Chapter

4
Water and its management

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
discuss how water is distributed over the Earth
discuss the water cycle
explain how people can obtain fresh water, and what they use the fresh water for
discuss the availability of water that is safe for drinking across the world
discuss the use of dams
discuss different causes of water pollution
discuss the effects of water pollution on human populations and the environment
discuss methods for improving access to good quality and reliable quantities of water
explain the methods used to control and eradicate malaria and cholera.

Amazing water
Water (H2O) is a remarkable substance. It is a liquid at room temperature, which is unusual
enough compared with closely related compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which are
gases at room temperature. Add to this the fact that the solid form (ice) is less dense than the
liquid and many substances can dissolve in the liquid it is not hard to see why people are
fascinated by it. More than this though, water is vital for life as we know it. Astronomers searching
for evidence of life outside Earth often look for water as a sign that such a thing may be possible.
Recent evidence that water exists on Mars has fuelled speculation that life may exist there as well
or at least may have done so in the past.
 Crucially, water is also transparent. We think life on Earth arose in the sea about 3000 million
years ago and did not emerge on land until about 600 million years ago. A vital process for life is
photosynthesis by green plants, which requires light to occur. The ability of water to let at least
some light penetrate it would have allowed photosynthetic organisms to develop in the sea
thousands of millions of years ago. Its ability to dissolve many substances makes water a very
good source of small molecules, such as the minerals and sugars that life requires.
However, the World Health Organization (WHO) is concerned that not enough people have a basic
level of access to clean drinking water and sanitation. Dr Maria Neira, the WHO's Director for
Public Health, commented in May 2014 that too many people lack a basic level of drinking water
and sanitation. Water is vital for life, and it is required not only in quantity but, importantly, in
good quality. Even though we rely on water so much, both at a personal and at a national level,
we also abuse and pollute it.

Figure 4.0. Some people have to travel a long way each day to collect water.

4.1 The distribution of water on Earth
Although more than 75% of the Earth's surface is covered in water, only 3% of this water is fresh
(non-salty) and potentially usable by humans. This is about 42 million km3 of fresh water. However,
much of this water is locked up in the polar ice caps or glaciers. In fact, less than 1% of the Earth's
fresh water is readily available for people to use (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1 The distribution of the Earth's water.

KEY TERM
Sanitation: the conditions necessary for health, such as
providing clean drinking water and the safe disposal of
sewage

This amounts to 420 000 km3, which is about 60 million litres of water for every person on Earth.
On average, one person uses about 1.5 million litres a year. This is both directly, for drinking and
washing, for example, and indirectly, in the manufacture of products that a person uses. Although it
seems that there is plenty of water for everyone, the situation is not that simple. Half of the
available fresh water is found in just six countries: Brazil, Russia, Canada, Indonesia, China and
Colombia. In addition, much of it is not suitable for drinking. So, there are many challenges to
providing people with enough clean, safe water.
Worldwide, women suffer the burden of collecting water, which can take them up to 6 hours a day.
Women walk an average of 6 km in Africa and Asia to collect water. A study in Tanzania showed that
reducing the time for collecting water by 15 min increased girls' school attendance by 12%.
Collecting water can deny women time for a significant education from an early age.


4.2 The water cycle
The 1 386 000 000 km3 of water on Earth is a fixed amount that neither increases nor decreases.
However, water exists in different forms and is found in many places. At one time a particular water
molecule may be within ice in a glacier, at another in a drop of rain. It may be in the ocean or in a
fast-flowing river in the far north. The change in the state of water will often lead to a change in
where it is. The ice in a glacier may melt and become liquid water. It may then enter a river that
flows into a lake. With the warmth of the Sun on the lake, water may evaporate and become
vapour. This vapour can then rise into the sky, condense and form clouds. Under certain
circumstances, the water in these clouds will fall as rain or snow, called precipitation. It may then
enter the soil and be taken up by the roots of plant, to be transported up the plant in the
transpiration stream. This movement is driven by the loss of water from the plant in the process of
transpiration. Other possibilities are that that it will flow along the ground in a process called
surface run-off, be trapped by the leaves of plants, a process called interception, or enter the
ground by infiltration and then become part of groundwater flow (if it flows through rocks) or
through flow (if it flows through soil).
All these changes in the state of water and its place on the Earth are summarised in the water cycle
(Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2 The main processes in the water cycle. The arrows represent the processes, these are
described in the text in this section.

KEY TERMS
Evaporation: the process in which liquid water turns into
vapour, the opposite of condensation
Condensation: the process in which water vapour turns in to
liquid water, the opposite of evaporation
Precipitation: the process in which liquid water (as rain) or
ice particles (as snow or hail) fall to Earth due to gravity
Transpiration: the movement of water up plants and its
subsequent loss as water vapour from their leaves
Surface run-off: the process by which water runs over the
ground into rivers
Interception: the process by which precipitation is stopped
from reaching the ground surface by the presence of trees
and other plants
Infiltration: the process by which water seeps into the
ground
Groundwater flow: the process by which infiltrated water
 flows through rocks
Through flow: the process by which infiltrated water flows
through the soil

4.3 Why humans need water
Humans need water for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes.

Domestic
In the home water is, of course, used for drinking and cooking, but this only accounts for about 3%
of domestic use. In more economically developed countries (MEDCs) about 50% of domestic water
is used for washing and flushing the toilet and a further 20% for washing clothes. Much less
domestic water is used for washing, flushing the toilet and laundry in less economically developed
countries (LEDCs), although the actual proportions vary. In some situations quite a lot of water is
used for watering the garden and a substantial amount is often lost in leaks. The proportions of
these uses and losses varies. Water for domestic use needs to be especially safe.

