classification of stars (A-level only)

3.9.2.1 Classification by luminosity (A-level only)
Content

Apparent magnitude, m.
The Hipparcos scale.
Dimmest visible stars have a magnitude of 6.
Relation between brightness and apparent magnitude. Difference of 1 on magnitude scale is
equal to an intensity ratio of 2.51.
Brightness is a subjective scale of measurement.

3.9.2.2 Absolute magnitude, M (A-level only)

Content

Parsec and light year.

d
Definition of M , relation to m: m – M = 5 log 10

46 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.9.2.3 Classification by temperature, black-body radiation (A-level only)

Content

Stefan’s law and Wien’s displacement law.

General shape of black-body curves, use of Wien’s displacement law to estimate black-body
temperature of sources.
Experimental verification is not required.

λmaxT = constant = 2.9 × 10−3 m K

Assumption that a star is a black body.
Inverse square law, assumptions in its application.
Use of Stefan’s law to compare the power output, temperature and size of stars

P = σAT 4

3.9.2.4 Principles of the use of stellar spectral classes (A-level only)

Description of the main classes:

Spectral Intrinsic Temperature / K Prominent absorption lines

class colour

O blue 25 000 – 50 000 He+, He, H

B blue 11 000 – 25 000 He, H

A blue-white 7 500 – 11 000 H (strongest)

ionized metals

F white 6 000 – 7 500 ionized metals

G yellow-white 5 000 – 6 000 ionized & neutral metals

K orange 3 500 – 5 000 neutral metals

M red < 3 500 neutral atoms, TiO

Temperature related to absorption spectra limited to Hydrogen Balmer absorption lines:

requirement for atoms in an n = 2 state.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 47
3.9.2.5 The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram (A-level only)
Content

General shape: main sequence, dwarfs and giants.

Axis scales range from –10 to +15 (absolute magnitude) and 50 000 K to 2 500 K (temperature)
or OBAFGKM (spectral class).
Students should be familiar with the position of the Sun on the HR diagram.
Stellar evolution: path of a star similar to our Sun on the HR diagram from formation to white
dwarf.

3.9.2.6 Supernovae, neutron stars and black holes (A-level only)

Content

Defining properties: rapid increase in absolute magnitude of supernovae; composition and density
of neutron stars; escape velocity > c for black holes.
Gamma ray bursts due to the collapse of supergiant stars to form neutron stars or black holes.
Comparison of energy output with total energy output of the Sun.
Use of type 1a supernovae as standard candles to determine distances. Controversy concerning
accelerating Universe and dark energy.
Students should be familiar with the light curve of typical type 1a supernovae.
Supermassive black holes at the centre of galaxies.
Calculation of the radius of the event horizon for a black hole, Schwarzschild radius Rs ,
2GM
Rs ≈ c2

3.9.3 Cosmology (A-level only)

3.9.3.1 Doppler effect (A-level only)
Content

∆f v ∆λ v
f = c and z= λ = − c for v ≪ c applied to optical and radio frequencies.
Calculations on binary stars viewed in the plane of orbit.
Galaxies and quasars.

48 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.9.3.2 Hubble's law (A-level only)

Content

Red shift v = Hd
Simple interpretation as expansion of universe; estimation of age of universe, assuming H is
constant.
Qualitative treatment of Big Bang theory including evidence from cosmological microwave
background radiation, and relative abundance of hydrogen and helium.

3.9.3.3 Quasars (A-level only)

Content

Quasars as the most distant measurable objects.

Discovery of quasars as bright radio sources.
Quasars show large optical red shifts; estimation involving distance and power output.
Formation of quasars from active supermassive black holes.

3.9.3.4 Detection of exoplanets (A-level only)

Content

Difficulties in the direct detection of exoplanets.

Detection techniques will be limited to variation in Doppler shift (radial velocity method) and the
transit method.
Typical light curve.

3.10 Medical physics (A-level only)

Students with an interest in biological and medical topics are offered the opportunity to study some
of the applications of physical principles and techniques in medicine. The physics of the eye and
ear as sensory organs is discussed. The important and developing field of medical imaging, with
both non-ionising and ionising radiations is considered. Further uses of ionising radiation are
developed in a section on radiation therapy.

3.10.1 Physics of the eye (A-level only)

3.10.1.1 Physics of vision (A-level only)
Content

The eye as an optical refracting system, including ray diagrams of image formation.
Sensitivity of the eye; spectral response as a photodetector.
Spatial resolution of the eye; explanation in terms of the behaviour of rods and cones.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 49
3.10.1.2 Defects of vision and their correction using lenses (A-level only)
Content

Properties of converging and diverging lenses; principal focus, focal length and power,
1 1 1 1 v
power = f; u + v = f ;m = u

Myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism.

Ray diagrams and calculations of powers (in dioptres) of correcting lenses for myopia and
hypermetropia.
The format of prescriptions for astigmatism.

3.10.2 Physics of the ear (A-level only)

3.10.2.1 Ear as a sound detection system (A-level only)
Content

Simple structure of the ear, transmission processes.

3.10.2.2 Sensitivity and frequency response (A-level only)

Content

Production and interpretation of equal loudness curves.

Human perception of relative intensity levels and the need for a logarithmic scale to reflect this.
Definition of intensity.

Intensit y level = 10 log II where the threshold of hearing I 0 = 1.0 × 10 W m

−12 −2
0

Measurement of sound intensity levels and the use of dB and dBA scales; relative intensity levels
of sounds.

3.10.2.3 Defects of hearing (A-level only)

Content

The effect on equal loudness curves and the changes experienced in terms of hearing loss due to
injury resulting from exposure to excessive noise or deterioration with age (excluding
physiological changes).

50 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.10.3 Biological measurement (A-level only)

3.10.3.1 Simple ECG machines and the normal ECG waveform (A-level only)
Content

Principles of operation for obtaining the ECG waveform; explanation of the characteristic shape of
a normal ECG waveform.

3.10.4 Non-ionising imaging (A-level only)

3.10.4.1 Ultrasound imaging (A-level only)
Content

Reflection and transmission characteristics of sound waves at tissue boundaries, acoustic

impedance, Z , and attenuation.
Advantages and disadvantages of ultrasound imaging in comparison with alternatives including
safety issues and resolution.
Piezoelectric devices
Principles of generation and detection of ultrasound pulses.
A-scans and B-scans.
Examples of applications.
I Z2 − Z1 2
Use of the equations Z = ρ c and Ir = Z2 + Z1
i

3.10.4.2 Fibre optics and endoscopy (A-level only)

Content

Properties of fibre optics and applications in medical physics; including total internal reflection at
the core–cladding interface.
Physical principles of the optical system of a flexible endoscope; the use of coherent and non-
coherent fibre bundles; examples of use for internal imaging and related advantages.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 51
3.10.4.3 Magnetic resonance (MR) scanner (A-level only)
Content

Basic principles of MR scanner;

• cross-section of patient scanned using magnetic fields
• protons initially aligned with spins parallel
• spinning hydrogen nuclei (protons) precess about the magnetic field lines of a
superconducting magnet
• 'gradient' field coils used to scan cross-section
• short radio frequency (RF) pulses cause excitation and change of spin state in successive
small regions
• protons excited during the scan emit RF signals as they de-excite
• RF signals detected and the resulting signals are processed by a computer to produce a
visual image.
Students will not be asked about the production of magnetic fields used in an MR scanner, or
about de-excitation relaxation times.

