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Lithospheric Plates and their Motion

Describe the characteristics of lithospheric plates
Lithospheric plates are the plates that comprise the fractured surface of the earth. There are two types, continental plates comprised mainly of granitic type rock rich in silica and aluminium and oceanic crust is comprised mostly of basaltic-type rocks rich in magnesium and aluminium. Oceanic crust is denser than the continental crust. Earthquake and volcanic activity is common along lithospheric plate boundaries. Mean Thickness Oceanic Crust 7 km Continental Crust 30-50 km Thicker under mountains

Identify the relationship between the general composition of igneous rocks and plate boundary type
Igneous rocks are classified by two main properties: - mineral crystal size - mineral composition Mid-ocean ridges produces basalt which covers the seafloor, these basalts produced are hotter and less dense than the cooler basalts before they are subducted Gabbro forms at divergent plate boundaries Convergent plate boundaries andesite is produced in conjunction with other igneous rocks such as granite Type of Boundary Type of Igneous Rock Divergent Basaltic (mafic) Convergent Oceanic oceanic Basaltic early and as it matures andesite Oceanic Andesite Continental Continental Granite (placed as plutons) continental Transform (or conservative) None

Outline the motion of plates and distinguish between the three types of plate boundary
Convergent This is where two plates collide as a result of tectonic motion There are different types of convergent plate boundaries these are: o Oceanic oceanic (Tonga Philippine and Australian Plates) o Oceanic continental (The Andes Nazca and South American Plates)

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o Continental continental (Himalayas Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates) Divergent Basaltic magma is injected between two plates causing the plates to be pushed apart Originate along fault lines and these fault lines produce rift valleys Mid ocean ridges are also formed by this type of plate boundary MORs are hundreds of kms wide and thousands of kms long Divergent plate boundaries cause tensional forces that pull the plates apart and away from each other, creating normal faults The different types of divergent plate boundaries are: o Oceanic oceanic (North Atlantic Rock) o Continental continental (East African Rift Valley African plate boundary) Conservative or Transform When these boundaries occur on land they are subject to greater weathering and are therefore not as steep San Andreas Fault (Juan de Fuca and North American Plates) and Alpine Fault (Australian and Pacific Plates) Plate material is neither produced nor destroyed at this plate boundary but it may be metamorphosed MUST PUT IN DIAGRAMS OF EACH PLATE BOUNDARY

Describe current hypotheses used to explain how convection currents and subduction drive plate motion
The three hypotheses are: - slab push from the MOR - Slab pull at subduction zone - Gravity slide Slab Push - Rising magma at a spreading centre creates new lithosphere and in the process pushes the plates away from each other - PROBLEM pushing involves compression, but the existence of rifts along MORs indicates a state of tension Slab Pull - lithosphere breaks and starts to sink through the asthenosphere because cold lithosphere is more dense than the hot asthenosphere

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PROBLEM lithospheric plates are brittle and they are much too weak to transmit large-scale pushing and pulling forces without major deformation occurring in the middle Gravity Slide - The lithosphere grows cooler and thicker away from a spreading centre, therefore the boundary between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere slopes away from the spreading centre. If the slope is as little as 1 part in 3000, the lithospheres own weight could cause the lithosphere to slide at a rate of several centimetres per year. Of the three ideas it is believed that subduction starts when old, cold lithosphere breaks and begins to sink, pulls on the plate and starts the movement. Once movement starts, downhill slide and ridge push combine to keep the movement going.

The movement of plates results in mountain building

Distinguish between mountain belts formed at divergent and convergent plate boundaries in terms of general rock types
Oceanic oceanic divergent boundary 3