Industrial
Water is used in a vast range of industrial processes. One of the largest uses is for cooling in the
production of electricity. Another use of water relies on the fact that a very wide range of
substances is soluble in it. Water is often described as the universal solvent.

Agricultural
By far the greatest use of water in agriculture is for irrigation (see Section 3.4).The use of water for
irrigation often forms the largest proportion of water use for a whole country. Plants need water to
transport minerals and food, to keep their cells rigid and to combine with carbon dioxide to make
food in photosynthesis (see Section 9.1). This means that, for successful growth of crops, a reliable
supply of water will be needed. In addition, domestic animals require a reliable source of water.


4.4 The main sources of fresh water for human use
Fresh water is often very visible on the Earth's surface as lakes, rivers and swamps. This is called
surface water. Rivers, and sometimes lakes, are major sources for human use.
However, Figure 4.1 shows that there is a lot more water in the ground, known as groundwater.
Vast quantities of water are stored in the spaces of porous rock (limestone or sandstone). Such a
store is referred to as an aquifer.
In regions of the world where insufficient water is present from both surface water and groundwater
sources, other solutions to water supply have to be found. One of the most common of these is to
use salt water from the sea. This water is made safe for human use (potable) by removing the salt.
This carried out in a desalination plant.

Water from rivers

Water can be taken from rivers by simply dipping a bucket into it. This is still the only way to get
water in many parts of the world. At the other extreme are huge national projects, often involving
the construction of a reservoir. A reservoir may be created behind a dam or by the side of the
river (a bank-side reservoir). In both of these cases the reservoir forms a large store of water.
Usually, this water is not safe but can be treated to make it potable.
Another type of reservoir is the service reservoir, in which treated, and therefore potable, water
is stored for use. Water towers and underground cisterns are examples of service reservoirs.

Water from the ground

Water that infiltrates the ground may accumulate in porous rocks such as sandstone and limestone.
These stores of water are called aquifers. The global quantity of water in aquifers is relatively large,
about 30% of all fresh water (see Figure 4.1). Aquifers fulfil a very significant proportion of human
water needs.
The most common way in which water is obtained from aquifers is to sink wells into them. A well
can be dug by hand or bored into rock with machinery. If the water in the aquifer is not under
pressure, it has to be raised to the top of the well. This can be done by simply lowering a bucket on
a rope or with a hand-operated pump. This would usually be the method used in LEDCs. In MEDCs,
some form of motor-driven pump is more likely to be used.

KEY TERMS
Surface water: water in lakes, rivers and swamps
Groundwater: water in the soil, and in rocks under the
surface of the ground
Aquifer: water stored in porous rocks under the ground
Potable: safe to drink
Desalination: the removal of salt from water
Reservoir: an artificial lake where water can be stored
Service reservoir: a reservoir in which potable water is
stored
Water tower: a type of reservoir where potable water is
stored for immediate use
Cistern: a vessel in which water, usually potable, is stored,
forming a type of covered reservoir
Well: a hole bored or dug into rock to reach the water stored
there

If the water is stored under pressure, the aquifer is referred to as an artesian aquifer.
Water from a well sunk into an artesian aquifer (an artesian well) will rise to the surface without the
need for a pump.

Water from the sea

In principle, to make salt water suitable for human consumption, the salt simply has to be removed
in a process called desalination. Over 97% of all the world's water is in the ocean and salty. Salt
water cannot be drunk, as it would cause health problems and, eventually, death. Two processes
can be used to make salt water potable.
The first method of desalination is distillation, in which the water is boiled and released as vapour,
leaving the salt behind. The vapour is condensed as liquid water and can then be used.
Desalination by distillation is about 10–10% efficient. The process produces large quantities of
waste, salt water (brine), which needs to be disposed of. This can be a source of pollution. Energy is
needed for the distillation, and the provision of this energy may itself cause pollution. However, the
transport of fresh water from more remote sources also requires energy. Distillation may be no
more costly than other methods of providing fresh water unless there are alternative local sources.
Desalination plants using this method are mainly found in energy-rich countries, such as those of
the Middle East.
The second desalination process is called reverse osmosis, in which salt water is pumped at high
pressure through very fine membranes (Figure 4.3). Desalination by reverse osmosis is about 30–
30% efficient. As with distillation, brine is a byproduct of reverse osmosis and requires disposal.
This process also requires energy, but less than distillation. Most new desalination plants use the
technique of reverse osmosis.

Figure 4.3 Desalination by reverse osmosis.