3.10.5 X-ray imaging (A-level only)

3.10.5.1 The physics of diagnostic X-rays(A-level only)
Content

Physical principles of the production of X-rays; maximum photon energy, energy spectrum;
continuous spectrum and characteristic spectrum.
Rotating-anode X-ray tube; methods of controlling the beam intensity, the photon energy, the
image sharpness and contrast, and the patient dose.

3.10.5.2 Image detection and enhancement (A-level only)

Content

Flat panel (FTP) detector including X-ray scintillator, photodiode pixels, electronic scanning.
Advantages of FTP detector compared with photographic detection.
Contrast enhancement; use of X-ray opaque material as illustrated by the barium meal technique.
Photographic detection with intensifying screen and fluoroscopic image intensification; reasons
for using these.

52 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.10.5.3 Absorption of X-rays (A-level only)

Content

Exponential attenuation.
Linear coefficient μ, mass attenuation coefficient μm, half-value thickness
μ
I = I 0 e− μx μm = ρ

Differential tissue absorption of X-rays excluding details of the absorption processes.

3.10.5.4 CT scanner (A-level only)

Content

Basic principles of CT scanner:

• movement of X-ray tube
• narrow, monochromatic X-ray beam
• array of detectors
• computer used to process the signals and produce a visual image.
Comparisons will be limited to advantages and disadvantages of image resolution, cost and
safety issues. Students will not be asked about the construction or operation of the detectors.

3.10.6 Radionuclide imaging and therapy (A-level only)

3.10.6.1 Imaging techniques (A-level only)
Content

Use of a gamma-emitting radioisotope as a tracer; technetium-99m, iodine-131 and indium-111

and their relevant properties.
The properties should include the radiation emitted, the half-life, the energy of the gamma
radiation, the ability for it to be labelled with a compound with an affinity for a particular organ.
The Molybdenum-Technetium generator, its basic use and importance.
PET scans.

3.10.6.2 Half-life (A-level only)

Content

Physical, biological and effective half-lives; T1 = T1 + T1 ; definitions of each term.

E B P

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 53
3.10.6.3 Gamma camera (A-level only)
Content

Basic structure and workings of a photomultiplier tube and gamma camera.

3.10.6.4 Use of high-energy X-rays (A-level only)

Content

External treatment using high-energy X-rays. Methods used to limit exposure to healthy cells.

3.10.6.5 Use of radioactive implants (A-level only)

Content

Internal treatment using beta emitting implants.

3.10.6.6 Imaging comparisons (A-level only)

Content

Students will be required to make comparisons between imaging techniques. Questions will be
limited to consideration of image resolution, convenience and safety issues.

3.11 Engineering physics (A-level only)

This option offers opportunities for students to reinforce and extend the work of core units by
considering applications in areas of engineering and technology. It extends the student’s
understanding in areas of rotational dynamics and thermodynamics. The emphasis in this option is
on an understanding of the concepts and the application of physics. Questions can be set in novel
or unfamiliar contexts, but in such cases the scene is set and any relevant required information is
given.

3.11.1 Rotational dynamics (A-level only)

3.11.1.1 Concept of moment of inertia (A-level only)
Content

I = mr2 for a point mass. I = Σmr2for an extended object.

Qualitative knowledge of the factors that affect the moment of inertia of a rotating object.
Expressions for moment of inertia will be given where necessary.

54 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.11.1.2 Rotational kinetic energy (A-level only)

Content

Ek = 12 Iω2
Factors affecting the energy storage capacity of a flywheel.
Use of flywheels in machines.
Use of flywheels for smoothing torque and speed, and for storing energy in vehicles, and in
machines used for production processes.

3.11.1.3 Rotational motion (A-level only)

Content

Angular displacement, angular speed, angular velocity, angular acceleration, ω = ∆∆θt , α = ∆ω

∆t

Representation by graphical methods of uniform and non-uniform angular acceleration.

Equations for uniform angular acceleration;
ω1 + ω2
ω2 = ω1 + αt, θ = 2 t
2
θ = ω1t + αt2 , ω22 = ω12 + 2αθ
Students should be aware of the analogy between rotational and translational dynamics.

3.11.1.4 Torque and angular acceleration (A-level only)

Content

T = Fr
T = Iα

3.11.1.5 Angular momentum (A-level only)

Content

angular momentum = Iω
Conservation of angular momentum.
Angular impulse = change in angular momentum; T ∆ t = ∆ Iω where T is constant.
Applications may include examples from sport.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 55
3.11.1.6 Work and power (A-level only)
Content

W = Tθ; P = Tω
Awareness that frictional torque has to be taken into account in rotating machinery.

3.11.2 Thermodynamics and engines (A-level only)

3.11.2.1 First law of thermodynamics (A-level only)
Content

Quantitative treatment of first law of thermodynamics, Q = ∆ U + W

where Q is energy transferred to the system by heating, ∆ U is increase in internal energy and W
is work done by the system.
Applications of first law of thermodynamics.

3.11.2.2 Non-flow processes (A-level only)

Content

Isothermal, adiabatic, constant pressure and constant volume changes.

pV = nRT
γ
adiabatic change : pV = constant
isothermal change : pV = constant
at constant pressure W = pΔV
Application of first law of thermodynamics to the above processes.

3.11.2.3 The p–V diagram (A-level only)

Content

Representation of processes on p–V diagram.

Estimation of work done in terms of area below the graph.
Extension to cyclic processes: work done per cycle = area of loop
Expressions for work done are not required except for the constant pressure case, W = pΔV

56 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.11.2.4 Engine cycles (A-level only)

Content

Understanding of a four-stroke petrol engine cycle and a diesel engine cycle, and of the
corresponding indicator diagrams.
Comparison with the theoretical diagrams for these cycles; use of indicator diagrams for
predicting and measuring power and efficiency
input power = calorific value × fuel flow rate
Indicated power as area of p−V loop × no. of cycles per second × no. of cylinders
Output or brake power, P = Tω
friction power = indicated power – brake power
Engine efficiency; overall, thermal and mechanical efficiencies.
brake power
Overall efficiency = input power
indicated power
Thermal efficiency = input power
brake power
Mechanical efficiency = indicated power

A knowledge of engine constructional details is not required.

Questions may be set on other cycles, but they will be interpretative and all essential information
will be given.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 57
3.11.2.5 Second Law and engines (A-level only)
Content

Impossibility of an engine working only by the First Law.

