LABORATORY MANUAL

TESTING AND COMMISSIONING OF

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
SUBJECT CODE: 2180901
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
B.E. 8th SEMESTER

NAME:

ENROLLMENT NO:

BATCH NO:

YEAR:

Amiraj College of Engineering and Technology,

Nr.Tata Nano Plant, Khoraj, Sanand, Ahmedabad.
1
 Amiraj College of Engineering and Technology,
Nr.Tata Nano Plant, Khoraj, Sanand, Ahmedabad.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. / Ms. ______________________________________________

Of class____________________ Enrolment No ___________________________has
Satisfactorily completed the course in ____________________________________as
by the Gujarat Technological University for ____ Year (B.E.) semester___ of
Mechanical Engineering in the Academic year ______.

Date of Submission:-

Faculty Name and Signature Head of Department

(Subject Teacher) (ELECTRICAL)
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
B.E. 8th SEMESTER
SUBJECT: TESTING AND COMMISSIONING OF ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT

SUBJECT CODE: 2180901

List Of Experiments

Sr. Date of Date of

Sign Remark
No. Title Performance submission

1. To study fault finding chart of electrical

equipments.

2. Study of HV Breakdown Tester.

To perform and study breakdown test of

3.
transformer oil according to IS:6792
To Perform Brake Test on DC Shunt
4.
Motor.
To Perform Hopkinson’s Test On DC
5.
Shunt Machines.
To Perform Field Test On DC Series
6.
Motor.
To Measure The Slip Of Induction
7. Motor At Different Loads Using
Stroboscopic Method.
To study about maintenance of
8.
electrical equipment.

9. Testing of solid insulation with point-

point electrodes.

10. To study 3 phase transformer

connections
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –1

AIM: To study fault finding chart of electrical equipments.

FAULT FINDING CHART

FOR
( 3 PHASE AC SLIM, SYNC. MOTOR, SQIM & ALTERNATOR).

SR. Fault Symptom Possible Causes Remedy

NO.
1. No voltage from a) No excitation to rotor give proper excitation.
alternator
b) Loose connection or Check up all connection for
inadequate brush tightness and also spring
tension. tension as well as free
movement of brushes in its
holders, so that they are
resting on the sliprings
properly.

c) Discontinuity in stack check and restore the

or armature cat. continuity.

2 Low voltage form a) Low prime mover Adjust prime mover speed to
alternator speed. rated

b) Loose connection or Check up all connection for

inadequate brush tightness and also spring
tension. tension as well as free
movement of brushes in its
holders, so that they are
resting on the sliprings
properly.

c) Low field excitation. Adjust excitation to rated

value.
3 High voltage a) over excitation of the Adjust excitation to rated
form alternator field value.

4 Motor fails to a) Discontinuity in stator Cheak the continuity and

start. /rotor ckt. restore

b) Loose connection or Check up all connection for

inadequate brush tightness and also spring
tension. tension as well as free
movement of brushes in its
holders, so that they are
resting on the sliprings
properly.

1
 c) improper supply voltage check for supply voltage.

d) Slipring connection are connectckt. as per proper ckt.

open diagram.

SR. Fault Symptom Possible Causes Remedy

NO.
5 Motor starts a) Improper connection. connect primary and secondary
drawing heavy terminals of stator as per ckt.
current. diagram.

b) Single phasing of motor correct continuity and supply

for proper three phase
running.

c) Single phasing in rotor. Check for proper tension and

connection of brushes.

6 Draws heavy a) excitation is not set for set excitation for unity power
current in syn. unity power factor. factor
motor

7 syn. motor does a) no excitation . set proper excitation .

not synchronous
at all.

8 Motor takes low a) Stator terminals are check for proper connection.
current but does connected in star
not take load. instead of delta.

9 Machine a) Machine overloaded Check the loading condition

overheating and reduce the load.

b) Over excitation of the Check proper excitation.

machine

c) Excitation is on when Off the excitation.

machine is stopped.

d) Cooling air inlet/outlet Check and blow out blockage

locked. due to huff etc. or any other
blockage at air inlet/outlet.

2
 FAULT FINDING CHART
FOR
( 1 PHASE AC CSIR, CSCR & SPLITPHASE AC MOTOR ).

SR. Fault Symptom Possible Causes Remedy

NO.
1 Motor fails to a) discontinuity of starting check continuity.
start. /running winding.

b) discontinuity in C/F check and remove the

switch. problem.

c) Loose contacts . check all the connection for

tightness.
d) No supply voltage. Check for supply.

2 Motor starts a) C/F switch does not solve the difficulty.

drawing heavy operate.
current.
b) starting& running wdg. check the connections.
are short.

c) capacitor may damage. check for capacitors.

3 Motor does not d) No supply voltage Check for supply.

start in split
phase mode.
a) Damage / absent of Check for external resistance.
resistance in series with
startingwdg.

b) No supply voltage Check for supply.

3
 FAULT FINDING CHART
FOR
( UNIVERSAL OR REPULSION MOTOR )

1 Motor fails to a) Discontinuity in Check the continuity and

start but does armature or field circuit. restore
not draw any
current. b) Loose contacts or Check all the connection for
inadequate brush tightness.
tension
c) Low supply voltage. Set the voltage to rated value.
2 Motor starts a) Short circuit in Check and remove the fault
drawing heavy armature. where possible.
current.
b) Improper brush Set the brush position to
position. marked position in rocker.
3 Low speed form a) Loose connection or Check all the connection for
motor. inadequate brush tightness.
tension.
b) Improper brush Set the brush position to
position. marked position in rocker.
c) Low supply voltage Set the voltage to rated value.
4 High speed from a) No load on motor. motor is not allowed to run on
motor. no load there must be 50 % of
full
load.
b) High voltage across Adjust the voltage to rated
armature. value.
c) Improper brush position. Set the brush position to
marked position in rocker
5 Mechanical noise a) Foreign metallic or solid Inspect the interior and clean
in machine. matters inside the the machine.
machine.
b) Damaged bearing. Check the bearing and its
housing and replace if
necessary.

4
SR. Fault Symptom Possible Causes Remedy
NO.
6 Machine a) Machine overloaded. Check the loading condition
overheating and reduce the load.
b) Cooling air inlet / outlet Check and blow out blockage
locked. due to huff etc.

7 very injurious a) Brushes not bedded Check and bed the brushes
sparking on the properly. properly.
brushes.
b) Improper brush Set the brush position to the
position. marked position.

c) Overloading in the Check the loading condition.

machine.

d) Dust or carbon particles Clean the commutator surface

on the commutator with help of send paper.
surface.

5
 FAULT FINDING CHART
FOR
( DC MOTOR – GENERATOR )

SR. Fault Symptom Possible Causes Remedy

NO.
1 Motor fails to a) Discontinuity in Check the continuity and
start but does armature or series restore
not draw any field circuit.
current.
b) Loose contacts or Check all the connection for
inadequate brush tightness.
tension

c) Low supply voltage. Set the voltage to rated value.

2 Motor starts a) Short circuit in Check and remove the fault

drawing heavy armature. where possible.
current.
b) Improper brush Set the brush position to
position. marked position in rocker.

c) In case of Compound Reverse the shunt or series

Motor Differeintial field polarity.
compounding.

d) No or very low Check excitation voltage.

excitation.

e) Discontinuty in shunt Check for continuity and

field circuit. restore.

3 Low speed from a) Loose connection or Check all the connection for
motor. inadequate brush tightness.
tension.

b) Improper brush Set the brush position to

position. marked position in rocker.

c) Low supply voltage Set the voltage to rated value.

d) Over excitation. Set proper excitation.

/componnding

4 High speed from a) No load on motor in Series motor is not allowed to

motor. case of series motor. run on no load there must be
50 % of full load.
b) High voltage across Adjust the voltage to rated
armature. value.

c) Improper brush Set the brush position to

6
 position. marked position in rocker

d) Under – low excitation. Set proper excitation.

/componnding

e) In case of Compound Reverse the shunt or series

Motor Differeintial field polarity.
compounding.

5 Mechanical noise a) Foreign metallic or solid Inspect the interior and clean
in machine. matters inside the the machine.
machine.

b) Damaged bearing. Check the bearing and its

housing and replace if
necessary.

6 Machine a) Machine overloaded. Check the loading condition

overheating and reduce the load.
b) Cooling air inlet / outlet Check and blow out blockage
locked. due to huff etc.