KEY TERMS
Artesian aquifer: an aquifer in which the water is under
pressure
Distillation: the purification of a liquid by boiling a solution
so that the liquid evaporates and can be collected when it
condenses at a lower temperature
Reverse osmosis: the purification of water by pumping it at
high pressure through a fine membrane

4.5 Availability of safe drinking water around the world
The most important factor when considering a country's water wealth is the amount of rain it
receives. Using this measure, for example, Brazil and Russia are two of the most water wealthy
nations, and the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait are two of the most water poor.
However, having plenty of water does not mean that there is plenty of safe water for everyone. The
number of people needing water has to be considered. In China, which has the largest population in
the world at over 1.3 billion, the water availability is about 2800 km3. This works about at about
2300 m3 person-1 year1. In Singapore, which has only 0.60 km3 of water available, the supply is only
about 110 m3 person-1 year-1. In these two examples, a water-rich country seems to have enough
water for its people, and vice versa.
However, another very water-poor country, Mauritius, has a water availability of only about 2 km3,
but this supplies its 1.3 million population with 1700 m3 person year-1
The lack of water may be because of low rainfall and / or high levels of evaporation; this is referred
to as physical water scarcity. A second reason for a lack of water is economic. A country may
have a lot of water but cannot afford to extract it, purify it and make it available for the population.
Such as country is suffering from economic water scarcity.
Even if water is available, it may not be safe to drink (potable). There are many ways of ensuring
that water is potable but all of them involve two main principles:
sanitation systems, which ensure that dirty water does not mix with water intended for human
use
water-treatment processes, which ensure that the water supplied to people is safe to drink.
Worldwide, however, sanitation and clean water are not available to everyone. In 2000, the United
Nations (UN) said that its aim was to halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without
sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. Since then 2.1 billion people have
gained access to improved sanitation. But, despite this progress, 2.4 billion are still using
unimproved sanitation facilities; 946 million of these still practice open defecation. A child dies
every 2.5 min from diseases linked to open defecation.
In some LEDCs, less than a quarter of the population has access to safe water. In Europe and North
America, it is taken for granted that 100% have such access.
Just as access to safe water varies from country to country around the world, it also varies within
countries. One striking contrast is between rural and urban areas.
In many cities and towns, more people have access to both clean water and improved sanitation
than in rural areas in the same country. The main reasons for this difference are that:
there is more wealth and more wealthy people in cities
large numbers of people can act together to pressurise authorities to provide safe water
it is cheaper to install piped water when many people live close together than in a scattered
rural community.
At a larger scale, differences in the availability of water can also lead to actual conflict: water wars.
Currently such conflicts are quite restricted in range. There is some tension over the use of the
River Jordan in the Middle East. There has also been tension around the Aral Sea in Asia, between
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. However, as populations grow
and cultures develop, it is believed more areas of such tension, and even war, may arise.

KEY TERMS
Physical water scarcity: a situation in which there is simply
not enough water for human needs
Economic water scarcity: a situation in which there is
enough water available but the money does not exist to
extract and / or treat enough of it for human needs

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

4.1 Copy and complete the following paragraph about the

water cycle. Liquid water is found on the surface of the
Earth
 in............................,............................and.............................
It is also found inside plants. Water turns from a liquid to a
gas, water vapour, in a process
called.............................................. The water vapour
then............................to form clouds. Liquid water falls from
clouds to the Earth in the process of
.........................................Some of the water is prevented
from reaching the ground by plants in the process
of....................................... Water that reaches the ground
may enter it in a process
called.................................................The rest enters rivers
by
4.2 Explain why nearly 70% of fresh water on Earth is very
difficult for humans to use.
4.3 Using Figure 4.1, calculate the percentage of the Earth's
water that is in lakes. Show your working,
4.4 Explain why desalination plants are common only in oil-rich
countries.
4.5 Suggest and explain which of groundwater, surface water
or ice caps and glaciers is likely to be the main source of
fresh water for humans.

4.6 Multipurpose dam projects
The construction of a dam (see Figure 4.4) across a river can be a very expensive and controversial
project, but the benefits are usually great. In many cases dams are constructed with a number of
aims in mind. A dam may help with:
the generation of electricity in hydroelectric power plants
flood control
irrigation
tourism and leisure
the provision of water
creation of habitat for wetland species
access by boat to otherwise inaccessible areas.

Figure 4.4 The structure of a dam.

The disadvantages of dam projects include:

relocating people
flooding land
disrupting the life cycles of fish and other aquatic organisms
altering the water supply for people downstream of the dam
reducing the enrichment of soil downstream of the dam (which natural flooding of the original
river course would have contributed to)
the dam may become redundant as sediment in the river sinks to the bottom of the reservoir
(siltation).

Figure 4.5 A dam and reservoir. The dam is in the foreground of the photo and the reservoir is
behind.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
 4.6 Look at the lists of the advantages and disadvantages of
dam projects given above. Copy and complete Table 4.1 by
adding each advantage or disadvantage to the correct cell.

Advantages Disadvantages
Environmental
Economic
Social

Table 4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of dam projects.

4.7 Explain how it could be argued that a multipurpose dam

project is unsustainable.

Where to build a dam

Deciding where to build a dam requires detailed study of many factors. It has to be in a river valley
and, for economic reasons, the valley should be quite narrow where the dam is built. A wider valley
would require a more costly, wider dam. A dam also needs to be quite high up a valley if it is to be
successful at producing hydroelectric power (HEP). The higher it is, the greater the pressure of
water, which means it will have more potential energy. Dams should be sited away from developed
areas if possible, to reduce the risk of pollution in the reservoir.