Second Law of Thermodynamics expressed as the need for a heat engine to operate between a
source and a sink.
Q −Q
efficiency = QW = HQ C
H H

TH − TC
maximum theoretical efficiency = TH

Reasons for the lower efficiencies of practical engines.

Maximising use of W and QH for example in combined heat and power schemes.

58 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.11.2.6 Reversed heat engines (A-level only)

Content

Basic principles and uses of heat pumps and refrigerators.

A knowledge of practical heat pumps or refrigerator cycles and devices is not required.

Coefficients of performance:
Q Q T
refrigerator: COPref = WC = Q −CQ = T −CT
H C H C

Q Q T
heat pump: COPhp = WH = Q −HQ = T −HT
H C H C

3.12 Turning points in physics (A-level only)

This option is intended to enable key concepts and developments in physics to be studied in
greater depth than in the core content. Students will be able to appreciate, from historical and
conceptual viewpoints, the significance of major paradigm shifts for the subject in the perspectives
of experimentation and understanding. Many present-day technological industries are the
consequence of these key developments and the topics in the option illustrate how unforeseen
technologies can develop from new discoveries.

3.12.1 The discovery of the electron (A-level only)

3.12.1.1 Cathode rays (A-level only)
Content

Production of cathode rays in a discharge tube.

3.12.1.2 Thermionic emission of electrons (A-level only)

Content

The principle of thermionic emission.

Work done on an electron accelerated through a pd V ; 1

2 mv2 = eV

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 59
3.12.1.3 Specific charge of the electron (A-level only)
Content

Determination of the specific charge of an electron, me , by any one method.

e

Significance of Thomson’s determination of me

e

Comparison with the specific charge of the hydrogen ion.

3.12.1.4 Principle of Millikan’s determination of the electronic charge, e (A-level only)

Content

Condition for holding a charged oil droplet, of charge Q, stationary between oppositely charged
parallel plates.
QV
d = mg
Motion of a falling oil droplet with and without an electric field; terminal speed to determine the
mass and the charge of the droplet.
Stokes’ Law for the viscous force on an oil droplet used to calculate the droplet radius.
F = 6πηrv
Significance of Millikan’s results.
Quantisation of electric charge.

3.12.2 Wave-particle duality (A-level only)

3.12.2.1 Newton’s corpuscular theory of light (A-level only)
Content

Comparison with Huygens’ wave theory in general terms.

The reasons why Newton’s theory was preferred.

3.12.2.2 Significance of Young’s double slits experiment (A-level only)

Content

Explanation for fringes in general terms, no calculations are expected.

Delayed acceptance of Huygens’ wave theory of light.

60 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.12.2.3 Electromagnetic waves (A-level only)

Content

Nature of electromagnetic waves.

1
Maxwell’s formula for the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum c =
μ0ε0

where μ0 is the permeability of free space and ε0 is the permittivity of free space.

Students should appreciate that ε0 relates to the electric field strength due to a charged object in
free space and μ0 relates to the magnetic flux density due to a current-carrying wire in free space.
Hertz’s discovery of radio waves including measurements of the speed of radio waves.
Fizeau’s determination of the speed of light and its implications.

3.12.2.4 The discovery of photoelectricity (A-level only)

Content

The ultraviolet catastrophe and black-body radiation.

Planck’s interpretation in terms of quanta.
The failure of classical wave theory to explain observations on photoelectricity.
Einstein’s explanation of photoelectricity and its significance in terms of the nature of
electromagnetic radiation.

3.12.2.5 Wave–particle duality (A-level only)

Content

de Broglie’s hypothesis: p = λh ;

h
λ= 2meV

Low-energy electron diffraction experiments; qualitative explanation of the effect of a change of

electron speed on the diffraction pattern.

3.12.2.6 Electron microscopes (A-level only)

Content

Estimate of anode voltage needed to produce wavelengths of the order of the size of the atom.
Principle of operation of the transmission electron microscope (TEM).
Principle of operation of the scanning tunnelling microscope (STM).

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 61
3.12.3 Special relativity (A-level only)
3.12.3.1 The Michelson-Morley experiment (A-level only)
Content

Principle of the Michelson-Morley interferometer.

Outline of the experiment as a means of detecting absolute motion.
Significance of the failure to detect absolute motion.
The invariance of the speed of light.

3.12.3.2 Einstein’s theory of special relativity (A-level only)

Content

The concept of an inertial frame of reference.

The two postulates of Einstein’s theory of special relativity:
1. physical laws have the same form in all inertial frames
2. the speed of light in free space is invariant.

3.12.3.3 Time dilation (A-level only)

Content

Proper time and time dilation as a consequence of special relativity.

Time dilation:
t0
t= 2
1 − v2
c

Evidence for time dilation from muon decay.

3.12.3.4 Length contraction (A-level only)

Content

Length of an object having a speed v

2
l = l0 1 − vc2

62 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.12.3.5 Mass and energy (A-level only)

Content

2 m0c2
Equivalence of mass and energy, E = mc ; E = 2
1 − v2
c

Graphs of variation of mass and kinetic energy with speed.

Bertozzi’s experiment as direct evidence for the variation of kinetic energy with speed.

3.13 Electronics (A-level only)

This option is designed for those who wish to learn more about modern electronic technologies as
a development of their core work in electricity. A variety of discrete devices is introduced followed
by discussions of both analogue and digital techniques ranging from the operational amplifier to
digital signal processing. The option ends with a look at the issues surrounding data
communication.

3.13.1 Discrete semiconductor devices (A-level only)

3.13.1.1 MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconducting field-effect transistor) (A-level only)
Content

Simplified structure, behaviour and characteristics.

Drain, source and gate.
V DS, V GS, I DSS, and V th
Use as a switch, use as a device with a very high input resistance.
Use in N-channel, enhancement mode only is required.

3.13.1.2 Zener diode (A-level only)

Content

Characteristic curve showing zener breakdown voltage and typical minimum operating current.
Anode and cathode.
Use with a resistor as a constant voltage source.
Use to provide a reference voltage.
Use as a stabiliser is not required.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 63
3.13.1.3 Photodiode (A-level only)
Content

Characteristic curves and spectral response curves.

Use in photo-conductive mode as a detector in optical systems.
Use with scintillator to detect atomic particles.

3.13.1.4 Hall effect sensor (A-level only)

Content

Use as magnetic field sensor to monitor attitude.

Use in tachometer.
Principles of operation are not required.

3.13.2 Analogue and digital signals (A-level only)

3.13.2.1 Difference between analogue and digital signals (A-level only)
Content

Bits, bytes.
Analogue-to-digital conversion:
• sampling audio signals for transmission in digital form
• conversion of analogue signals into digital data using two voltage levels
• quantisation
• sampling rate
• effect of sampling rate and number of bits per sample on quality of conversion
• advantages and disadvantages of digital sampling
• process of recovery of original data from noisy signal
• effect of noise in communication systems.
Pulse code modulation.
Students should appreciate the use of a variety of sensors to collect analogue data.
The ability to carry out binary arithmetic is not required. Knowledge of binary numbers 1 to 10 is
adequate.