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E.g. North Atlantic Ridge ascending hot currents in the asthenosphere push the whole area up dominant rock type is a volcanic lava of basaltic composition extruded as pillow basalts thin veneer of sediments normal faults are produced as tensional forces pull the lithosphere apart GET DIAGRAM FROM CLEZYS REVISION Oceanic oceanic convergent boundary E.g. Tonga (immature) as subduction occurs the molten basaltic material rises to form an arc of volcanic islands restricted largely to igneous activity (initially basaltic) and does not include widespread metamorphism or granitic intrusions when two oceanic plates converge one is subducted under the other, and in the process a trench is formed subduction processes in oceanic oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of volcanoes such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs magmas that form island arc are produced by the partial melting of the descending plate over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level to form an island volcano the descending plate also provides a source of stress as the two plates interact, leading to frequent moderate to strong earthquakes these earthquakes are shallow to deep focus and the pattern produced is termed a benioff zone E.g. Japan (mature) a more complex situation in which heat and or pressure combine to produce distinctive rock associations and deformational patterns rock sequences of oceanic sediments, pillow basalts from the oceanic crust, in addition to sediment from erosion of the volcanic arc partial melting produces andesitic/granitic magmas A zone of high pressure, low temp. metamorphism (blue schist) an inner zone of high temp metamorphism (green schist) crustal deformation results in older rock to be compressed, folded and broken by thrust faults Continental oceanic convergent boundary E.g. Andes before subduction sandstone, shale and limestone can accumulate along the continental margin deep marine sediments on the oceanic plate can be crumpled and deformed slabs of oceanic crust, called ophiolite complexes, shear off

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Continental continental convergent boundary E.g. Himalayas the convergence of two continental plates generates a mountain belt with several different characteristics shallow and deep water sediments occur along the margin of the continents a trench forms with all the characterisitics of a oceanic/continental subduction zone as continents approach segments of the remaining oceanic crust (ophiolite) are deformed by overthrusting and are eventually squeezed between the plates as the continent moves into the subduction zone, its buoyancy prevents it from descending into the mantle. It can be thrust under the overriding plate, however, so that a double layer of low-density continental crust is produced. This layer rise buoyantly to create a wide belt of deformed rock. These regions are characterised by intense folding, thrust faulting and metamorphism The oceanic slab of lithosphere, descending intot he mantle, ultimately becomes detached and sinks. When the slab has been consumed, the volcanic activity and earthquakes it generates cease. Folding and Faulting

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Gather, process and present information from secondary sources which compares formation, general rock type and structure of mountain belts formed as a result of thermal uplift and rifting with those from different types of plate convergence

Summary
Divergence (Tensional force) Oceanic/oceanic Igneous rock Metamorphic Basalt Oceanic/oceanic Basalt to andesite Convergence (Compressional force) Oceanic/ continental Andesite volcanics and granite plutons Continental/ continental Granitic plutons

little Sedimentary Small amounts of ooze

little

widespread widespread e.g. Slate, schist, e.g. Slate, schist, gneiss gneiss shallow marine shallow marine sediments e.g. sediments e.g. Limestones, Limestones, shales, shales, sandstones sandstones Reverse & thrust Reverse, thrust & nappes

oozes and igneous material eroded from arc Reverse

Faulting type Folding

Normal associated with tensional force Little or none

minor

Intense folding

Intense folding

Continents evolve as plate boundaries move and change

Outline the main stages in the growth of the Australian continent over geological time as a result of plate tectonic processes
Stage 1 Stage 2 still with Gondwana Proterozoic 2500-570 mya Mobile belts o Active linear mountain o Chains metamorphic rock o Highly deformed and folded Formation of cornerstone blocks and fusion of cratons o Growler Block o Kimberley Block 6 still with Gondwana 3500 mya = Archean Rock Pilbara and Yilgarn were formed 2500 mya Granite greenstone were cratorised, these have formed andesite and basalt through metamorphism

Tectonic Impacts o Mt Isa Block Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6 -

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still with Gondwana Palaeozoic 570 230 mya Subduction accretion Tasmin belt formed active island arcs and trench Eastern rocks exhibit evidence of the presence of former island arcs and ocean trenches Major mountain building Lachlan Fold Belt and New England Fold Belt Active/mobile belt move east producing Lord Howe Island By 200 mya eastern third of Australia was cratorised Mesozoic 190 65 mya Beginning of the breakup of Gondwana Great Artesian Basin formed, then flood to form an inland sea and then it dried and became non-marine Tasmin sea spreading Sydney Basin Foreland basin subsided as the magmatic arc eastward Foreland Basin filled with sediment Intra-continental earthquakes, hot spots and volcanoes Tensional stresses acting within plate boundaries to north pushing against asian and pacific plates Very old faults joined still moving northward interaction between the converging Australian and Pacific plates produce the current New Guinea mobile belt