7 very injurious a) Brushes not bedded Check and bed the brushes
sparking on the properly. properly.
brushes.
b) Improper brush Set the brush position to the
position. marked position.

c) Overloading in the Check the loading condition.

machine.

d) Dust or carbon Clean the commutator surface

particles on the with help of send paper.
commutator surface.

8 No voltage from a) Reversed field or Reconnect correctly

Generator. armature connection. .Interchange field connection
with armature

b) Loss of residual Remagnetise the field circuit.

magnetism.(Self)

c) Armature short Check and remove the fault

circuited. where possible.

d) Discontinuity in field or Check and restore the

armature ckt. continuity in the ckt by proper
joining.
7
 e) Loose connection or Check all connections for
inadequate brush tightness.
tension.

f) In case of compound Reverse shunt or series field

generator Differiential winding.
compouinding

SR. Fault Symptom Possible Causes Remedy

NO.
9 Low voltage from a) Loose connection or Check all connections for
Generator. inadequate brush tightness.
tension.
b) Faulty brush position. Set the brush position to
marked position.
c) Low prime mover Check and rectify prime mover
speed. speed.
d) No load in case of series Load the generator.
Generator.
e) In case of compound Reverse the shunt or series
generator differential field winding.
compounding.
10 High voltage a) over excitation of field. Set proper excitation.
from generator.
b) Over compounding. Set proper excitation.
11 Output voltage a) Loose connection or Check all connections for
fluctuation. inadequate brush tightness.
tension.
c) Fluctuation in prime Set the coupling and prime
mover speed or fault in mover speed.
coupling.

8
 FAULT FINDING CHART
FOR
CONTROL PANEL

SR. Fault Symptom Possible Causes Remedy

NO.
1 Mains on LED 1) R-Y-B Input not coming. Check for input supply.
\Lamp does not
glow and panel is 2) Low Supply Voltage. Check for the same.
not operating.
3) Fuse Blown. Replace it.

4) LED may be defective. Replace it.

5) Nutural is not Connect the Nutural.

Connected
.

6) SCR or Diode May be Identify and replace.

short
Stop the machine and correct
2 In DC Supply 1) Current drawn above the
permitte
unit red light d limit. problem.
glow on & the
trip relay 2) Absent of field Give excitation to machine.
operates. excitation in dc motor.

3) Faulty connection to Connect the circuit as per circuit

machine. diagram.

3 Fuse blows 1) Earth fault in connection Find out and clear if possible
immediately as to machines.
soon as unit is
Stop the machine and correct
switched on. 2) Current drawn above the
permitted limit. problem.

3) Wrong connections . Make the connections as per ckt

Diagrams.

4) Phase unbalance. Check for phase balance.

4 Panel gives light 1) Absent of proper give proper earthing.

shocks. earthing.

2) Short ckt in rectifie the the problem.

connections.

9
5 Meter Deflection 1) Wrong Polarity. Reverse the terminal connection.
is negative. In case of Wattmeter/PF Meter
change either pressure or
current coil terminals.

6 No DC Voltage 1 ) Check field Circuit Restore the same if open.

even after Speed Continuity.
POT fully
clockwise. 2) Check Potentiometer. Replace if open.

7 Armature 1) Low input Supply. Correct the same.

Voltage not
going up to rated 2) Only one SCR may ok. Replace the faulty SCR.
value.
3) ---- Adjust POT ‘VFBK’ in Electronic
PCB

10
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –2
_____________________________________________________________________________________

AIM: Study of HV Breakdown Tester.

APPARATUS: Multi-meter, HV Breakdown tester panel

THEORY:
 Breakdown in Solid Dielectrics
Solid dielectric materials are used in all kinds of electrical circuits and devices
to insulate one current carrying part from another when they operate at different
voltages.

A good dielectric should have low dielectric loss, high mechanical strength,
should be free from gaseous inclusions, and moisture, and be resistant to thermal
and chemical deterioration. Solid dielectrics have higher breakdown strength
compared to liquids and gases. Studies of the breakdown of solid dielectrics are of
extreme importance in insulation studies. When breakdown occurs, solids get
permanently damaged while gases fully and liquids partly recover their dielectric
strength after the applied electric fields removed. The mechanism of breakdown
is a complex phenomenon in the case of solids, and varies depending on the time
of application of voltage as shown in Fig.

Fig. Variation of breakdown strength with time after application of voltage

11
The various breakdown mechanisms can be classified as follows:

(a) Intrinsic or ionic breakdown,

(b) Electromechanical breakdown,

(c) Failure due to treeing and tracking,

(d) Thermal breakdown,

(e) Electrochemical breakdown, and

(J) Breakdown due to internal discharges.

 BREAKDOWN OF SOLID DIELECTRICS IN PRACTICE

There are certain types of breakdown which do not come under either intrinsic
breakdown or thermal breakdown, but actually occur after prolonged operation.
These are, for example, breakdown due to tracking in which dry conducting tracks
are formed on the surface of the insulation. These tracks act as conducting paths
on the insulator surfaces leading to gradual breakdown along the surface of the
insulator. Another type of breakdown in this category is the electrochemical
breakdown caused by chemical transformations such as electrolysis, formation of
ozone, etc. In addition, failure also occurs due to partial discharges which are
brought about in the air pockets inside the insulation. This type of breakdown is
very important in the impregnated paper insulation used in high voltage cables
and capacitors.

 Breakdown Due to Treeing and Tracking

When a solid dielectric subjected to electrical stresses for a long time fails,
normally two kinds of visible markings are observed on the dielectric materials.
They are:

(a) The presence of a conducting path across the surface of the insulation;

12
 (b) a mechanism whereby leakage current passes through the conducting
path finally leading to the formation of a spark. Insulation deterioration occurs as
a result of these sparks.

The spreading of spark channels during tracking, in the form of the

branches of agree is called treeing.

Consider a system of a solid dielectric having a conducting film and two

electrode son its surface. In practice, the conducting film very often is formed due
to moisture. On application of voltage, the film starts conducting, resulting in
generation of heat, and the surface starts becoming dry. The conducting film
becomes separate due to drying, and so sparks are drawn damaging the dielectric
surface. With organic insulating materials such as paper and Bakelite, the
dielectric carbonizes at the region of sparking, and the carbonized regions act as
permanent conducting channels resulting in increased stress over the rest of the
region. This is a cumulative process, and insulation failure occurs when
carbonized tracks bridge the distance between the electrodes. These phenomena,
called tracking is common between layers of bakelite, paper and similar dielectrics
built of laminates.

On the other hand treeing occurs due to the erosion of material at the tips
of the spark. Erosion results in the roughening of the surfaces, and hence
becomes a source of dirt and contamination. This causes increased conductivity
resulting either in the formation of a conducting path bridging the electrodes or in
a mechanical failure of the dielectric.

Fig. 2.2 Arrangement for study of treeing phenomena. 1 and 2are electrodes
13
 When a dielectric material lies between two electrodes as shown in Fig. 2.2,
there is a possibility for two different dielectric media, the air and the dielectric,
to come in series. The voltages across the two media are as shown (V1across the
air gap, and V2 across the dielectric). The voltage V1across the air gap is given as,

Where V is the applied voltage.

Since ε2>ε1, most of the voltage appears across d1the air gap. Sparking will

Occur in the air gap and, charge accumulation takes place on the surface of the
insulation. Sometimes the spark erodes the surface of the insulation. As time
passes,

Breakdown channels spread through the insulation in an irregular "tree" like

fashion leading to the formation of conducting channels. This kind of channeling is
called treeing.

Under a.c. voltage conditions treeing can occur in a few minutes or several
hours.

Hence, care must be taken to see that no series air gaps or other weaker
insulation gaps are formed.

Usually, tracking occurs even at very low voltages of the order of about 100
V, whereas treeing requires high voltage. For testing of tracking, low and medium
voltage tracking tests are specified. These tests are done at low voltages but for
times of about 100 hr or more. The insulation should not fail. Sometimes the tests
are done using 5 to 10 kV with shorter durations of 4 to 6 hr. The numerical value
of voltage that initiates or causes the formation of a track is called the "tracking
index" and thesis used to qualify the surface properties of dielectric materials.