64 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.13.3 Analogue signal processing (A-level only)

3.13.3.1 LC resonance filters (A-level only)
Content

1
Resonant frequency, f 0 =
2π LC

Only parallel resonance arrangements are required.

Analogy between LC circuit and mass–spring system.
Inductance as mass analogy.
Capacitance as spring analogy.
Derivation of the equation is not required.
Energy (voltage) response curve.
The response curve for current is not required.
f0
Q factor, Q = fB

f B is the bandwidth of the filter at the 50% energy points.

3.13.3.2 The ideal operational amplifier (A-level only)

Content

Operation and characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier:

• power supply and signal connections
• infinite open-loop gain
• infinite input resistance.
Open-loop transfer function for a real operational amplifier, V out = AOL V + − V −

Use as a comparator.
The operational amplifier should be treated as an important system building block.

3.13.4 Operational amplifier in:

3.13.4.1 inverting amplifier configuration (A-level only)
Content

V R
Derivation of Vout = − R f , calculations.
in in

Meaning of virtual earth, virtual-earth analysis.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 65
3.13.4.2 non-inverting amplifier configuration (A-level only)
Content

V out Rf
V in = 1 + Rl

Derivation is not required.

3.13.4.3 summing amplifier configuration (A-level only)

Content

V1 V2 V3
V out = − Rf R1 + R2 + R3 + …

Difference amplifier configuration.

Derivation is not required.
Rf
V out = V + − V − Rl

Derivation is not required.

3.13.4.4 Real operational amplifiers (A-level only)

Content

Limitations of real operational amplifiers.

Frequency response curve.
gain × bandwidth = constant for a given device.

3.13.5 Digital signal processing (A-level only)

3.13.5.1 Combinational logic (A-level only)
Content

Use of Boolean algebra related to truth tables and logic gates.

−
A = not A
A ∙ B = A and B
A + B = A or B
Identification and use of AND, NAND, OR, NOR, NOT and EOR gates in combination in logic
circuits.
Construction and deduction of a logic circuit from a truth table.
The gates should be treated as building blocks. The internal structure or circuit of the gates is not
required.

66 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

3.13.5.2 Sequential logic (A-level only)

Content

Counting circuits:
• Binary counter
• BCD counter
• Johnson counter.
Inputs to the circuits, clock, reset, up/down.
Outputs from the circuits.
Modulo- n counter from basic counter with the logic driving a reset pin.
The gates should be treated as building blocks. The internal structure or circuit of the gates is not
required.

3.13.5.3 Astables (A-level only)

Content

The astable as an oscillator to provide a clock pulse.

Clock (pulse) rate (frequency), pulse width, period, duty cycle, mark-to-space ratio.
Variation of running frequency using an external RC network.
Knowledge of a particular circuit or a specific device (eg 555 chip) will not be required.

3.13.6 Data communication systems (A-level only)

3.13.6.1 Principles of communication systems (A-level only)
Content

Communication systems, block diagram of 'real time' communication system.

Only the purpose of each stage is required.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 67
3.13.6.2 Transmission media (A-level only)
Content

Transmission-path media: metal wire, optic fibre, electromagnetic (radio, microwave).

Ground wave, refraction and reflection of sky waves, diffraction of long-wavelength radiation
around the Earth’s surface.
Satellite systems and typical transmission frequencies.
Students should recognise that up- and down-links require different frequencies so that the
receivers are not de-sensed.
Advantages and disadvantages of various transmission media. Students should consider data
transmission rate, cost, and security issues.

3.13.6.3 Time-division multiplexing (A-level only)

Content

Basic principles of time-division multiplexing.

3.13.6.4 Amplitude (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) techniques (A-level only)
Content

Principles of modulation; bandwidth.

Carrier wave and information signal.
Details of modulation circuits for modulating a carrier signal with the information signal will not be
required.
Graphical representation of both AM and FM modulated signals.
A detailed mathematical treatment is not required.
Students will be expected to identify the carrier frequency and the information frequency from a
graph of the variation of signal voltage with time.
Bandwidth requirements of simple AM and FM:
bandwidth = 2 f M for AM
bandwidth = 2 ∆ f + f M for FM
Data capacity of a channel.
Comparison of bandwidth availability for various media.

68 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

4 Scheme of assessment
Find past papers and mark schemes, and specimen papers for new courses, on our website at
aqa.org.uk/pastpapers
The AS specification is designed to be taken over one or two years with all assessments taken at
the end of the course. The A-level specification is designed to be taken over two years with all
assessments taken at the end of the course.
Assessments and certification for the AS specification are available for the first time in May/June
and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
Assessments and certification for the A-level specification are available for the first time in May/
June and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
These are linear qualifications. In order to achieve the award, students must complete all exams in
May/June in a single year. All assessments must be taken in the same series.
Questions for these specifications will be set which require students to demonstrate:
• their knowledge and understanding of the content developed in one section or topic,
including the associated mathematical and practical skills or
• the ability to apply mathematical and practical skills to areas of content they are not normally
developed in or
• the ability to draw together different areas of knowledge and understanding within one
answer.
A range of question types will be used, including those that require extended responses. Extended
response questions will allow students to demonstrate their ability to construct and develop a
sustained line of reasoning which is coherent, relevant, substantiated and logically structured.
Extended responses may be in written English, extended calculations, or a combination of both, as
appropriate to the question.
All materials are available in English only.

4.1 Aims
Courses based on these specifications should encourage students to:
• develop their interest in and enthusiasm for the subject, including developing an interest in
further study and careers associated with the subject
• develop essential knowledge and understanding of different areas of the subject and how
they relate to each other
• develop and demonstrate a deep appreciation of the skills, knowledge and understanding of
scientific methods
• develop competence and confidence in a variety of practical, mathematical and problem
solving skills
• understand how society makes decisions about scientific issues and how the sciences
contribute to the success of the economy and society
• use theories, models and ideas to develop scientific explanations
• use knowledge and understanding to pose scientific questions, define scientific problems,
present scientific arguments and scientific ideas

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 69
 • use appropriate methodology, including information and communication technology (ICT), to
answer scientific questions and solve scientific problems
• carry out experimental and investigative activities, including appropriate risk management, in
a range of contexts
• analyse and interpret data to provide evidence, recognising correlations and causal
relationships
• evaluate methodology, evidence and data, and resolve conflicting evidence
• know that scientific knowledge and understanding develops over time
• communicate information and ideas in appropriate ways using appropriate terminology
• consider applications and implications of science and evaluate their associated benefits and
risks
• consider ethical issues in the treatment of humans, other organisms and the environment
• evaluate the role of the scientific community in validating new knowledge and ensuring
integrity
• evaluate the ways in which society uses science to inform decision making.

4.2 Assessment objectives

Assessment objectives (AOs) are set by Ofqual and are the same across all AS and A-level
Physics specifications and all exam boards.
The exams will measure how students have achieved the following assessment objectives.
• AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques
and procedures.
• AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and
procedures:
• in a theoretical context
• in a practical context
• when handling qualitative data
• when handling quantitative data.
• AO3: Analyse, interpret and evaluate scientific information, ideas and evidence, including in
relation to issues, to:
• make judgements and reach conclusions
• develop and refine practical design and procedures.