Are dams sustainable?

Dams are often thought of as a permanent solution to electricity generation. However, there are
sometimes problems with their operation in the long term. The reservoir can become silted due to
the material carried into it by rivers. The dam structure, which is under a lot of pressure, can
deteriorate and eventually fail. Dams can also have negative effects on the surrounding
environment, including fish populations. These problems suggest that dams are not necessarily
sustainable solutions.
The opposite view is that dams are a far superior alternative to the burning of fossil fuels because
they produce electricity without producing greenhouse gases and pollutants. In this sense,
sustainability can be thought of as a continuum with dams towards one end and fossil fuels at the
other.


4.7 Water-related diseases
Cholera and typhoid
Water provides a very good habitat for many living things. Because of the presence of plants in
water and their ability to photosynthesise (see Section 9.1), there is plenty of food in water. Water
provides a nutrient-rich environment for bacteria. Bacteria may enter drinking water from sewage
if sanitation is poor. If these bacteria are pathogens, and the water in which they live is drunk
untreated, diseases can be spread.
Two major diseases caused by water contaminated with human faeces are cholera and typhoid. The
main features of these two diseases are shown in Table 4.2.

Cholera Typhoid
Infective bacterium Vibrio cholerae Salmonella typhi or Salmonella
(pathogen) paratyphi, which causes a less
severe illness
Time before onset of A few hours up to 5 days 6–6 days
symptoms after
infection
Symptoms Diarrhoea and vomiting Fever, abdominal pain with a skin
rash
Diarrhoea and vomiting are not
uncommon
Consequence Can be mild but can lead to 3–3% of infected people remain as
dehydration and death carriers with no symptoms
If untreated, fatal complications can
arise
Treatment Rehydration Antibiotics
A vaccine exists A vaccine exists
Occurrence in 2015 172 454 cases were notified to WHO Around 21 million a year with about
from 42 countries, including 1304 161 000 deaths worldwide
deaths

Table 4.2 A comparison of typhoid and cholera.

The crucial element in preventing these diseases being transmitted within a population is to ensure
that sewage and drinking water do not come into contact with each other. Therefore, good
sanitation is crucial, with sewage being removed directly to a treatment works and water being
treated before it is delivered to people to drink.
Attention to good hygiene is crucial, as is the thorough cooking of food. Contaminated water should
not be used to wash food, and hands should be washed after contact with any faecal material. Use
of efficient latrines is essential.
If there is any doubt about whether water is safe to drink, simply boiling it can eliminate most
harmful organisms.

Malaria
Like cholera and typhoid, malaria is a water-related disease, but the similarity ends there. Bacterial
diseases, such as cholera and typhoid, are carried in water and referred to as water-borne diseases.

CASE STUDY

A multipurpose dam on the

Ramganga River at Kalagarh,
India
In 1961, the construction of a large multipurpose dam was
started at Kalagarh across the Ramganga River, which is a
tributary of the Ganges in India. It was completed in 1974
(Figure 4.6). The dam:
is 127.5 m high
generates 451 million units of power annually from three 66
mW power houses
has a reservoir area of 80 km2
stores 2447.6 m3 of water
has a catchment area made up of 57% forests, 8% grassland
and 30% agricultural lands.

Figure 4.6 A satellite image of the Ramganga Dam, Uttarakhand,

India.

In its construction:
no crop lands were submerged and there was no flooding of
railways or roads
there was no need to relocate any people
4220 hectares of forest and 2500 hectares of plantations
were submerged
the owners of the forests were paid compensation and there
was afforestation of the plantations in an adjoining area
a 7.5 ha area was landscaped and tourist facilities were
installed.
The dam is in a highly seismic area and a seismological
observatory with the latest equipment was installed.
Since construction:
flooding of a large area around the dam can now be
controlled
wildlife has increased and many species of migratory birds
have been attracted to the reservoir
the reservoir water quality is suitable for aquatic life and for
use in irrigation
thousands of hectares of land in the Ramganga flood plains
are now being used successfully for agriculture
little treatment is needed to make the water safe to drink
Delhi receives 5.67 m3 of water per second (cumec) through
concrete pipes.
Over 10 000 jobs were created by the building of the dam, and
3000 officials and workers are employed in maintenance of the
dam project. The transport infrastructure has been improved:
Kalagarh is now very well connected with important cities such
as Delhi.
In a report in 2014 some local farmers claimed that the dam was
affecting their crops and their fish catches. They said that the
dam gates are opened and closed to suit the water level in the
 dam. Their land therefore receives a variable amount of water
from extreme flooding to near drought. This pattern means they
lose crops.
In addition, the annual floods of the Ramganga River used to
bring in fine silt and replenish the fertility of the soil, but now the
dam has altered the sediment characteristics bringing in coarse
sand.
Fish have become isolated above the dam and only get released
to the lower river below the dam when the dam gates are
opened. This disruption to their breeding cycles has led to a
decrease in fish size, number and diversity.

Questions
1. Suggest reasons why the dam took 13 years to be
completed.
2. Explain why:
a. a seismological observatory was built
b. the authorities are monitoring sedimentation behind the
dam.
3. To what extent do you agree that the dam is beneficial to:
a. local people
b. India?