14
 Treeing can be prevented by having clean, dry, and undamaged surfaces
and clean environment. The materials chosen should be resistant to tracking.
Sometimes moisture repellant greases are used. But this needs frequent cleaning
and regressing. Increasing creep age distances should prevent tracking, but in
practice the presence of moisture films defeat the purpose.

Usually, treeing phenomena is observed in capacitors and cables, and

extensive work is teeing done to investigate the real nature and causes of this
phenomenon.

 BREAKDOWN IN COMPOSITE DIELECTRICS

It is difficult to imagine a complete insulation system in electrical
equipment which does not consist of more than one type of insulation. If an
insulation system as wholes considered, it will be found that more than one
insulating material is used. These different materials can be in parallel with each
other, such as air or SF6 gas in parallel with solid insulation or in series with one
another. Such insulation systems are called composite dielectrics.

The composite nature of an insulation system arises from the mechanical

requirements involved in separating electrical conductors which are at different
potentials. Also, parts of a single system that are normally composed of a single
material are infect composite in nature. In actual practice, these single materials
will normally have small volumes of another material present in their bulk. For
example, a solid will contain gas pockets or voids, while a liquid or gas will contain
metallic or dust particles, gas bubbles etc. A commonly encountered composite
dielectric is the solid/liquid combination or liquid impregnated flexible solid like
thin sheets of paper or plastic. This type of composite dielectric is widely used in a
variety of low and high voltage apparatus such as cables, capacitors,
transformers, oil-filled switchgear, bushings etc. In recent years solid/SF6 gas
technology has become more acceptable.

All the desirable properties of composite dielectrics cannot be realized to the

fullest extent owing to the presence of impurities in them. For example, in a solid-
liquid system, the presence of gas bubbles in the liquid phase and cavities in the

15
solid phase will give rise to a number of processes, both physical and chemical,
which will reduce the dielectric strength of the system.

In the practical system, in order to reduce the undesirable effects

mentioned above, composite insulation is used by combining different dielectrics
either in series or in parallel such that it is possible to obtain superior dielectric
properties than that possible for a single material of the same thickness.

 SOLID DIELECTRICS USED IN PRACTICE

Some of the important dielectric properties of these materials are bellow
Paper and boards, Fibers, mica and its products, Glass, ceramics, Rubber, Plastics,
polyethylene, fluorocarbon plastics, Nylon, Polyvinyl chloride ,polyesters,
polystyrenes

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Material Breakdown voltage

No. Used (KV)

16
PROCEDURE:
 Switch on the supply and increase the voltage gradually and check the
breakdown voltage of solid insulating material which is kept between a
semi sphere before switch on supply put material in between two semi
sphere
 Now switch off the supply and by the insulating rod discharge the semi
sphere
 Repeat the procedure for different solid dielectric material and check the
respective breakdown voltages
 Switch off the supply and discharge the semi sphere.

CONCLUSION:

17
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –3

AIM: To perform and study breakdown test of transformer oil according to IS:6792

APPARATUS:

Sr.
Apparatus Range Quantity
No.

1 Oil test kit 0-60KV 1

2 input 230AC 1

3 output 60KV 1

4 Dielectric oil ---- -----

THEORY:

 Breakdown Test
Breakdown tests are normally conducted using test cells. For testing pure
liquids the test cells used are small so that less quantity of liquid is used during
testing. also test cells are usually an integral part of the purification system as
shown in fig1.1.The electrodes used for breakdown voltage measurements are
usually spheres of 0.5 to 1 cm in diameter with gap spacing’s of about 100-200
µm. the gap is accurately controlled by using a micrometer. Sometimes parallel
plane uniform-field electrodes systems are also used. Electrode separation is very
critical in measurements with liquids and also the electrode surface smoothness
and the presence of oxide films have a marked influence on the breakdown
strength. The test voltages required for these tests are usually low of the order of
50-100KV because of small electrode spacing’s. The breakdown strengths and D.C
conductivities obtained in pure liquids are very high of the order of 1MV/cm and
10-18 – 10-20 mho/cm respectively. The conductivity being measured at electric
fields of the order of 1 KV/cm. However the corresponding values in commercial
liquids are relatively low.

18
 Fig: 1.1Liquid purification system with test cell

 Conduction and breakdown in pure liquids

When low electric fields less than 1kv/cm are applied conductivities of10 -18 –1020 mho/cm are
obtained. These are probably due to the impurities remaining after purification. However when the
fields are high the currents not only increase rapidly but also undergo violent fluctuations which will die
down after some time. A typical mean value of the conduction current in hexane is shown in fig 1.2.

Fig:1.2 conduction current-electric field characteristic in hexane at high fields

19
This is the condition nearer to breakdown. However, if this figure is redrawn
starting from very small currents, a current-electric field characteristic as shown
in Fig. 1.3, can be obtained. This curve will have three distinct regions as shown.
At very Low fields the current is due to the dissociation of ions. With intermediate
fields the current reaches a saturation value, and at high fields the current
generated because of the field-aided electron emission from the cathode gets
multiplied in the liquid medium by a Townsend type of mechanism. The current
multiplication also occurs from the electrons generated at the interfaces of liquid
and impurities. The increase in current by these processes continues till
breakdown occurs.

Fig.1.3 conduction current-electric field characteristic in a hydrocarbon liquid

The exact mechanism of current growth is not known; however, it appears that
the electrons are generated from the cathode by field emission of electrons. The
electrons

So liberated get multiplied by a process similar to Townsend's primary and

secondary ionization in gases. As the breakdown field is approached, the current
increases rapidly due to a process similar to the primary ionization process and
also the positive ions reaching the cathode generate-secondary electrons, leading
to breakdown. The breakdown voltage depends on the field, gap separation,
cathode work-function, and the temperature of the cathode.

20
In addition, the liquid viscosity, the liquid temperature, the density, and the
molecular structure of the liquid also influence the breakdown strength of the
liquid. Typical maximum breakdown strengths of some highly purified liquids and
liquefied gases are given in Table.

Table: Maximum breakdown strengths of some liquids

It has been observed that the increase in breakdown strength is more, if

the dissolved gases are electronegative in character (like oxygen).

Similarly, the increase in the liquid hydrostatic pressure increases the

breakdown strength. These properties are shown in Figs. 1.4 and 1.5.

21
Fig.1.4 Effect of oxygen gas evolved on Fig.1.5. Effect of hydrostatic pressure
the breakdown stress in n-hexane. on breakdown stress in n-hexane

To sum up, this type of breakdown process in pure liquids, called the electronic
breakdown, involves emission of electrons at fields greater than 100 kV/cm. This
emission occurs either at the electrode surface irregularities or at the interfaces
of impurities and the liquid. These electrons get further multiplied by Townsend's
type of primary and secondary ionization processes, leading to breakdown.

 CONDUCTION AND BREAKDOWN IN COMMERCIAL LIQUIDS

As already mentioned commercial insulating liquids are not chemically pure
and have impurities like gas bubbles, suspended particles, etc. These impurities
reduce the breakdown strength of these liquids considerably. The breakdown
mechanisms are also considerably influenced by the presence of these impurities.
In addition, when breakdown occurs in these liquids, additional gases and gas
bubbles are evolved and

Solid decomposition products are formed. The electrode surfaces become rough,
and

At times explosive sounds are heard due to the generation of impulsive pressure
through the liquid.

22
 The breakdown mechanism in commercial liquids is dependent, as seen
above, on several factors, such as, the nature and condition of the electrodes, the
physical properties of the liquid, and the impurities and gases present in the
liquid. Several theories have been proposed to explain the breakdown in liquids,
and they are classified as follows:

 Suspended Particle Mechanism

 Cavitation and Bubble Mechanism
 Stressed Oil Volume Mechanism
These are explained briefly below.

 Suspended Particle Theory

In commercial liquids, the presence of solid impurities cannot be avoided.
These impurities will be present as fibers or as dispersed solid particles. The
permittivity of these particles (ε2) will be different from the permittivity of the
liquid (ε1). If we consider these impunities to be spherical particles of radius r, and
if the applied field is E then the particles experience a force F, where

This force is directed towards areas of maximum stress, if ε2>ε1 example, in the
case of the presence of solid particles like paper in the liquid. On the other hand,
if only gas bubbles are present in the liquid, i.e.ε2>ε1, the force will be in the
direction of areas of lower stress. If the voltage is continuously applied (d.c.) or
the duration of the voltage is long (a.c.), then this force drives the particles
towards the areas of maximum stress. If the number of particles present is large,
they become aligned due to these forces, and thus form a stable chain bridging
the electrode gap causing a breakdown between the electrodes.