Weighting of assessment objectives for AS Physics

Assessment objectives (AOs) Component weightings Overall
(approx %) weighting
(approx %)
Paper 1 Paper 2
AO1 34 37 36
AO2 41 39 40
AO3 24 24 24
Overall weighting of components 50 50 100

40% of the overall assessment of AS Physics will contain mathematical skills equivalent to Level 2
or above.

70 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

At least 15% of the overall assessment of AS Physics will assess knowledge, skills and
understanding in relation to practical work.

Weighting of assessment objectives for A-level Physics

Assessment objectives (AOs) Component weightings Overall weighting
(approx %) (approx %)
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3
AO1 34 32 31 33
AO2 38 53 35 42
AO3 28 15 32 25
Overall weighting of components 34 34 32 100

40% of the overall assessment of A-level Physics will contain mathematical skills equivalent to
Level 2 or above.
At least 15% of the overall assessment of A-level Physics will assess knowledge, skills and
understanding in relation to practical work.

4.3 Assessment weightings

The marks awarded on the papers will be scaled to meet the weighting of the components.
Students' final marks will be calculated by adding together the scaled marks for each component.
Grade boundaries will be set using this total scaled mark. The scaling and total scaled marks are
shown in the table below.

AS
Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled mark
Paper 1 70 x1 70
Paper 2 70 x1 70
Total scaled mark: 140

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 71
A-level
Component Maximum Scaling Maximum
raw mark factor scaled mark
Paper 1 85 x1 85
Paper 2 85 x1 85
Paper 3: Section A 45 x1 45
Paper 3: Section B (Astrophysics - option) 35 x1 35
Paper 3: Section B (Medical physics - option) 35 x1 35
Paper 3: Section B (Engineering physics - option) 35 x1 35
Paper 3: Section B (Turning points in physics - 35 x1 35
option)
Paper 3: Section B (Electronics - option) 35 x1 35
Total scaled 250
mark:

72 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

5 General administration
You can find information about all aspects of administration, as well as all the forms you need, at
aqa.org.uk/examsadmin

5.1 Entries and codes

You only need to make one entry for each qualification.
Every specification is given a national discount (classification) code by the Department for
Education (DfE), which indicates its subject area.
If a student takes two specifications with the same discount code, Further and Higher Education
providers are likely to take the view that they have only achieved one of the two qualifications.
Please check this before your students start their course.

Qualification title AQA entry code DfE discount code

AQA Advanced Subsidiary GCE in Physics 7407 1210 (post-16),
RC1 (KS4)
AQA Advanced Level GCE in Physics 7408A 1210
(Astrophysics)
7408B (Medical 1210
physics)
7408C 1210
(Engineering
physics)
7408D (Turning 1210
points in physics)
7408E 1210
(Electronics)

These specifications comply with Ofqual’s:

• General conditions of recognition that apply to all regulated qualifications
• GCE qualification level conditions that apply to all GCEs
• GCE subject level conditions that apply to all GCEs in this subject
• all relevant regulatory documents.
Ofqual has accredited these specifications. The qualification accreditation number (QAN) for the
AS is 601/4746/5. The QAN for the A-level is 601/4747/7.

5.2 Overlaps with other qualifications

There is overlapping content in the AS and A-level Physics specifications. This helps you teach the
AS and A-level together.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 73
5.3 Awarding grades and reporting results
The A-level qualification will be graded on a six-point scale: A*, A, B, C, D and E.
Students who fail to reach the minimum standard for grade E will be recorded as U (unclassified)
and will not receive a qualification certificate.

5.4 Re-sits and shelf life

Students can re-sit these qualifications as many times as they wish, within the shelf life of the
qualifications.

5.5 Previous learning and prerequisites

There are no previous learning requirements. Any requirements for entry to a course based on
these specifications are at the discretion of schools and colleges.
However, we recommend that students should have the skills and knowledge associated with at
least GCSE Combined Science or GCSE Physics (or equivalent qualifications).

5.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion

General qualifications are designed to prepare students for a wide range of occupations and
further study. Therefore our qualifications must assess a wide range of competences.
The subject criteria have been assessed to see if any of the skills or knowledge required present
any possible difficulty to any students, whatever their ethnic background, religion, sex, age,
disability or sexuality. If any difficulties were encountered, the criteria were reviewed again to make
sure that tests of specific competences were only included if they were important to the subject.
As members of the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) we participate in the production of the
JCQ document Access Arrangements and Reasonable Adjustments: General and Vocational
qualifications. We follow these guidelines when assessing the needs of individual students who
may require an access arrangement or reasonable adjustment. This document is published on the
JCQ website at jcq.org.uk

Students with disabilities and special needs

We can make arrangements for disabled students and students with special needs to help them
access the assessments, as long as the competences being tested are not changed. Access
arrangements must be agreed before the assessment. For example, a Braille paper would be a
reasonable adjustment for a Braille reader but not for a student who does not read Braille.
We are required by the Equality Act 2010 to make reasonable adjustments to remove or lessen
any disadvantage that affects a disabled student.
If you have students who need access arrangements or reasonable adjustments, you can apply
using the Access arrangements online service at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

74 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

Special consideration
We can give special consideration to students who have been disadvantaged at the time of the
assessment through no fault of their own – for example a temporary illness, injury or serious
problem such as the death of a relative. We can only do this after the assessment.
Your exams officer should apply online for special consideration at aqa.org.uk/eaqa
For more information and advice about access arrangements, reasonable adjustments and special
consideration please see aqa.org.uk/access or email [email protected]

5.7 Working with AQA for the first time

If your school or college has not previously offered any AQA specification, you need to register as
an AQA centre to offer our specifications to your students. Find out how at aqa.org.uk/
becomeacentre
If your school or college is new to these specifications, please let us know by completing an
Intention to enter form. The easiest way to do this is via e-AQA at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

5.8 Private candidates

A private candidate is someone who enters for exams through an AQA-approved school or college
but is not enrolled as a student there.
If you are a private candidate you may be self-taught, home-schooled or have private tuition, either
with a tutor or through a distance learning organisation. You must be based in the UK.
If you have any queries as a private candidate, you can:
• speak to the exams officer at the school or college where you intend to take your exams
• visit our website at aqa.org.uk/examsadmin
• email: [email protected]

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 75
76 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

6 Mathematical requirements
and exemplifications
In order to be able to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding in physics, students need
to have been taught, and to have acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of mathematics
as indicated in the table of coverage below.
Overall, at least 40% of the marks in assessments for physics will require the use of mathematical
skills. These skills will be applied in the context of Physics A-level and will be at least the standard
of higher tier GCSE Mathematics.
The following tables illustrate where these mathematical skills may be developed during teaching
or could be assessed. Those shown in bold type would only be tested in the full A-level course.
This list of examples is not exhaustive. These skills could be developed or assessed in other areas
of specification content. Other areas where these skills could be developed have been exemplified
throughout the specifications.