Malaria is caused by a microscopic organism called Plasmodium. Malaria is water-related because

the organism that passes the disease to humans requires water to breed. This organism is an insect
called a mosquito, which lays its eggs in still water, where the larvae develop. Mosquitoes can pass
malaria on to humans, acting as a vector. The relationship between mosquitoes, Plasmodium and
human beings is best understood with a life cycle diagram (Figure 4.7).

Figure 4.7 The life cycle of malaria.

Malaria occurs in 97 (out of 193) countries around the world, mainly in Africa, Asia and the
Americas (Figure 4.8). These countries are home to 3.2 billion people, nearly half the world's
population. In 2015 there were 214 million cases of malaria, with about 438 000 deaths. Sub-
Saharan Africa suffered 89% of the malaria cases, with 91% of the deaths.

Figure 4.8 Areas where malaria transmission is a risk.

The symptoms of malaria are flu-like and include fever and chills at first. The disease can be fatal.
Malaria can be treated but a much better option is prevention.

KEY TERMS
Sewage: waste matter that is carried away in sewers or
drains from domestic (or industrial) establishments
Pathogen: an organism, including bacteria and viruses, that
can cause disease
Vector: an organism that carries a disease-producing
organism, such as the mosquito which carries the malarial
parasite

Prevention and control is best achieved by avoiding bites from the mosquito.
Individuals can prevent being bitten by mosquitoes by:
avoiding being outside between dusk and dawn in countries where malaria mosquitoes are
active, the species of the Anopheles mosquito that transmits malaria only flies at night
wearing clothing that covers most of the body and treat exposed parts of the body with
mosquito-repellent products
sleeping under a mosquito net treated with an insecticide
spraying the inside of accommodation with insecticide.
For governments, strategies for malaria control are focused on controlling the vector. This can be
achieved by:
spraying insecticide inside buildings, including houses
draining wetland areas to remove mosquito-breeding sites
introducing fish, which eat the larvae and pupae of the mosquito, into ponds and other bodies of
water
pouring oil onto the surface of the water where mosquitoes breed, which stops the larvae from
breathing and stops the adults from laying eggs.
Eradicating malaria means completely removing the malarial parasite from the population.
Controlling the vector is not enough, so methods must be sought to actually destroy the parasite.
WHO now encourages a programme of eradication of malaria from all countries of the world. In the
first half of the 20th century, malaria was eradicated from western Europe and the USA. The main
challenge for the 21st century is to achieve eradication in sub-Saharan Africa, where nearly 90% of
all cases occur.
Unfortunately, there is the possibility that malaria is favoured by global warming. Recent studies
have shown that it is now occurring in highland regions of Kenya, Colombia and Ethiopia, where it
has not been seen for over 50 years. However, another recent study using a predictive approach
and taking into account the subtleties of climate change, which involves more than just a rise in
temperature, concluded that few changes in distribution would occur.
In the first 12 years of the 21st century, improvements in diagnosis, treatment and prevention have
led to a 25% decline in incidence in malaria and a 42% decline in deaths from malaria. However, it
is unlikely that these methods will result in elimination. The mosquito vector is evolving resistance
to insecticides and the parasite is also becoming resistant to available drugs. Much more attention
needs to be given to people who are infected by the disease but have no symptoms. It is clear that
new methods for controlling malaria are needed.
Be careful not to confuse malaria with bacterial diseases, such as cholera and typhoid. Bacteria
breed in the water. Malaria is a caused by a parasite, which breeds in an insect, which breeds in
water.


4.8 Sources, impact and management of water pollution
Using water very often results in it then becoming unusable as a result of pollution. Not
surprisingly, therefore, the three main uses of water are also the three main polluters.

Domestic waste
Sewage is waste matter carried away from houses and other buildings in both cities and small
villages. It is taken away in drains called sewers and is then dumped or converted into a form that
is less harmful.
Sewage treatment
Sewage is very rich in organic matter and so microbial organisms can thrive in it. Sewage has to be
disposed of, and this is usually into bodies of water, so it must be treated beforehand.
The main aim of sewage treatment is to reduce the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the sewage.
The BOD of sewage is the amount of oxygen it would use up if released directly into a river or lake.
The removal of this oxygen from the river or lake would cause problems for the organisms, such as
fish and insect larvae, living in the water. Further details about these problems are given below in
the section on eutrophication.
The main parts of a sewage treatment works can be seen in Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9 The stages in a sewage treatment plant.

1. Sewage outfall: waste water from homes, and sometimes industry, is taken to a sewage
treatment works in pipes called sewers.
2. Screening tank: large objects are removed from the waste water using a coarse grid.
3. Primary treatment, first settling tank: the solid organic matter, mainly human waste, is allowed
to settle to the bottom of the tank. This settled material is called sludge, which is treated in the
sludge-digester (see step 7). The cleaned water overflows the sides of the tank and is taken to
the next stage.
4. Secondary treatment, oxidation: the water is now pumped into a tank where oxygen is bubbled
through it. This encourages the growth of bacteria and other microbes, which break down
dissolved organic matter, which causes the BOD.
5. Secondary treatment, second settling tank: the water now enters the second settling tank,
where the bacteria settle to the bottom, forming more sludge. This cleaner water overflows the
sides of the tank as effluent.
6. The effluent is discharged into the environment, usually a river.
7. Sludge digester: in the sludge digester, oxygen-free conditions are created that encourage the
growth of bacteria which can break down the sludge, releasing methane, which can be burnt.
8. The treated sludge can be dried in sludge lagoons and used as organic fertiliser on farmland.
In some sewage works, tertiary treatment is carried out. This may involve further filtering of the
effluent or its chlorination (see below). This produces even cleaner effluent, which may be needed
to protect the habitat into which the effluent is released.