23
If there is only a single conducting particle between the electrodes, it will give rise
to local field enhancement depending on its shape. If this field exceeds the
breakdown strength of the liquid, local breakdown will occur near the particle,
and this will result in the formation of gas bubbles which may lead to the
breakdown of the liquid. The vales of the breakdown strength of liquids
containing solid impurities were found to be much less than the values for pure
liquids. The impurity particles reduce the breakdown strength, and it was also
observed that the larger the size of the particles the lower were the breakdown
strengths.

 Cavitation and the Bubble Theory

It was experimentally observed that in many liquids, the breakdown strength
depends strongly on the applied hydrostatic pressure, suggesting that a change of
phase of the medium is involved in the breakdown process, which in other words
means that a kind of vapour bubble formed is responsible for breakdown. The
following processes have been suggested to be responsible for the formation of
the vapour bubbles:

(a) Gas pockets at the surfaces of the electrodes;

(b) Electrostatic repulsive forces between space charges which may be

sufficient to overcome the surface tension;

(c) Gaseous products due to the dissociation of liquid molecules by electron

Collisions; and

(d) Vaporization of the liquid by corona type discharge from sharp points
and Irregularities on the electrode surfaces.

Once a bubble is formed it will elongate in the direction of the electric field under
the influence of electrostatic forces. The volume of the bubble remains constant
during elongation. Breakdown occurs when the voltage drop along the length of
the bubble becomes equal to the minimum value on the Paschen's curve for the
gas in the bubble. The breakdown field is given as
24
Where σ is the surface tension of the liquid, ε1 is the permittivity of the liquid, ε2 is
the permittivity of the gas bubble, r is the initial radius of the bubble assumed as a
sphere and Vb the voltage drop in the bubble (corresponding to minimum on the
Paschen's curve). From this equation, it can be seen that the breakdown strength
depends on the initial size of the bubble which in turn is influenced by the
hydrostatic pressure and temperature of the liquid.

This theory does not take into account the production of the initial bubble
and hence the results given by this theory do not agree well with the
experimental results.

This is shown in Fig. 1.6.

Fig.1.6.Theoretical and experimental breakdown stresses in n-hexane

Later this theory was modified, and it was suggested that only
incompressible Bubbles like water globules can elongate at constant volume,
according to the simple gas law pv= RT. Under the influence of the applied electric
field the shape of the globule is assumed to be approximately a prolate spheroid.
25
The incompressible bubbles reach the condition of instability when β, the ratio of
the longer to the shorter diameter of the spheroid, is about 1.85, and the critical
field producing the instability will be:

Where σ= surface tension,

R = initial radius of the bubble,

ε1 = permittivity of the liquid dielectric,

ε2 = permittivity of the globule,

For a water globule having R = 1 µm with σ = 43 dyne/cm and ε1 = 2.0(transformer

oil), the above equation gives a Critical field Ec= 226 kV/cm which is approximately
the maximum strength obtained for commercial oils.

In the case of gas bubbles the equation for the critical field is rewritten as

26
G, a and R are as above for liquid globules, and

Where P is the hydrostatic pressure. The expressions are quite complicated, and
the breakdown voltages were obtained using a computer. Results thus obtained
showed good agreement with the experimental results in n-hexane. This theory
suggests that sub-microscopic particles (diameter100-250 A) and bubbles greatly
influence the maximum electrical strength attainable in commercial liquids.

This theory can also be extended to the study of pure liquids. The critical
conditions reached when cavities are formed due to zero pressure conditions
given by

Where, Pc = coulombic pressure,

pvp= vapour pressure inside the cavity,

Pes= electrostatic pressure,

Ps= pressure due to surface tension, and

Ph=hydrostatic pressure

From this condition, an expression has been obtained for the maximum
breakdown strength of pure liquids which was found to be in good agreement
with the experimental results.

In general, the cavitations and bubble theories try to explain the highest
breakdown strengths obtainable, considering the cavities or bubbles formed in
the liquid dielectrics.

27
  Thermal Mechanism of Breakdown
Another mechanism proposed to explain breakdown under pulse conditions is
thermal Breakdown. This mechanism is based on the experimental observations
of extremely large currents just before breakdown. This high current pulse is
believed to originate from the tips of the microscopic projections on the cathode
surface with densities of the order of 1 A/cm3. These high density current pulses
give rise to localized heating of the oil which may lead to the formation of vapour
bubbles. The vapour bubbles are formed when the energy exceeds 10 W/cm.
When a bubble is formed, breakdown follows, either because of its elongation to
a critical size or when it completely bridges the gap between the electrodes. In
either case, it will result in the formation of a spark. According to this mechanism,
the breakdown strength depends on the pressure and the molecular structure of
the liquid. For example, in n-alkanes the breakdown strength was observed to
depend on the chain length of the molecule. This theory is only applicable at very
small lengths (< 100m) and does not explain the reduction in breakdown strength
with increased gap lengths.

 Stressed Oil Volume Theory

In commercial liquids where minute traces of impurities are present, the
breakdown strength is determined by the "largest possible impurity" or "weak
link'. On a statistical basis it was proposed that the electrical breakdown strength
of the oil is defined by the weakest region in the oil, namely, the region which is
stressed to the maximum and by the volume of oil included in that region. In non-
uniform fields, the stressed oil volume is taken as the volume which is contained
between the maximum stress (Emax) contour and 0.9 Emax contour. According to
this theory the breakdown strength is inversely proportional to the stressed oil
volume.

28
 The breakdown voltage is highly influenced by the gas content in the oil,
the viscosity of the oil, and the presence of other impurities. These being
uniformly distributed, increase in the stressed oil volume consequently results in
a reduction in the breakdown voltage. The variation of the breakdown voltage
stress with the stressed oil volume is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig.1.7 Power frequency (50 Hz) a.c. breakdown stress as a function of the
stressed oil volume

• With steady voltage rise

x One minute withstand voltage

29
 Fig 6 Arrangement of Transformer Oil Testing Kit

OBSERVATION TABLE:
SR NO. Gap spacing in mm Breakdown voltagein KV

30
PROCEDURE:

 Switch on the main supply.

 Keep the toggle switch in “UP” mode.
 Now press the “H.T” on switch.
 Now continuously observe the electrodes which are placed in oil.
 When the spark will occur between two electrode, breakdown occurs
and note down this breakdown voltage
 H.T will get automatically turned off
 Now keep the toggle switch in down made
 Repeat the above process (step 3 to 6) again to get reading for
breakdown voltage
 Switch off the main supply.

CONCLUSION:

31
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –4

AIM: To Perform Brake Test On DC Shunt Motor.

APPARATUS:
Sr. Apparatus Range Quantity
No.

1 DC shunt motor 3 H.P, 220V, 12A, 1500 rpm, 1

Field Voltage 220V, Field
Current 0.6A
2 Mechanical Brake 1

3 Rheostat 1

4 1Φ wattmeter for no 600 V, 5A, 750W 2

load test

5 Tachometer 0-2000 rpm 1

THEORY:
In this direct method and consisting of applying a brake to a water cooled pulley
mounted on the motor. The brake band is fixed with the help of wooden blocks
gripping the pulley. One end of the band is fixed to earth via a spring balance s and
the other is connected to a suspended weight W1. The motor is running and the
load on the motor is adjusted till it carries its full load current. The simple brake
test described above can be used for small motors only. Because in the case of
large motor it is different to dissipate the large amount of heat generated at the
brake. Another simple method of measuring motor output is by the use of pony

32
brake one form of the diagram. The tension of rope can be adjusted with the help
of swivels obviously. In this method belt is wound round the pulley and two ends
are attached to the two springs. The force acting on a pulley is equal to the
difference between the readings of two spring balances.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

33
PROCEDURE:
1) Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2) Observing the precaution the DPST switch is closed and the motor is started
with the help of 3-point DC starter slowly.
3) The motor field rheostat is adjusted and the motor is brought to rated
speed.
4) Load on the motor is varied with the help of pony brake arrangement.
5) Spring balance, ammeter, voltmeter and speed readings are noted down
for various line currents as the load is applied. Care must be taken to avoid
the speed reaching dangerously high values while reducing the load.