6.1 Arithmetic and numerical computation

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics

MS 0.1 Recognise and make use of Students may be tested on their ability to:
appropriate units in calculations
• identify the correct units for physical
properties such as m s−1, the unit for velocity
• convert between units with different prefixes
eg cm3 to m3

MS 0.2 Recognise and use expressions in Students may be tested on their ability to:
decimal and standard form
• use physical constants expressed in
8
standard form such as c = 3.00 x 10
m s−1

MS 0.3 Use ratios, fractions and Students may be tested on their ability to:
percentages
• calculate efficiency of devices
• calculate percentage uncertainties in
measurements

MS 0.4 Estimate results Students may be tested on their ability to:

• estimate the effect of changing experimental
parameters on measurable values

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 77
 Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics

MS 0.5 Use calculators to find and use Students may be tested on their ability to:
power, exponential and
• solve for unknowns in decay problems
logarithmic functions −λt
such as N  =  N0e

MS 0.6 Use calculators to handle sin x, Students may be tested on their ability to:
cos x, tan x when x is expressed • calculate the direction of resultant vectors
in degrees or radians

6.2 Handling data

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics

MS 1.1 Use an appropriate number of Students may be tested on their ability to:
significant figures
• report calculations to an appropriate number
of significant figures given raw data quoted to
varying numbers of significant figures
• understand that calculated results can only
be reported to the limits of the least accurate
measurement

MS 1.2 Find arithmetic means Students may be tested on their ability to:
• calculate a mean value for repeated
experimental readings

MS 1.3 Understand simple probability Students may be tested on their ability to:
• understand probability in the context of
radioactive decay

MS 1.4 Make order of magnitude Students may be tested on their ability to:
calculations
• evaluate equations with variables expressed
in different orders of magnitude

MS 1.5 Identify uncertainties in Students may be tested on their ability to:

measurements and use simple
• determine the uncertainty where two
techniques to determine
readings for length need to be added
uncertainty when data are
together
combined by addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and raising
to powers

78 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

6.3 Algebra
Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics

MS 2.1 Understand and use the symbols: Students may be tested on their ability to:
=, <, <<, >>, >, ∝, ≈, ∆
• recognise the significance of the symbols in
∆p
the expression F ∝ ∆t

MS 2.2 Change the subject of an Students may be tested on their ability to:
equation, including non-linear
• rearrange E = mc2 to make m the subject
equations

MS 2.3 Substitute numerical values into Students may be tested on their ability to:
algebraic equations using
• calculate the momentum p of an object by
appropriate units for physical
quantities substituting the values for mass m and
velocity v into the equation p = mv

MS 2.4 Solve algebraic equations, Students may be tested on their ability to:
including quadratic equations
• solve kinematic equations for constant
acceleration such as v = u + at and
s = ut + ½ at2

MS 2.5 Use logarithms in relation to Students may be tested on their ability to:
quantities that range over
• recognise and interpret real world
several orders of magnitude
examples of logarithmic scales

6.4 Graphs
Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A level Physics

MS 3.1 Translate information between Students may be tested on their ability to:
graphical, numerical and algebraic
• calculate Young modulus for materials using
forms
stress–strain graphs

MS 3.2 Plot two variables from Students may be tested on their ability to:
experimental or other data
• plot graphs of extension of a wire against
force applied

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 79
 Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A level Physics

MS 3.3 Understand that y = mx + c Students may be tested on their ability to:

represents a linear relationship • rearrange and compare v = u + at with
y = mx + c for velocity–time graph in
constant acceleration problems

MS 3.4 Determine the slope and intercept Students may be tested on their ability to:
of a linear graph
• read off and interpret intercept point from a
graph eg the initial velocity in a velocity–time
graph

MS 3.5 Calculate rate of change from a Students may be tested on their ability to:
graph showing a linear relationship
• calculate acceleration from a linear velocity–
time graph

MS 3.6 Draw and use the slope of a Students may be tested on their ability to:
tangent to a curve as a measure of
• draw a tangent to the curve of a
rate of change
displacement–time graph and use the
gradient to approximate the velocity at a
specific time

MS 3.7 Distinguish between instantaneous Students may be tested on their ability to:
rate of change and average rate of
• understand that the gradient of the tangent of
change
a displacement–time graph gives the velocity
at a point in time which is a different measure
to the average velocity

MS 3.8 Understand the possible physical Students may be tested on their ability to:
significance of the area between a
• recognise that for a capacitor the area under
curve and the x axis and be able
a voltage–charge graph is equivalent to the
to calculate it or estimate it by
energy stored
graphical methods as appropriate

MS 3.9 Apply the concepts underlying Students may be tested on their ability to:
calculus (but without requiring the
• determine g from distance-time plot for
explicit use of derivatives or
integrals) by solving equations projectile motion
involving rates of change, eg
Δx
Δt = – λx using a graphical
method or spreadsheet modelling

MS 3.10 Interpret logarithmic plots Students may be tested on their ability to:
• obtain time constant for capacitor
discharge by interpreting plot of log V
against time

80 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the

context of A level Physics

MS 3.11 Use logarithmic plots to test Students may be tested on their ability to:
exponential and power law
• use logarithmic plots with decay law of
variations
radioactivity / charging and discharging
of a capacitor

MS 3.12 Sketch relationships which are Students may be tested on their ability to:
2
modelled by y = k / x, y = kx , • sketch relationships between pressure
y = k / x2, y = kx, y = sin x, and volume for an ideal gas
y = cos x, y  =  e±x, and
2
y  =  sin x, y  =  cos2x  as applied
to physical relationships

6.5 Geometry and trigonometry

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics

MS 4.1 Use angles in regular 2D and 3D Students may be tested on their ability to:
structures
• interpret force diagrams to solve problems

MS 4.2 Visualise and represent 2D and Students may be tested on their ability to:
3D forms including two-
• draw force diagrams to solve mechanics
dimensional representations of 3D
problems
objects

MS 4.3 Calculate areas of triangles, Students may be tested on their ability to:
circumferences and areas of
• calculate the area of the cross–section to
circles, surface areas and volumes
work out the resistance of a conductor given
of rectangular blocks, cylinders
its length and resistivity
and spheres

MS 4.4 Use Pythagoras’ theorem, and the Students may be tested on their ability to:
angle sum of a triangle
• calculate the magnitude of a resultant vector,
resolving forces into components to solve
problems

MS 4.5 Use sin, cos and tan in physical Students may be tested on their ability to:
problems
• resolve forces into components

MS 4.6 Use of small angle approximations Students may be tested on their ability to:
including sinθ ≈ θ, tanθ ≈ θ, • calculate fringe separations in interference
cosθ ≈ 1 for small θ where patterns
appropriate

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 81
 Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics

MS 4.7 Understand the relationship Students may be tested on their ability to:
between degrees and radians and
• convert angle in degrees to angle in radians
translate from one to the other

82 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

7 AS practical assessment
Practical work is at the heart of physics, so we have placed it at the heart of this specification.
Assessment of practical skills in this AS specification will be by written exams only.
The practical endorsement does not apply to the AS specification. A rich diet of practical work is
essential to develop students' manipulative skills and understanding of the processes of scientific
investigation. It also contributes to teaching and learning of the concepts within this specification.
Questions in the papers have been written in the expectation that students have carried out at least
the six required practical activities in Section 7.2.
15% of the marks in the papers will relate to practical work.