KEY TERM
Effluent: a discharge of liquid waste

Improved sanitation
An improved sanitation facility is defined as one that separates human excreta from contact with
humans. This can be achieved using a variety of toilets and latrines.
A flush toilet uses a holding tank for flushing water, and a water seal that prevents smells. A
pour flush toilet has a water seal but uses water poured by hand for flushing. In either case the
waste needs to be removed by:
either connection to a system of sewer pipes, also called sewerage, that collects human
faeces, urine and waste water, which is then removed from the house
or connection to a septic system, which consists of an underground, sealed settling tank.
A pit latrine with a platform is a dry pit fully covered by a platform that is fitted with a seat over
a hole, or just has a hole, in the platform. The platform covers the pit without exposing the
contents, other than through the hole. Sometimes these latrines are ventilated to take away
smells.
A composting toilet is a dry toilet into which vegetable waste, straw, grass, sawdust and ash are
added to the human waste to produce compost.

Water treatment
Water that is fit for domestic use such as drinking, washing and cooking is called potable water. To
make water potable it undergoes coagulation treatment, and is filtered and disinfected.
Coagulants make particles in the water stick together and settle to the bottom of the container. The
water is then filtered through sand. To kill any disease-causing organisms (pathogens) that may
remain, chlorine is added to the filtered water as a disinfectant; this process is called chlorination
(Figure 4.10)

Figure 4.10 The stages in the treatment of water to produce potable water.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

4.8 Typhoid, cholera and malaria are water-related diseases.

Which of these could be transmitted by drinking
contaminated water? Explain your answer.
4.9 A school party was told that a man had drunk a glass of
water from a tap that drew water from treated sewage.
 They were told that this water was potable. To what extent
do you think they were being told the truth?

KEY TERM
Chlorination: adding chlorine-based substances to water

Industrial processes
Industry produces and uses a wide range of chemicals that can be harmful to both humans and the
environment. Because of its excellent solvent properties, many of these chemicals end up in water
bodies and cause pollution. Outfalls from industry often discharge into rivers and lakes.
Gases from industrial chimneys enter the atmosphere, where they dissolve in water and form acid
rain. The bodies of living things are at least 75% water and so these water-soluble pollutants can
easily enter organisms and cause problems.
Toxic compounds from industry
Many industrial processes use and produce a variety of poisonous (toxic) substances. Some of
these may enter bodies of water and cause immediate harm and even death to the organisms
living there. In other cases, a less dramatic effect is seen. This may be because, although the
substance is toxic, it only enters the water in very small amounts. However, because of a process
called biomagnification, such substances may achieve levels where they become toxic.
The most well-known examples of biomagnification are heavy metals and some pesticides.
Many industrial processes involve the use of heavy metals such as lead, mercury and cadmium.
These metals are toxic and can be stored in the bodies of plants and animals, including humans.
This means they may build up to high levels, which can cause illness.
Acid rain
In the mid-19th century it was noticed that, in some industrial countries, forests downwind of
industrial sites showed signs of damage. In 1872, Robert Smith showed that acid water could
damage plants and various materials. By the 1970s, acid rain was recognised as a serious problem.
The water in lakes and rivers was more acidic than previously. Fish in the lakes and rivers were
dying. The leaves and small branches of trees in many forests of the world were dead (dieback)
(Figure 4.11).

Figure 4.11 Dieback in coniferous trees.

KEY TERMS
Biomagnification: the process in which the concentration of
a substance in living things becomes higher at progressively
higher levels in a food chain or web
Bioaccumulation: the build-up of a substance in the body of
a living thing
Dieback: the death of a tree or shrub that starts at the tip of
its leaves or roots and spreads towards the centre of the
plant, caused by unfavourable environmental conditions or
disease

What causes acid rain?
The pH of water is a measure of how acid or alkaline it is (Figure 4.12). A pH of less than 7 is acid, 7
is neutral, and above 7 is alkaline. The pH range is from very acid (0) to very alkaline (14). Rain
usually has a pH of between 5 and 6, so is always slightly acidic. Acid rain has a pH lower than this:
values as low as 2 have been recorded, which is about the same as battery acid.

Figure 4.12 The pH scale, with some everyday examples.

When fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, are burned, the gases sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) are produced. They enter the atmosphere and can be blown long distances. These
gases react with water in the atmosphere to form acids.
SO2 dissolves in water in clouds, producing sulfuric acid, and NOx produces nitric acid (Figure 4.13).
When it rains, these acids fall to the ground (see Section 7.2).

Figure 4.13 How acid rain is formed.

The gases can be blown from one country to another, for example many coniferous forests in
Scandinavia are thought to have been damaged by acid rain gases from northern Europe in the
1960s and 1970s.