34
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Supply Load Speed W1 W2 W1-W2

Voltage Current I
V (Volts) (Amps) N (RPM) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg)

CALCULATIONS:
Shaft Torque Tsh = (w1 - w2) x R x 9.81 Nm
R= Radius of the pulley in meter
Input Power Pi = VI Watts
Output Power Pm = 2NTsh/ 60 Watts
N= Speed in RPM
Efficiency ή = output / input x 100

CONCLUSION:

35
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –5

AIM: To Perform Hopkinson’s Test On DC Shunt Machines.

APPARATUS:
Sr.
Apparatus Range Quantity
No.

1 DC shunt motor 3 H.P, 220V, 12A, 1500 rpm 1

Field Voltage 220V,
Field Current 0.7A
2 DC shunt generator 2kW, 220V, 9A, 1500 rpm 1
Field Voltage 220V,
Field Current 0.7A

3 1

4 1-Φ wattmeter 600 V , 10/20 A 2

5 Tachometer 0-2000 rpm 1

THEORY:
This as an elegant method of testing dc machines. Here it will be shown that while
power drawn from the supply only corresponds to no load losses of the machines,
the armature physically carries any amount of current (which can be controlled
with ease). Such a scenario can be created using two similar mechanically coupled
shunt machines. Electrically these two machines are eventually connected in
parallel and controlled in such a way that one machine acts as a generator and
the other as motor. In other words two similar machines are required to carry out
36
this testing which is not a bad proposition for manufacturer as large numbers of
similar machines are manufactured.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

37
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the two similar (same rating) coupled machines as shown in figure.
2) With switch S opened, the first machine is run as a shunt motor at rated speed. It
may be noted that the second machine is operating as a separately excited
generator because its field winding is excited and it is driven by the first machine.
3) To connect the two machines in parallel, we must first ensure voltmeter reading
is small. In case we find voltmeter reading is high, we should switch off the
supply, reverse the armature connection of the generator and start afresh. Now
voltmeter is found to read small although time is still not ripe enough to close S
for paralleling the machines. Any attempt to close the switch may result into
large circulating current as the armature resistances are small.
4) Now by adjusting the field current I of the generator the voltmeter reading may
fg

be adjusted to zero (E ≈ E ) and S is now closed. Both the machines are now
g b

connected in parallel.
5) After the machines are successfully connected in parallel, we go for loading the
machines i.e., increasing the armature currents. Just after paralleling the
ammeter reading A will be close to zero as E ≈ E . Now if I is increased (by
g b fg

decreasing R ), then E becomes greater than E and both I and I increase,

fg g b ag am

Thus by increasing field current of generator (alternatively decreasing field

current of motor) one can make E >E so as to make the second machine act as
g b

generator and first machine as motor.

6) In practice, it is also required to control the field current of the motor I to
fm

maintain speed constant at rated value. The interesting point to be noted here is
that I and I do not reflect in the supply side line. Thus current drawn from
ag am

supply remains small (corresponding to losses of both the machines). The loading
is sustained by the output power of the generator running the motor and vice
versa. The machines can be loaded to full load current without the need of any
loading arrangement.

38
OBSERVATION TABLE:
SR. LINE MOTOR SIDE GENERATOR SIDE
NO. VOLTAGE
LINE FIELD OUTPUT FIELD
V(volt) CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT

I1(amp) I2(amp) I3(amp) I4(amp)

10

39
CALCULATIONS:
Total Input Power = VI1 watts
Motor armature cu loss = (I1+ I3- I2)2 Ra watts
Generator armature cu loss = (I3+I4)2 Ra watts
Motor field cu loss = VI2 watts
Generator field cu loss = VI4 watts
Total Stray losses W = VI1–[(I1+I3-I2)2Ra+(I3+I4)2Ra+VI2+VI4] watts.
Stray loss per machine = W/2 watts.
Motor Efficiency:
Input Power = (I1+ I3) V
Total Losses = Armature Cu loss + Field loss + stray loss
= (I1+I3-I2)2Ra + VI2 + W/2 watts
Output power = Input power – Total losses
Efficiency ή = output / input x 100
Generator Efficiency:
Output Power = VI2 watts
Total Losses = Armature Cu loss+ Field Loss + Stray loss
= (I3+I4)2 Ra + VI4 + W/2 watts
Input power = Output power+ Total losses

Efficiency ή = output / input x 100

CONCLUSION:

40
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –6

AIM: To Perform Field Test On DC Series Motor.

APPARATUS:
Sr. Apparatus Range Quantity
No.

1 DC series motor 3 H.P, 220V, 12A, 1500 rpm 1

Field Voltage 220V,
Field Current 0.7A
2 DC series generator 2kW, 220V, 9A, 1500 rpm 1
Field Voltage 220V,
Field Current 0.7A

3 Voltmeter(A.C.) for 0-600V 1

no load test

4 Tachometer 0-2000 rpm 1

THEORY:
This is one of method of testing the dc series motors. Unlike shunt motors, the
series motor cannot be tested by the methods which are available for shunt
motor as it is impossible to run the motor at no-load. It may run at dangerously
high speed on no-load in case of small series motors brake test may be employed.
The series motors are usually tested in pairs .The field test is applied to two
similar series motors which are coupled. One machine is made to run as a motor
while the other as a generator which is separately excited the fields of the two
machines are connected in series so that both the machines are equally excited.
41
 This will make iron losses same for the two machines .The two
machines are running at the same speed . The generator output is given to the
variable resistance. The resistance is changed until the current taken by motor
reaches full load value. This will be indicated by ammeter. The other readings of
different meters are then recorded.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

42
PROCEDURE:
1) Make the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2) Before starting the experiment make sure that generator is loaded.
3) Switch ON the power supply and start the motor by using 2-point starter.
4) Obtain the rated speed by using varying load.
5) Note down the readings of corresponding meters.
6) Measure the ammeters field resistance of both machines immediately after
switch OFF the supply
7) Calculate the efficiency of both machines.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
SR. SUPPLY MOTOR SIDE GENERATOR SIDE
NO.
VOLTAGE LINE INPUT OUTPUT OUTPUT
CURRENT VOLTAGE CURRENT VOLTAGE
V(volt)
I1(amp) V1(volt) I2(amp) V2(volt)

CALCULATIONS:
Total input power to the whole set = VI1
Output power = V 2I2
Total losses = VI1 – V2I2
Total copper losses =I12 (Rsem + Rseg) + I12 Ram+ I22 Rag
Stray losses Ws = Total losses – Total copper loss
Stray losses for each machine = Ws/2

43
Motor Efficiency
Input to the motor = V1I1
Armature copper losses = I12 (Ram + Rsem)
Stray losses = Ws/2
Total losses = Ws/2 + Armature copper losses.
Motor output = Motor input -Total losses
Efficiency ή = output / input x 100
Generator Efficiency
Generator output = V 2I 2
Armature copper losses = I22 Rag + I12Rseg
Stray losses = Ws/2
Total losses = Ws/2 + Armature copper losses.
Generator input = Generator output +Total losses
Efficiency ή = output / input x 100

CONCLUSION:

44
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –7

AIM: To Measure The Slip Of Induction Motor At Different Loads

Using Stroboscopic Method.

APPARATUS:
Sr.
Apparatus Range Quantity
No.

1 Induction motor 3-Φ, 3H.P/2.2kw, 415V, 4.7A, 1

1400 rpm

2 Stroboscope 3000rpm 1

3 Voltmeter (A.C.) 0-600 V 1

4. Techo meter 3000rpm 1

THEORY:
Measurement of slip of induction motor

1) By actual measurement of motor speed

This method requires measurement of actual motor speed N in rpm and

calculation of synchronous speed Ns in rpm. N is measured with the help of
speedometer/tachometer and Ns is calculated from the knowledge of supply
frequency f in c/s and the no of poles of the motor for which it is designed and is
usually referred from the rated speed on the name plate.