7.1 Use of apparatus and techniques

All students taking an A-level Physics qualification are expected to have carried out the required
practical activities in Section 7.2. These develop skills in the use of many of the following
apparatus and techniques. This list is a compulsory element of the full A-level course. It is
reproduced here for reference and to aid co-teaching the AS and A-level specifications.

apparatus and techniques

ATa use appropriate analogue apparatus to record a range of measurements (to include
length/distance, temperature, pressure, force, angles, volume) and to interpolate
between scale markings

ATb use appropriate digital instruments, including electrical multimeters, to obtain a range
of measurements (to include time, current, voltage, resistance, mass)

ATc use methods to increase accuracy of measurements, such as timing over multiple
oscillations, or use of fiducial marker, set square or plumb line

ATd use stopwatch or light gates for timing

ATe use calipers and micrometers for small distances, using digital or vernier scales

ATf correctly construct circuits from circuit diagrams using DC power supplies, cells, and
a range of circuit components, including those where polarity is important

ATg design, construct and check circuits using DC power supplies, cells, and a range of
circuit components

ATh use signal generator and oscilloscope, including volts/division and time-base

ATi generate and measure waves, using microphone and loudspeaker, or ripple tank, or
vibration transducer, or microwave / radio wave source

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 83
 apparatus and techniques

ATj use laser or light source to investigate characteristics of light, including interference
and diffraction

ATk use ICT such as computer modelling, or data logger with a variety of sensors to
collect data, or use of software to process data

ATl use ionising radiation, including detectors

7.2 Required practical activities

The following practicals must be carried out by all students taking this course. Written papers will
assess knowledge and understanding of these, and the skills exemplified within each practical.

Required activity Apparatus and technique

reference

1 Investigation into the variation of the frequency of stationary a, b, c, i

waves on a string with length, tension and mass per unit length of
the string.

2 Investigation of interference effects to include the Young’s slit a, j

experiment and interference by a diffraction grating.

3 Determination of g by a free-fall method. a, c, d, k

4 Determination of the Young modulus by a simple method. a, c, e

5 Determination of resistivity of a wire using a micrometer, a, b, e, f

ammeter and voltmeter.

6 Investigation of the emf and internal resistance of electric cells b, f, g

and batteries by measuring the variation of the terminal pd of the
cell with current in it.

Teachers are encouraged to vary their approach to these practical activities. Some are more
suitable for highly structured approaches that develop key techniques. Others allow opportunities
for students to develop investigative approaches.
This list is not designed to limit the practical activities carried out by students. A rich practical
experience for students will include more than the six required practical activities. The explicit
teaching of practical skills will build students’ competence. Many teachers will also use practical
approaches to the introduction of content knowledge in the course of their normal teaching.

7.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers

Overall, at least 15% of the marks for all AS level Physics courses will require the assessment of
practical skills.

84 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

In order to be able to answer these questions, students need to have been taught, and to have
acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of practical skills as indicated in the table of
coverage below.

7.3.1 Independent thinking

Practical skill

PS1.1 Solve problems set in practical contexts

PS1.2 Apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts

7.3.2 Use and application of scientific methods and practices

Practical skill

PS2.1 Comment on experimental design and evaluate scientific methods

PS2.2 Present data in appropriate ways

PS2.3 Evaluate results and draw conclusions with reference to measurement

uncertainties and errors

PS2.4 Identify variables including those that must be controlled

7.3.3 Numeracy and the application of mathematical concepts in a

practical context
Practical skill

PS3.1 Plot and interpret graphs

PS3.2 Process and analyse data using appropriate mathematical skills as exemplified
in the mathematical appendix for each science

PS3.3 Consider margins of error, accuracy and precision of data

7.3.4 Instruments and equipment

Practical skill

PS4.1 Know and understand how to use a wide range of experimental and practical
instruments, equipment and techniques appropriate to the knowledge and
understanding included in the specification

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 85
86 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

8 A-level practical assessment

Practical work is at the heart of physics, so we have placed it at the heart of this specification.
Practical assessments have been divided into those that can be assessed in written exams and
those that can only be directly assessed whilst students are carrying out experiments.
A-level grades will be based only on marks from written exams.
A separate endorsement of practical skills will be taken alongside the A-level. This will be
assessed by teachers and will be based on direct observation of students’ competency in a range
of skills that are not assessable in written exams.

8.1 Use of apparatus and techniques

All students taking an A-level Physics qualification are expected to have had opportunities to use
the following apparatus and develop and demonstrate these techniques. These apparatus and
techniques are common to all A-level Physics specifications.
Carrying out the 12 required practicals in section 7.2 means that students will have experienced
use of each of these apparatus and techniques. However, teachers are encouraged to develop
students’ abilities by inclusion of other opportunities for skills development, as exemplified in the
right hand column of the content section of this specification.

Apparatus and techniques

ATa use appropriate analogue apparatus to record a range of measurements (to include
length/distance, temperature, pressure, force, angles, volume) and to interpolate
between scale markings

ATb use appropriate digital instruments, including electrical multimeters, to obtain a range
of measurements (to include time, current, voltage, resistance, mass)

ATc use methods to increase accuracy of measurements, such as timing over multiple
oscillations, or use of fiducial marker, set square or plumb line

ATd use stopwatch or light gates for timing

ATe use calipers and micrometers for small distances, using digital or vernier scales

ATf correctly construct circuits from circuit diagrams using DC power supplies, cells, and
a range of circuit components, including those where polarity is important

ATg design, construct and check circuits using DC power supplies, cells, and a range of
circuit components

ATh use signal generator and oscilloscope, including volts/division and time-base

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 87
 Apparatus and techniques

ATi generate and measure waves, using microphone and loudspeaker, or ripple tank, or
vibration transducer, or microwave / radio wave source

ATj use laser or light source to investigate characteristics of light, including interference
and diffraction

ATk use ICT such as computer modelling, or data logger with a variety of sensors to
collect data, or use of software to process data

ATl use ionising radiation, including detectors

8.2 Required practical activities

The following practicals must be carried out by all students taking this course. Written papers will
assess knowledge and understanding of these, and the skills exemplified within each practical.

Required activity Apparatus and technique

reference

1 Investigation into the variation of the frequency of stationary a, b, c, i

waves on a string with length, tension and mass per unit length of
the string.

2 Investigation of interference effects to include the Young’s slit a, j

experiment and interference by a diffraction grating.