The impact of acid rain on aquatic ecosystems
When water in a river or lake is acidified, the lower pH makes it intolerable to organisms. Fish egg-
laying is often reduced and young fish are malformed. Acid rain can also lead to leaching of heavy
metals, such as aluminium, lead and mercury, from the soil into the water. This leads to further
harmful effects. Aluminium, for example, clogs fish gills and can cause suffocation. Another effect is
that some minerals essential for life, notably calcium and potassium, are washed out of the lake or
river. This reduces algal growth, leaving less food for fish and other animals. The direct and indirect
effects of acid rain and run-off of heavy metals from surrounding soils affect the whole ecosystem.

KEY TERM
Leaching: the movement of a soluble chemical or mineral
away from soil, usually caused by the action of rainwater

Reducing acid rain
A reduction in the production of acid rain-causing gases is achieved when substitutes for fossil fuels
are found to produce energy.
To reduce SO2 emissions, low-sulfur varieties of fossil fuel should be used. Any sulfur still in the
emissions can be removed by scrubbers. There are various forms of scrubber but for all of them,
once the sulfur has been removed, the waste then has to be disposed of safely. NOx emissions can
be reduced by burning with a cooler flame or adjusting the air to fuel ratio.
Clean air acts have been passed to encourage power plants and others to employ some or all of
these methods so that they stay within permitted emission levels.

Agriculture
Modern agriculture makes use of many chemicals called agrochemicals (see Section 3.4). These
include pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers. All of these are water-soluble and can cause pollution
in water bodies, with a variety of consequences for humans and the environment.

Eutrophication
Nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate can enter water from many sources, including farmland,
industry and domestic outputs. In addition, organic matter can enter water directly as sewage and
from other sources (Figure 4.14).
 Figure 4.14 The sources of excess organic matter and minerals in water.

Any increase in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, in a river or lake will cause a rapid
growth of algae. This is called an algal bloom. When the algae die there is an increase in organic
matter in the water. This acts as food for bacteria as they decompose the dead algae. These
bacteria use up oxygen, lowering its level in the water. Most living things rely on oxygen, so this can
lead to the death of other organisms in the water. See Figure 4.15 for a summary of this process,
which is called eutrophication.

Figure 4.15 A flowchart showing how eutrophication occurs.

KEY TERMS
Algae: plant-like, photosynthetic organisms that lack true
stems, roots and leaves
Algal bloom: the rapid growth of algae in water, caused
 particularly by a surge of nutrients
Organic: derived from living organisms
Eutrophication: a sequence events starting with enrichment
of water by mineral nutrients or organic matter that leads to a
reduction in oxygen levels in the water and the death of fish
and other animals

Pesticide and herbicide pollution

Pesticides are designed to kill living things, but not humans. However, because human physiology
has much in common with other living organisms, it is not surprising that pesticides can have
negative effects on humans. Insecticides, a class of pesticide produced to kill insects, will kill both
the target species (the pest) and non-target species, which worryingly can include the natural
enemies of the pests. Pesticides are generally water-soluble, so water pollution by these
agrochemicals is a major concern. The impact of agrochemicals is covered in more detail in Section
3.4.

Pollution control and legislation

Governments around the world have been tackling pollution by legislation. Industries in
participating countries are required to monitor the pollution they cause and keep it within set
levels. The legislation puts pressure on the polluters to find ways to reduce the pollutants.
An example of this approach is the bi-national Great Lakes water quality agreement (GLWQA) which
was devised in 1972. A loading limit of phosphorus was set at 11 000 metric tonnes year-1 or 1 mg
dm-3. This was in response to eutrophication issues in the Great Lakes of USA and Canada.
Such legislation uses various tools to make sure companies follow the rules. There can be fines for
exceeding set limits. Companies may be prosecuted and, in extreme cases, forced to close down.
Companies might need government agreement on strategic plans to reduce pollutions levels.
Incentives can also be used to encourage companies to take part, such as grants or tax relief for
those that do achieve a reduction in pollution.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

4.10Explain why countries need to work together to solve the

problem of acid rain. Give examples in your answer.
4.11Explain why it would not be a good idea to use water from
ponds or small lakes in preference to water harvested from
a roof.
4.12Drugs, vector eradication, improved sanitation, clean water
supply and chlorination are all ways of dealing with water-
related diseases. State which would be most suitable for
controlling malaria, cholera and typhoid. Explain your
answers.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 4.1

The effect of mineral concentration on plant growth

It is easy to look at the effects of increasing mineral
concentration on the growth of plants using a floating pond
weed such as duckweed. You would need to set up a range of
solutions containing increasing amounts of minerals and follow
the growth of the plants.

Materials
Pond weed, such as duckweed
Houseplant food
Petri dishes or glass bowls
Beakers
Forceps or brush to handle duckweed
 Method
Make a range of solutions, each with a different
concentration, of houseplant food from dilute to strong. You
could use 100%, 75%, 50% and 25% of plant food.
Pour each of your solutions into a Petri dish or glass bowl.
Place the same number of duckweed plants onto the surface
of each solution and count them (Figure 4.16).
Place the dish with plants in a well lit place
Count the number of plants at regular intervals over a few
days

Figure 4.16 Duckweed plants in a Petri dish.