So, Ns in rpm = 120f/P And %S= [(Ns-N)/Ns]*100

45
1) By comparing rotor and stator supply frequency

This method is based on the fact that fractional slip S= f r/f where fr= rotor
voltage/current frequency. In the usual case where f is 50 cycle/sec, fris so low
that individual cycles can be easily counted. For this purpose a d.c. moving coil
milli-voltmeter preferably of center zero is employed.

a) In the case of slip-ring motor, the leads of the mili-voltmeter are lightly pressed
against the two adjacent slip-rings as they revolve. Usually there is sufficient
voltage drop in brushes and their short circuiting strap to provide an indication on
mili-voltmeter. The current in the mili-voltmeter follows the variations of the
rotor current and hence the pointer oscillates about its mean zero position. The
no of complete cycles made by the pointer per second can be easily counted (it is
worth remembering that one cycle consists of a movement from zero to
maximum to the right, back to zero and on to a maximum to the left and then
back to zero.

b) For squirrel cage motors (which do not have slip-rings) it is not possible to
employ the above method but a large flat search coil of many turns is placed
centrally against end plate on the non driving end of the motor. Quite often it is
possible to pick up sufficient voltage by induction from the leakage fluxes to
obtain a reading on the mili-voltmeter. Obviously a large 50c/s voltage will also be
induced in the search coil although it is too rapid to affect the mili-voltmeter.
Commercial slip indicator use such a search coil and in addition contains a low
pass filter amplifier for eliminating fundamental frequency and a bridge circuit for
comparing stator and rotor current frequencies.

46
Stroboscopic Method:

In this method a circular disc is taken and painted with alternately black and white
segments. The no of black segments=No of white segments=No of poles of the
motor. For a 6 pole motor, there will be six white and six black sectors.

The painted disc is mounted on the end of the shaft illuminated by means of a
neon filed lamp (Stroboscopic lamp) which is supplied with 50c/s a.c. supply.

Instead of disc one may paint the no black segment = no of white segment = no of
poles on the coupling of the motor, if it is not be possible to mount the disc on
the shaft.

1) Consider the case when the revolving disc or coupling seen in flash light of bulb
of the stroboscope fed with a.c. 50c/s supply. If the disc were to rotate at
synchronous speed, it would appear as the disc or shaft coupling to be stationary.
As in each cycle there will be two flashes of neon lamp and therefore the time
required between two consequent flashes will be =1/2f=1/100sec

Also the time required any one black sector to rotate so that it can occupy the
next consecutive black sector is also 1/100 sec as shown below:

Time for 1 revolution=1/ns=1/ (2f/6) =1/ (100/6) =6/100 sec and

Time required for black sector= (6/100)*(1/6) = (1/100) sec

Now since time between two consecutive flashes is same as the time required for
black segment to occupy the next consecutive black segment the disc or coupling
seems to be stationary. Since in actual practice, its speed N is less than the
synchronous speed Ns, it appears to rotate slowly backwards.

When next flash comes, they have nearly reached to position. Hence the same
sector has almost reached position but slightly backward and one flash later the
same sector will occupy the position giving clear idea that the disc or the shaft
start apparently rotating in backward direction. Now count the number of black
sector ‘x’ moving backward from a fixed point in a particular time t sec.

47
Then the no. of revolution moving backward = x/p

And the no. of revolution moving backward in 1sec = x/pt and this = Ns-N.

% slip = Ns-N/ Ns =[ (x/pt)/ (2f/p)] × 100 = [(x/pt)/ (100/p)] × 100 = x/t

2) In a stroboscope the supply 50c/s is given to the oscillator inside it and from
the oscillation it goes to the neon lamp.

Since the rotor is not running at synchronous speed the disc will not be seen
stationary so to make the disc stationary the oscillator output frequency to neon
lamp is varied by changing the knob position in oscillator which in turn changes
the capacitor in the circuit and hence the frequency to neon lamp.

Move the knob position till the disc is found stationary. Now this change is
calibrated on the scale of the oscilloscope in terms of the speed. Reading it
directly gives the rotor speed and hence %s=[(Ns-N)/Ns]*100can be found out.

However, this method and by tachometer methods the results are not accurate,
lot of error is there but the first method of the stroboscope is the most accurate
and normally adopted.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

48
PROCEDURE:
1) First connect the circuit as shown in fig .
2) Mark a line on the rotor shaft with chalk.
3) Give 3-ф supply to the stator.
4) Then when the stroboscope switched on light appears on the rotor shaft.
5) You will observe the motion of the line marked with white chalk.
6) Vary stroboscope oscillator output frequency to neon lamp by changing the
knob position on the stroboscope untill the marking on the rotor appears
stationary.
7) This reading on the stroboscope is approximately same as rotor speed.

49
OBSERVATIONS:

(1) For Stroboscopic method

Sr. No. Frequency Time for 5 revolution of sector %slip= slipspd/Ns*100

(2) For Techometer

Sr. Frequency Ns N %slip= Ns-N/Ns*100

No.

CALCULATION:

% s = (Ns – N)/ Ns x 100 = _______ %

CONCLUSION:

50
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –8

AIM: To study about maintenance of electrical equipment.

MAINTENANCE

 MAINTENANCE IN GENERAL

UNPACKING:
A thorough visual inspection of the packing cases should be made to check
for any damage in transit. If damaged the matter should be reported to the
suppliers as well as to insurance agencies if insured for transit risks. After
unpacking check the machines too for damages.
STORAGE:
Always store the machines in clean and dry place preferably with proper
covering. They should be protected from moisture, alkalis, acids, oil, gas, dust,
corrosive fumes and other injurious substances while in use or in storage.
While storing care should be taken to give proper anti rust protective coating
to all exposed machine parts such as shaft extensions, keys etc., The
machines should be periodically inspected and their insulation values should
be meggared.
HANDLING:
Machines should be handled carefully so as to prevent any damages to their
parts especially bearings, bearing housings, commentators and windings.
They should never be dragged on the floor but should be lifted through
proper means. One can make use of the lifting hooks.
51
ENVIRONMENT &LOCATION:
Care should be exercised to maintain cleanliness of the exposed parts. It
should be installed in a clean dry place. Sufficient open space around the
machine should be available for good cooling air circulation. Machine should
always be installed in a horizontal position unless otherwise stated or
consulted to do so.
LEVELLING &ALIGNMENT:
Foundation should be rigid and of adequate stiffness to ensure protection
against vibration. Base should be spirit leveled and machine should be
properly aligned with the driving or driven machinery. In case of direct-
coupled drive a flexible coupling may be used. If the drive is by means of
pulleys, check the position of pulleys to bring them into line. Machine should
always be installed in a horizontal position unless otherwise stated or
consulted to do so.
ELECTRICAL CONNECTION:
Ensure that all electrical connections are as per the connection diagram. Do
not allow loose connections as they are likely to damage the terminals by the
heat generated caused by possible sparking. They can also effect a change in
the performance characteristics of the machine. After proper connections are
made, proceed step by step to start the machines.
 MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE :

To ensure consistent performance it is necessary to draw a periodical

maintenance schedule depending on the service and operating conditions as
follows:

52
CLEANLINESS:
As already said try to keep the surroundings clean. Periodically blow off all
the dust and fluffy particles that may get deposited on the air inlets, outlets
and body of the machines by means of a high-pressure blower. A hand blower
or a vacuum cleaner is ideal for this purpose.

STATIONARY PARTS:
Occasional Inspection of windings, frames, and other parts such as foundation
bolts, machine pole bolts etc., for tightness should be made.

COUPLING:
The alignment of the coupling should be checked at regular intervals and
corrected if necessary. If flexible couplings are used, the coupling should be
checked for wear and tear.

LUBRICATION OF BEARINGS:
Ball bearings used in the Dynamometer should run for long periods without
any attention. To ensure trouble free running, they are charged with the right
quality and quantity of grease before dispatch. Over greasing should be
avoided as it overheats the bearings. Grease should be replaced only after a
period of 2,000 to 3,000 hours of operation.

ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE
The machine should be stopped and isolated from the supply source before
doing any electrical maintenance job.