3 Determination of g by a free-fall method a, c, d, k

4 Determination of the Young modulus by a simple method. a, c, e

5 Determination of resistivity of a wire using a micrometer, a, b, e, f

ammeter and voltmeter.

6 Investigation of the emf and internal resistance of electric cells b, f, g

and batteries by measuring the variation of the terminal pd of the
cell with current in it.

7 Investigation into simple harmonic motion using a mass–spring a, b, c, h, i

system and a simple pendulum.

8 Investigation of Boyle’s (constant temperature) law and Charles’s a

(constant pressure) law for a gas.

9 Investigation of the charge and discharge of capacitors. Analysis b, f, g, h, k

techniques should include log-linear plotting leading to a
determination of the time constant RC .

88 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

Required activity Apparatus and technique

reference

10 Investigate how the force on a wire varies with flux density, a, b, f

current and length of wire using a top pan balance.

11 Investigate, using a search coil and oscilloscope, the effect on a, b, f, h

magnetic flux linkage of varying the angle between a search coil
and magnetic field direction.

12 Investigation of the inverse-square law for gamma radiation. a, b, k, l

Teachers are encouraged to vary their approach to these practical activities. Some are more
suitable for highly structured approaches that develop key techniques. Others allow opportunities
for students to develop investigative approaches.
This list is not designed to limit the practical activities carried out by students. A rich practical
experience for students will include more than the 12 required practical activities. The explicit
teaching of practical skills will build students’ competence. Many teachers will also use practical
approaches to the introduction of content knowledge in the course of their normal teaching.
Students’ work in these activities can also contribute towards the endorsement of practical skills.

8.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers

Overall, at least 15% of the marks for all A-level Physics courses will require the assessment of
practical skills.
In order to be able to answer these questions, students need to have been taught, and to have
acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of practical skills as indicated in the table of
coverage below.

8.3.1 Independent thinking

Practical skill

PS1.1 Solve problems set in practical contexts

PS1.2 Apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts

8.3.2 Use and application of scientific methods and practices

Practical skill

PS2.1 Comment on experimental design and evaluate scientific methods

PS2.2 Present data in appropriate ways

PS2.3 Evaluate results and draw conclusions with reference to measurement

uncertainties and errors

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 89
 Practical skill

PS2.4 Identify variables including those that must be controlled

8.3.3 Numeracy and the application of mathematical concepts in a

practical context
Practical skill

PS3.1 Plot and interpret graphs

PS3.2 Process and analyse data using appropriate mathematical skills as exemplified
in the mathematical appendix for each science

PS3.3 Consider margins of error, accuracy and precision of data

8.3.4 Instruments and equipment

Practical skill

PS4.1 Know and understand how to use a wide range of experimental and practical
instruments, equipment and techniques appropriate to the knowledge and
understanding included in the specification

8.4 Practical skills to be assessed via endorsement

8.4.1 Cross-board statement on practical endorsement
The assessment of practical skills is a compulsory requirement of the course of study for A-level
qualifications in biology, chemistry and physics. It will appear on all students’ certificates as a
separately reported result, alongside the overall grade for the qualification. The arrangements for
the assessment of practical skills will be common to all awarding organisations. These
arrangements will include:
• A minimum of 12 practical activities to be carried out by each student which, together, meet
the requirements of Appendices 5b (Practical skills identified for direct assessment and
developed through teaching and learning) and 5c (Use of apparatus and techniques) from
the prescribed subject content, published by the Department for Education (DfE). The
required practical activities will be defined by each awarding organisation.
• Teachers will assess students against Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC) issued
jointly by the awarding organisations. The CPAC (see below) are based on the requirements
of Appendices 5b and 5c of the subject content requirements published by the DfE, and
define the minimum standard required for the achievement of a pass.
• Each student will keep an appropriate record of their practical work, including their assessed
practical activities.
• Students who demonstrate the required standard across all the requirements of the CPAC
will receive a ‘pass’ grade.

90 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

• There will be no separate assessment of practical skills for AS qualifications.

• Students will answer questions in the AS and A-level exam papers that assess the
requirements of Appendix 5a (Practical skills identified for indirect assessment and
developed through teaching and learning) from the prescribed subject content, published by
the DfE. These questions may draw on, or range beyond, the practical activities included in
the specification.

8.4.2 Criteria for the assessment of practical competency in A-level

Biology, Chemistry and Physics
Competency Practical mastery

In order to be awarded a Pass a student must, by

the end of the practical science assessment,
consistently and routinely meet the criteria in
respect of each competency listed below. A
student may demonstrate the competencies in
any practical activity undertaken as part of that
assessment throughout the course of study.
Students may undertake practical activities in
groups. However, the evidence generated by
each student must demonstrate that he or she
independently meets the criteria outlined below in
respect of each competency. Such evidence
• (a) will comprise both the student's
performance during each practical activity
and his or her contemporaneous record of
the work that he or she has undertaken
during that activity, and
• (b) must include evidence of independent
application of investigative approaches and
methods to practical work.

1. Follows written procedures (a) Correctly follows written instructions to carry

out experimental techniques or procedures.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 91
Competency Practical mastery

2. Applies investigative approaches and (a) Correctly uses appropriate instrumentation,

methods when using instruments and apparatus and materials (including ICT) to carry
equipment out investigative activities, experimental
techniques and procedures with minimal
assistance or prompting.
(b) Carries out techniques or procedures
methodically, in sequence and in combination,
identifying practical issues and making
adjustments where necessary.
(c) Identifies and controls significant quantitative
variables where applicable, and plans
approaches to take account of variables that
cannot readily be controlled.
(d) Selects appropriate equipment and
measurement strategies in order to ensure
suitably accurate results.

3. Safely uses a range of practical equipment (a) Identifies hazards and assesses risks
and materials associated with those hazards, making safety
adjustments as necessary, when carrying out
experimental techniques and procedures in the
lab or field.
(b) Uses appropriate safety equipment and
approaches to minimise risks with minimal
prompting.

4. Makes and records observations (a) Makes accurate observations relevant to the
experimental or investigative procedure.
(b) Obtains accurate, precise and sufficient data
for experimental and investigative procedures
and records this methodically using appropriate
units and conventions.

5. Researches, references and reports (a) Uses appropriate software and/or tools to
process data, carry out research and report
findings.
(b) Cites sources of information demonstrating
that research has taken place, supporting
planning and conclusions.

92 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
AQA AS and A-level Physics . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.3 1 June 2017

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 93
Get help and support
Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at
You can talk directly to the Physics subject team:
E: [email protected]
T: 01483 477 756

aqa.org.uk
Copyright © 2022 AQA and its licensors. All rights reserved.
AQA retains the copyright on all its publications, including the specifications. However, schools and colleges registered with AQA are
permitted to copy material from this specification for their own internal use.
AQA Education (AQA) is a registered charity (number 1073334) and a company limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales
(company number 3644723). Our registered address is AQA, Devas Street, Manchester M15 6EX.