DRAW MAP OF AUST. WITH ALL NECESSARY MOVEMENTS

Summarise the plate tectonic super-cycle

plates move due to thermal and gravitational affects, that is, by seafloor spreading and subduction continents were once apart of the supercontinent Pangea approx. 200 mya Pangea split into Laurasia and Gondwana. Gondwana includes the present continents of: o Australia o Antartica o Africa o South America o Indian sub continent Laurasia split into: o North America o Eurasia

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Natural Disasters are often associated with tectonic activity and environmental conditions caused by this activity may contribute to the problems experienced by people
Identify where earthquakes and volcanoes are currently likely to occur based on the plate tectonic model
Earthquakes and volcanoes occur along plate boundaries in particular around the Ring of Fire

Describe methods used for the prediction of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
Scientist estimate earthquake probabilities in 2 ways: - By studying the history of large earthquakes in a specific area - The rate at which strain accumulates in the rock Volcanoes are monitored through the recording and analysis of measurable phenomena such as: - seismicity - ground movements - geophysical properties - gas geochemistry - hydrologic regime Other instruments used include - strainometers - seismometers - lasers (surface mvt) - tiltmeters Describe the general physical, chemical and biotic characteristics of a volcanic region and explain why people would inhabit such regions at risk - traditional land ownership - fertile soils - biodiversity - geothermal energy - economic mineral deposits such as copper, gold, silver, lead - tourism - entertainment

Describe hazards associated with earthquakes including ground motion, tsunamis and collapse of structures

Name of Hazard Ground motion

Type of effect Primary

Description Ground motion results from the movement of seismic waves, especially surface waves,

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HSC E & E Science through surface-rock layers and soil. The motion can damage and sometimes completely destroy buildings. Proper design (including such features as a steel framework and a foundation tied to bedrock) can do much to prevent such damage, but in a very strong earthquake even the best buildings may suffer some damage. Where a fault breaks the ground surface, buildings can be split, roads disrupted, and any feature that crosses or sits on the fault broken apart. In regions of steep slopes, earthquake vibrations may cause soil to slip and cliffs to collapse. This is particularly true in Alaska, parts of southern California, China, and hilly places such as Iran and Turkey. Houses, roads, and other structures are destroyed by rapidly moving soil flows. Tsunamis are started by the sudden movement of the seafloor due to an earthquake and have been particularly destructive in the Pacific Ocean. Seismic sea waves travel at speeds up to 950 km/h and have wavelengths up to 200 km. Amplitudes of the waves are so low they can rarely be seen in the ocean, but as a wave approaches the shore the water is piled up rapidly to heights of 30 m or more. About 5 h after a severe submarine earthquake near Unimak Island, Alaska, in 1946, for instance, a tsunami struck Hawaii. The wave had traveled at a speed of 800 km/h. Although the amplitude of the wave in the open ocean was less than 1 m, the amplitude increased dramatically as the wave approached land, so that when it hit Hawaii, the wave had a crest 18 m higher than normal high tide. This destructive wave demolished nearly 500 houses, damaged a thousand more, and killed 159 people.

Faults

Primary

Slip and collapse

Secondary

Tsunami

Secondary

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Describe hazards associated with volcanoes, including poisonous gas emissions, ash flows, lahars and lava flows and examine the impact of these hazards on the environment, on people and other living things
Volcanic hazards 1. Gas Descriptions The volcanic gases that pose the greatest potential hazard are Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Hydrogen fluoride A mixture of water and rock fragments flowing down the slopes of a volcano Large masses of rock and soil that fall, slide, or flow very rapidly under the force of gravity Streams of molten rock Are high-density mixtures of hot, dry rock fragments and hot gases that move away from the vent at high speeds General term for fragments of volcanic rock and lava regardless of size that are blasted into the air Ash plumes carried downwind are an immediate threat to aircraft, crushing house, blocking roads, destroying crops and killing livestock

2. Lahars 3. Landslides 4. Lava flows 5. Pyroclastic flows 6. Tephra 7. Ash Flows

Justify continued research into reliable prediction of volcanic activity and earthquakes
Seismic activity provides us with info on the interior of the earth, the structure of the crust, density of rocks and possible resources and plate motion and geomorphology. Research helps to give warnings of potentially damaging earthquakes early enough to allow appropriate response to the disaster, minimising loss of life.