53
BRUSHES & BRUSH GEAR:

Brushes should be replaced when they are worn to one half of the original
height. They should be replaced by brushes having identical grade and
dimensions. It is advisable to have one set of spare carbon brushes at any
time.
Brushes should be checked for spring tension. It should be sufficient to keep
them always in firm contact with the commutator / slipring. Any carbon dust
deposit found around brushes may make it tight in its holders. Then the dust
should be blown off and the brush cleaned so as to make it free in its holders.
The flexible tail should be so positioned that it will not touch the earthed part
or the moving part.
When the brushes are replaced with new ones they require bedding i.e., the
commutator/slipring curvature and the brush curvature match well so that
the entire brush contact area mates the commutator surface. The easiest way
to do this is to insert a strip of flint/ sand paper between the commutator and
the brush such that the rough side of the paper is in contact with the brushes.
With full pressure applied to the brushes by the brush holder spring, draw the
paper forward and backward until the brush contact curvature is bedded
fully. After bedding the carbon dust must be blown off with hand blower and
the brush surface should be wiped with clean cotton cloth. Then the brush
tension should be adjusted to original value.
If any blackening of the commutator surface is noticed the spring pressure
should be checked and adjusted to correct value. Also check the angle of the
brushes. The commutator surface can be improved by polishing either with a
fine commutator stone or fine carborundem cloth. During this operation the

54
brushes should be lifted and the machine driven at normal speed. The
abrasive should be moved from side to side to prevent the formation of any
ridges. After polishing, the dust should be blown out, the brush gear cleaned
and the grooves between the commutator segments cleaned out.
When a reasonably good brush fit is obtained the machine may be loaded at
about half load for several hours. During this period, the commutator surface
should occasionally be wiped with canvass to remove carbon deposits and
surface of the carbon brushes
Inspected for burning, bar marking, brush fit and copper pick up. If the
commutator maintains a fairly uniform polished surface and the brush fit and
the surfaces are satisfactory the load can be increased to normal. The
commutator surface should be occasionally wiped as before and continued
inspection made of the commutator and brush surfaces until such time as a
stable commutator film or polish is obtained.
BRUSH BEDDING:
The bedding process consists of giving the contact face of a new brush the
exact curvature of the commutator, in such a manner as to assure good
mechanical and electrical contact when the brush is put into service. Bedding
is more often carried out on the machine itself, in accordance with various
procedures depending upon the importance and sensitivity of the machine.
The easiest way to do this is to insert a strip of Flint or Sand Paper between
the commutator/slipring and the brush such that the rough side of the paper
is in contact with brushes. With the full pressure applied on the brushes by
brush holder, draw paper by hand to and fro.

55
NOTES:
1) Brushes should be inspected for wear, chipping and cracking.
2) Replaced brushes should be of the proper grade and dimension
and be bedded where possible.
3) All hardware should be checked for tightness.
4) Brush holders should be adjusted according to the manufacturer's
specifications, typically 2 to 2.5 mm above the commutator surface
5) Brush pigtail connections should be tight and long enough to allow brush
movement as it wears.
6) Brush pressure should be checked to ensure that it is correct.

COMMUTATOR / SLIPRING:

Commutator OR Slipring is the heart of a DC / AC machine and it should be

inspected periodically. Any carbon or mica dust should be removed by
brushing along the grooves with stiff brush. If any oil, grease or other dirt
were found on the surface it can be removed with a clean, fluff free cloth
moistened with carbon tetrachloride.
The commutator/Ring surface should be smooth, concentric and properly
undercut. An eccentric or ridged commutator should be skimmed on a lathe
by taking a light cut not exceeding 1.5 mm. After skimming the mica between
segments should be undercut approximately to 1.2 mm. The mica dust should
then be blown off.

56
Best commutating conditions are obtained when the commutator surface has
a uniform, low resistance film. Such film can be obtained by care and
attention to the brushes and commutator surface during initial operating
period.
Before operating, the commutator surface should be inspected for
damage during shipping and installation and all brushes should be removed
and wiped clean.
Then The machine should be operated for a few hours at no load. Brushes
should be checked for uniform and proper brush pressure and the brush faces
inspected for fit, and metal particles, which may cut or thread the
commutator surface.
Commutator Undercutting Specifications:
If the commutator is resurfaced, or during inspection or overhaul, insure the
mica segments are undercut below the commutator surface. Commutator
undercutting should be made to a depth of 1.0 to 1.5 mm. Following
commutator resurfacing (stoning/turning), the segments are "scarfed" by
lightly breaking the sharp corners of the copper segments with a knife or tool
made for that purpose. Scarfing segments will reduce carbon brush dust
buildup and improve brush life.
NOTE:
Do not use Emery paper or cloth in place of flint / sand paper since any
residual particles of the same may damage the commutator surface due to
their cutting action.

57
BRUSH ROCKER SETTING
The brush position is set in each machine in the magnetic neutral position and
is marked by a white line matching the stationery housing and the movable
rocker. If the machine is dismantled it is necessary that the brush rocker be
reassembled in this position to avoid sparking. This is done by ‘KICK NEUTRAL
METHOD’.
KICK NEUTRAL METHOD: A dc supply is connected to the excitation winding
so that about 10% to 20 % of the rated excitation current passes through the
winding. Connect a milli-voltmeter, preferably of the center zero type.
Suddenly make and break the field current. If the voltmeter deflects, the
brush position is not proper. Turn the brush position round the commutator
surface at different positions and simultaneously make and break the field
and notice the voltmeter deflection. At some position the voltmeter either
does not deflect or deflects the least. This is the neutral position.
MILLI VOLT DROP TEST
Whenever any short circuit in armature is suspected either between the coils
itself or on the commutator between the segments or whenever an armature
is repaired and its connections are to be checked to see whether all coils are
in series, best way is to by checking the milli volt drop between the adjacent
segments.
Take a low voltage DC supply of about 2% to 2½% of the rated armature
supply. Connect the two supply points to two segments on commutator so
that about 30% of the numbers of commutator segments are covered
between them. Take a center zero milli voltmeter of about ± 250 milli volts
value. Connect the probes of this to adjacent segments to read the drop.

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Choose a convenient reading of about 100 milli volts on milli voltmeter by
adjusting either the voltage taken for test or by reducing or increasing the
number of segments covered between the test voltages.
Check the value of milli volt drop between all adjacent segments covered
within the selected number of segments. This should be equal. Now, choose
the balance portion of commutator and check up the drop there. In this
portion also the drop should be equal between segments. If in any segments
the drop is zero or less than the others that means there is short circuit
between them or some conducting dust or solder particles are shorting the
segments. Undercut the segments so that the short circuit is cleared.

If the voltage drop across the segments is more than the usual drop, then
either there are more coil is in series between them or the coils are burnt or
open circuited due to dry solder etc., Remove this fault to give equal drop, by
reconnecting the coil leads to commutator properly. Also detect any burning
of coils in which case the rotor may require rewinding.

INSULATION:
Premature failure of insulation is likely due to following reasons:
1) Contamination
2) Mechanical factors
3) High temperatures

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CONTAMINATION: Contamination includes excessive moisture, oily vapours,
conducting and non-conducting dust, chips and chemical fumes.
Contamination is best avoided by proper enclosure and ventilation. Filters,
ventilation from a remote clean air source, unit coolers, and a totally
enclosed construction are all possible means of protecting DC machines in
adverse environments. Space heaters can be used to protect the machine
from the damage caused by moisture at freezing temperatures while in
storage and idling.

MECHANICAL FACTORS: Mechanical factors like shock, vibration, over speed,

etc., leads to insulation failure. Maintaining machines in good mechanical
conditions, including isolation from excessive external shock and
maintenance of smooth running conditions, will contribute to long insulation
life.

HIGH TEMPERATURE: When machine is overloaded or it runs on full load with

low RPM then because of overheating Insulation may be damage. The
insulation resistance of the windings as corrected to 40°C should measure at
least 1.0 Mega Ohms when tested with a 500 V Meggar. If the measurements
are less than this limit, the machine should be dried or cleaned in an attempt
to increase the insulation resistance. Regular, periodic measurements of
insulation resistance can give a useful indication of the rate of insulation
system deterioration. External connections should be removed to isolate the
windings to be tested and megger value logged.

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A sudden drop or consistent trend towards low values of insulation
resistance, although possibly caused by moisture or contamination, generally
gives evidence that the insulation system is deteriorating and that failure may
be eminent.

CLEANING OF WINDINGS
If the windings become contaminated, suitable cleaning methods can be used
to alleviate the problem.
The machine should be de-energized and slowly rotated by hand to permit
maximum dust removal. Dry dirt, dust, or carbon should first be vacuumed –
without disturbing adjacent areas or redistributing the contamination. Use a
small nozzle or tube connected to the vacuum cleaner to enter into narrow
openings (i.e., between commutator risers). A soft brush on the vacuum
nozzle will loosen and allow removal of dirt ore firmly attached.
This vacuum cleaning may be supplemented by blowing with compressed air
which has passed through a dryer to remove moisture before entering the
motor. Dirt can collect on the inside surface of the drive-end coil support and
on the underside of the armature coils. This dirt can be easily removed with
compressed air or a vacuum.