Questions
1. Plot graphs to show your data, including graphs of the
number of plants plotted against time in days for each
concentration of solution and a graph of the number of plants
at the end of the experiment plotted against the
concentration of the solution.
2. Calculate the doubling time of the number of duckweed
plants at each concentration of solution.
3. Write a conclusion about the effect of the strength of
houseplant food solution on the duckweed growth.
4. Suggest what the implication of this effect of solution
concentration might be on a pond.

Summary
After completing this chapter, you should know:
how to describe the water cycle
the distribution of water around the world
the different uses of water
sources of water
the impact of multipurpose dam projects
the causes of water pollution
the impact of water pollution on people and the environment
strategies for improving water quantity and quality
strategies for the control and eradication of malaria and
cholera
about water pollution in Haiti.

End-of-chapter questions
1. Copy and complete the passage. The Earth has about 1.4
billion................of water. The majority of this (about 97%) is
in the.................The rest is called.......................and is found
in rocks, where it is called...................., frozen
in......................and.....................and as .............................in
rivers, lakes and swamps.
[7 marks]
2. List four purposes of a multipurpose dam project.
[4 marks]
3. Copy and complete the passage. Both typhoid and cholera
are water-related diseases and both are caused
by..................Malaria, however, although water-related is
caused by.....................Both cholera and typhoid have
symptoms of................and .................but...................also
causes a skin rash and............................ Some diseases can
be prevented by vaccination but of malaria, cholera and
typhoid only.................and.................have vaccines available.
Of the three water-related diseases,..................causes the
most deaths worldwide.
[8 marks]
4. Explain the difference between primary and secondary
treatment in a sewage works.
[3 marks]
5. State precisely what causes the reduction in oxygen levels in
the water of a eutrophic lake.
[4 marks]
6. Figure 4.17 shows several sources of water pollution.

Figure 4.17 Sources of water pollution.

Using Figure 4.17 and your own knowledge answer the

following questions.
a. Describe how the effluent at D differs from that at E.
[2 marks]
b. Describe how the sewage treatment plant achieves this
difference.
 [5 marks]
c. State the name of two gases, produced by the factory,
which may lead to die-back damage of trees.
[2 marks]
d. Explain why the trees in the forest close to the factory
may be less affected by die-back than trees in a distant
forest.
[2 marks]
e. Suggest the effects that the run-off from the field may
have on the ecosystem of the river estuary.
[7 marks]

EXTENDED CASE STUDY

The cholera outbreak in Haiti,

October 2010
Haiti was hit by a devastating earthquake of magnitude 7.0 at
16:53 local time, on 12 January 2010. The epicentre was 25 km
west of the capital, Port-au-Prince. The number killed is
estimated to have been between 100 000 and 160 000
(government figures state even more but there are concerns
that these figures are inflated).
At the time of the earthquake, the sanitation in Haiti was very
poor. Only 71% of the population had access to improved water
and 24% to improved sanitation.
Despite this, there had not been a case of cholera in Haiti for
nearly a century prior to the earthquake. Within 10 months of
the earthquake, however, a cholera outbreak had begun. This
spread quickly to the whole country over only 4 weeks.
By August 2015, over 700 000 cases, and about 9000 deaths,
had been reported.
Several suggestions were made about the origins of the bacteria
that had caused the outbreak.
 Figure 4.18 A world map showing where cholera has occurred in
the recent past. Also shown is where some aid workers travelled
from to help in the cholera outbreak of 2010 in Haiti. The picture
shows the Artibonite River, the source of the Haitian outbreak.

Help was provided by many nations. This included a group of UN

aid workers flown in from Nepal. Their military base in Haiti was
on a tributary of the Artibonite River (Figure 4.18).
It was discovered that sewage had leaked from the military base
camp into the Artibonite River. Most of the affected people in the
original outbreak had drunk from the river. The bacterial strain
responsible for the outbreak was identified as one closely
related to a Nepalese strain.
Several strategies were used to try and control the cholera.
These included:
installation of latrines
thorough cooking of food
education about hand washing.
By 2014 the number of cases had been significantly reduced to
only about 10% of the peak in 2011. However, every rainy
season leads to an increase in the number of cases.
Disappointingly, the number of cases also rose dramatically in
the last few months of 2014 (Figure 4.19).
 Figure 4.19 New cholera cases in Haiti every month from January
2012 to August 2015.

This is thought to have been caused by:

heavy, late rainfall
continued inadequate sanitation
an assumption that the disease was now under control.

Questions
1. a. It has been suggested that some aid workers, carrying the
infection, caused the cholera outbreak. Explain why this
suggestion has been made.
b. It was also suggested that the cholera bacteria might
have come from a source in South America. Using Figure
4.18 suggest how the cholera bacteria might have
reached Haiti from a source in South America.
2. Describe how strategies used to control the outbreak could
reduce the numbers of people infected.
3. a. From Figure 4.19 state the month and maximum number
of cases in 2012.
b. From Figure 4.19 state the month and maximum number
of cases in 2014.
4. Calculate the percentage reduction in cholera cases from the
peak in 2012 to the lowest number in 2014.
5. Describe the pattern of cholera cases recorded in 2015.
6. In 2012 rainfall peaked in May and in November. How does
this explain the pattern of cholera cases in that year?
7. To what extent do you agree with the statement that 'Haiti
has managed to control the cholera outbreak which began in
2010'?