Describe and explain the impacts of shock waves (earthquakes) on natural and built environments
Seismic events vary in destructiveness. Through the use of the modified Mercalli scale an analysis can be prepared of the extent of the damage from an earthquake. Kobe Earthquake, Japan 1995 Magnitude 7 - 5000 people died - 25 000 injured - 300 000 homeless - $80 billion damage 10

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Distinguish between plate margin and intra-plate earthquakes with reference to the origins of specific earthquakes recorded on the Australian continent
Intraplate earthquakes are those occurring in the interior of plates, away from plate boundaries. They take place in the crust (up to 50km deep) and are caused by compressive stress. An example of an intraplate earthquake in Australia was the one in Meckering, Western Australia in 1968 it was a result of compressive force causing damage to pipelines, roads and railway lines.

Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to chart the location of natural disasters worldwide associated with tectonic activity and use available evidence to assess the patterns in terms of plate tectonics

Identify data, plan an investigation and gather information from secondary

Creepmetres Alignment arrays Geodometers

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Case Study of a Natural Disaster

Fact File Name: Pakistan Earthquake Date: 8th October 2005 Magnitude: 7.6 Location: 34N 73E Deaths: over 80,000 affecting mainly Pakistan but also India and Afghanistan Location of Epicentre: not far from Muzaffarabad in Nth Pakistan Extent of Earthquake: felt as far west as Central Afghanistan and as far east as the west coast of Bangladesh Tectonic Movement - Lies on the boundary of the Indo-Australian plate and the Eurasian plate - Convergent plate boundary one plate was subducted underneath the other - Indo-Australian plate was subducted under the Eurasian plate - Indo-Australian plate moves northward at a rate of 4cm/yr - Common in the region Distance from the area of disaster - Area impacted was vast as far west as the middle of Pakistan and as far east as the west coast of Bangladesh, as far north as the border of north-west china and as south as Jaipu in India - Area of most devastation is central and north Pakistan and north west India - Worst damage was in Muzaffarabad - Cities of Pakistan Abbottabad, Gujrat, Gujranwala, Lahore, Islamabad, Rawalpindi - Cities of Kashmir Jammu, Baramula, Srinagar Recurrence - Area was overdue for a major earthquake with the last big one in Pakistan being 1935 - It [an earthquake] might not appear for 10 to 20 years but if it occurred tomorrow it wouldnt be a surprise Steven Wesnousky, Neotectonic Studies at the University of Nevada - This area is capable of much bigger earthquakes however the unpredictability of it is very high as there is a part of the fault which has not shifted or broken since 1100 Technology - Seismographs record and measure earthquakes through the vibrations created in the earth during an earthquake (seismograms) - Natural method behavioural patterns in animals such as birds and insects for an early warning sign - Strainmeter currently under development in California measures the motion of a geographical point in comparison with another geographical point - Other forms used include creep meter, leveling surveys, radon-gas counter, tilt meter and the gravity meter Possible solutions used to minimise destruction

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improvement of construction materials and designs of buildings ductile materials such as steel and aluminium perform better than brittle material such as brick, stone and unstrengthened concrete Pakistans infrastructure is mainly brittle material early warning systems and evacuation drills like they do in Japan improve countrys economy because in concern to Pakistan there is no money to have improved infrastructure

Plate Tectonics and Climate

Predict the possible effects of explosive volcanic activity on global and local temperatures
Volcanoes affect the climate through - gases - dust particle emissions The effect of volcanic dust may warm or cool the earths surface depending on how sunlight interacts with the volcanic material. Volcanic Gas Sulfur - volcanoes that release large amounts of sulfur compounds affect the climate more strongly than those that just eject dust - the sulfur compounds are gases that rise easily into the stratosphere - they combine with water to form a haze of tiny droplets of sulfuric acid - the effect is these tiny droplets are very light in colour and reflect a great deal of sunlight these reflective hazes can cause significant cooling of the earth for as long as 2 years after a major-sulfur bearing explosion Volcanic Dust Volcanic dust blasted into the atmosphere causes temporary cooling - the amount of cooling is dependant on the amount of dust in the air - duration of cooling is dependant on the size of the dust particles

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