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It is important to realize that when blowing out a machine, dirt may settle in a
previously cleaned areas and it may be necessary to repeat the cleaning
process to ensure that a thorough job is done. Dirt can be removed from
stationary parts of the machine by either compressed air or a vacuum nozzle
or a combination of both. Air should be directed between the stator coils,
into the pocket corners of bearing brackets, around the cables, and onto the
brush rigging. Special care should be taken to keep the commutator clean.
The commutator should be wiped with a clean lint-free cloth after blowing
out.
CONCLUSION:

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 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –9

AIM: Testing of solid insulation with point-point electrodes.

THEORY: Breakdown in Non-uniform Fields

In non-uniform fields, such as coaxial cylinders, point-plane and sphere-plane
gaps, the applied field vary across the gap. Similarly, Townsend's first ionization
coefficient (a) also varies with the gap. Hence ad in Townsend's criterions
rewritten by replacing ad by J a dx. Townsend's criterion for breakdown now
becomes

Meek and rather also discussed the non-uniform field breakdown process as
applied to their Streamer theory, and the Meek's equation for the radial field at
the head of an avalanche when it has crossed a distance x is modified as

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Fig 8-Breakdown characteristics for nitrogen between wires
And a coaxial cylinder of radii 0.083 and 2.3 cm. 1-wire positive, 2-wire negative

Where Ox is the value of a at the head of the avalanche, and p is the gas pressure.
The criterion for the formation of the streamer is reached when the space charge
field Er approaches a value equal to the applied field at the head of the avalanche.

Fig 8.1-d.c. breakdown characteristics for air between 30° conical point and a
Plane

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This equation has been successfully used for determining the corona onset
voltages of much non-uniform geometry. However, the condition for the
advancement of streamers has not been arrived at so far. Figures 8 and 8.1 show
the d.c. breakdown characteristics for a wire-coaxial cylinder geometry in
nitrogen and for a point-plane geometry in air, respectively.
From the practical engineering point of view, rod-rod gap and sphere-sphere gap
are of great importance, as they are used for the measurement of high voltages
and for the protection of electrical apparatus such as transformers. The
breakdown voltages were also observed to depend on humidity in air. In the case
of rod gaps the field is non-uniform, while in the case of sphere gaps field is
uniform, if the gap is small compared with the diameter. In the case of sphere
gaps, the breakdown voltages do not depend on humidity and are also
independent of the voltage waveform. The formative time lag is quite small (~ 0.5
|i s) even with 5% over voltage. Hence sphere gaps are used for breakdown
voltage (peak value) measurements.

Fig 8.2- Arrangement of Point point electrodes

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PROCEDURE:
 Connect the circuit as per diagram.
 Adjust the length of two electrodes.
 Switch on the panel.
 Switch on Control supply.
 Switch on HT Switch.
 Increase High voltage by push button switch.
 Observe spark between two sphere and take reading.
CONCLUSION:

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 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT –10

AIM: To Study 3 Phase Transformer Connections.

THEORY:
The individual transformers are connected in a variety of ways in a power system.
Due to the advantages of polyphase power during generation, transmission and
utilization polyphase power handling is very important. As an engineering
application is driven by techno-economic considerations, no single connection or
setup is satisfactory for all applications. Thus transformers are deployed in many
forms and connections. Star and delta connections are very commonly used.
Apart from these, vee or open delta connection, T connection, auto transformer
connections etc. are a few possibilities. Apart from the characteristics and
advantages of these, one must also know their limitations and problems, to
facilitate proper selection of a configuration for an application. Many polyphase
connections can be formed using single phase transformers. Each winding has
two ends designated as 1 and 2. The HV winding is indicated by capital letters and
the LV winding by small letters. If more terminals are brought out from a winding
by way of taps there are numbered in the increasing numbers in accordance to
their distance from 1 (egA1,A2,A3...). If the induced emf at an instant is from A1
to A2 on the HV winding it will rise from a1 to a2 on the LV winding. Out of the
different polyphase connections three phase connections are mostly encountered
due to the wide spread use of three phase systems for generation, transmission
and utilization. Three balanced 3-phase voltages can be connected in star or delta
fashion to yield a balanced 3-phase 3-wire system. The transformers that work on
the 3-phase supply have star, delta or zig-zag connected windings on either
primary secondary or both.

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Star connection is normally cheaper as there are fewer turns and lesser cost of
insulation. The advantage becomes more with increase in voltage above 11kv. In a
star connected winding with earthed-neutral the maximum voltage to the earth is
(1/√3) of the line voltage. Also star connection permits mixed loading due to the
presence of the neutral.
Delta connections are advantageous in low voltage transformers as insulation
costs are insignificant and the conductor size becomes (1/√3) of that of star
connection and permits ease of winding. The common polyphase connections are
briefly discussed now. The capital letters indicates primary and the small letters
the secondary.

Star/Star (Yy0, Yy6): This is the most economical one for small high voltage
transformers. Insulation cost is highly reduced. Neutral wire can permit mixed
loading. 3rdharmonics are absent in the lines. These 3rdharmonic currents cannot
flow, unless there is a neutral wire. This connection produces oscillating neutral.
Three phase shell type units have large 3rdharmonic phase voltage. However three
phase core type transformers work satisfactorily. A tertiary delta connected
winding may be required to stabilize the oscillating neutral due to third harmonics
in three phase banks.

Delta/Delta (Dd0, Dd6): This is an economical configuration for large low voltage
transformers. Large amount of unbalanced load can be met with ease. Delta
permits a circulating path for 3rdharmonics thus attenuates the same. It is possible
to operate with removal of one transformer as open delta or Vee connection
meeting 58% of the balanced load. Three phase units cannot have this facility.
Mixed single phase loading is not possible due to the absence of neutral.
Indian Institute of Tec
Star/Delta (Yd): This arrangement is very common for power supply
transformers. The delta winding permits 3rdharmonic currents to circulate in the
closed path and attenuates them.

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Delta/Star (Dy): Commonly used in a step-up transformer due to the advantages
that wye connection on the HV side reduces insulation costs, the neutral point on
the HV side can be grounded, stable with respect to unbalanced loads.

Generally speaking a bank of three single phase transformers cost about 15%
more than their 3-phase counterpart. Also, they occupy more space. But the
spare capacity cost will be less and single phase units are easier to transport.
Delta connected three phase transformers resemble 3- single phase units but kept
in a common tank. In view of this single tank, the space occupied is less. Other
than that there is no big difference. The 3-phase core type transformer on the
other hand has a simple core arrangement. The three limbs are equal in cross
section. Primary and secondary of each phase are housed on the same limb. The
flux setup in any limb will return through the other two limbs as the MMF of
those limbs is in the proper directions so as to aid the same. Even though
magnetically this is not a symmetrical arrangement, as the reluctance to the flux
setup by side limbs is different from that of the central limb, it does not adversely
affect the performance. This is due to the fact that the magnetizing current itself
forms a small fraction of the total phase current drawn on load. The added
advantage of 3-phase core is that it can tolerate substantially large value of 3rd
harmonic MMF without affecting the performance. The 3rd harmonic MMF of the
three phases will be in phase and hence rise in all the limbs together. The 3rd
harmonic flux must therefore find its path through the air. Due to the high
reluctance of the air path even a substantially large value of third harmonic MMF
produces negligible value of third harmonic flux. Similarly unbalanced operation
of the transformer with large zero sequence fundamental MMF content also does
not affect its performance. Even with Yy type of poly phase connection without
neutral connection the oscillating neutral does not occur with these cores. Finally,
three phase cores themselves cost less than three single phase units due to
compactness.

69
In addition to giving different voltage ratios, they introduce phase shifts between
input and output sides. These connections are broadly classified into 4 popular
vector groups.
1. Group I: Zero phase displacement between the primary and the secondary.
2. Group II: 180⁰phase displacement.
3. Group III: 30⁰lag phase displacement of the secondary with respect to the
primary.
4. Group IV: 30⁰lead phase displacement of the secondary with respect to the
primary.

A few examples of the physical connections and phasor diagrams are shown in
figure corresponding to each group. The angular displacement of secondary with
respect to the primary is shown as clock position, 0⁰ referring to 12 o’clock
position. These vector groups are especially important when two or more
transformers are to be connected in parallel.

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71
CONCLUSION:

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