Porcelana de Revestimento Elétrico - Argamassa Autonivelante
Porcelana de Revestimento Elétrico - Argamassa Autonivelante
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The addition of waste in building materials is a technical and economical alternative for modern
Self-leveling mortar construction. Self-leveling mortar (SLM) is a material used in floors because it is able to flow and
Porcelain waste fill a base area without using extra energy. The present studied SLMs using porcelain insulator
Characterization waste (PIW) as partial and total sand replacement. Different methods were used to characterize
Pozzolan the PIW (e.g. X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and pozzolanic activity index) and tests
Alkali-aggregate reaction
were made in SLMs in fresh and hardened states. XRD results revealed that PIW presented
Sustainability
pozzolanic characteristics and increased the compressive strength of mortars. Tests also not
verified alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) when PIW was added. SLMs containing PIW presented
compressive and flexural strengths of 24.11 MPa and 7.07 MPa, respectively. The spread diameter
reached values found in the literature.
1. Introduction
The use of alternative materials to partially replace Portland cement (PC) or aggregates has positive impacts on the environment,
such as the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, the natural resources conservation, the decrease in total waste landfilled, as
well as economic and industrial advantages [1,2].
Supplementary cementitious materials decrease the clinker content of PC, and contribute to cleaner production. Similarly, the
replacement of natural aggregates by waste prolongs the lifespan of natural resources [3,4]. Waste recycling is very important, and the
characterization of the waste generated by industrial activities is essential for a safe application [5].
An electrical insulator is used in the network of energy distribution due to its high insulating capacity. The material loses its
properties with time passing and has a life cycle of approximately 10 years when it needs to be replaced [6]. The maintenance activities
on electrical energy distribution, replacing the electrical insulator, generate a significant quantity of porcelain insulator waste (PIW),
which is also generated during the production due to the disposal of parts refused in the quality tests [7–9].
Several studies have been conducted to develop materials containing PIW from electrical insulators Portella et al. [10], Higa
shiyama et al. [11], Zambili, Salin and Ndambuki [12], Higashiyama et al. [13], Jang and So [14], Campos, Paulon and Ferrão [7],
* Corresponding author. School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design, University of Campinas - UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Camarini).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105297
Received 18 May 2022; Received in revised form 7 August 2022; Accepted 17 September 2022
Available online 24 September 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297
Pereira and Camarini [15], Pivak et al [16] evaluated the potential of using PIW as supplementary cementitious materials or aggre
gates in PC based products. The results indicated that PIW is mostly composed of siliceous material (SiO2) and it can act as a pozzolan,
promoting a better performance with the improvement of mechanical properties and durability of the cementitious materials.
Higashiyama et al. [11] replaced the natural sand with PIW in mortar production, and the mortar had lower chloride ions (Cl− )
penetration, obtaining longer durability than the specimens with natural sand, The higher performance was attributed to a lower pore
volume generated by PIW, as a result of pore size and grain size refinement due to the pozzolanic reaction [17].
The use of certain types of PIW in cement-based materials can cause expansion due to alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR), occurred by
silica glass formed during thermic process use in its production [10], which is one of the most important deleterious reactions in
cement-based materials [18]. This expansive reaction occurs between alkali ions (Na2O and K2O) present in the PC composition and
some chemically reactive aggregates. The aggregates of silica, silica mineral, hydrated silica (opal), or amorphous silica (obsidian and
silica glass) tend to react in high alkalinity solutions containing more than 6% of alkalis [18,19].
When PIW is added as a partial replacement for cement or aggregates, the content of alkalis present in the system can be higher,
achieving in some cases values higher than 1.5%, the maximum value established by Standards [20,21]. The increase in alkali content
can cause several changes in the physicochemical structure and microstructure of concretes and/or mortars, and generate harmful
reactions, such as alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR), affecting the durability of cementitious matrices [12,22].
Self-leveling mortars (SLMs) are often prepared with PC, fine aggregates, mineral fillers, and chemical admixtures. When mixed
with water, SLMs have the property of leveling with high fluidity [23]. SLMs have the advantages of high workability, simple con
struction, good flatness, good compressive strength, and a thin leveling layer without using high external energy [23,24]. These
properties are reached with a good materials design, correct admixtures and mixture processing [24].
The present work prepared and characterized PIW for use in a cementitious matrix. To it, the waste was evaluated considering the
chemical composition, pozzolanic activity, and also the potential to develop AAR. Thereafter, SLMs were produced replacing partially
and totally the natural sand by PIW as fine aggregate. Some effects of PIW incorporation were investigated in fresh and hardened
properties of the SLMs.
2. Experimental procedures
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Portland cement
High initial strength PC, named CPV-ARI [25] was used to evaluate some of the PIW characteristics (AAR and, pozzolanic activity
tests) and to produce SLMs. This cement is similar to ASTM type III. Table 1 shows the PC chemical composition and the limits of NBR
16697 [26] for CPV-ARI.
2.1.3. Admixture
The admixture used was a superplasticizer Basf® Melment F10, in powder (sulfonated melamine).
Table 1
Chemical analysis of Portland cement.
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Table 2
Physical properties of PIW (G1).
After the first grinding process (G1), PIW was divided into more 3 different particle diameters (G2, G3, and G4). The identifications
of each particle size tested are:
- G1 - grains obtained after the grinding process.
- G2 - G1 sieved, and grains retained on 75 μm sieve opening.
- G3 - G1 sieved, and grains passing 75 μm sieve opening.
- G4 - G1 sieved, and grains passing 45 μm sieve opening.
The particle size distributions of PIW G1, G2, G3, and G4 are presented in Fig. 1. The results showed that PIW had about 70%
particle sizes ranging from 1.2 mm to less than 75 μm after grinding. These different particle sizes were used to evaluate the PIW
characteristics.
2.3. Methods
G1, G2, and G3 were subjected to the following tests: chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD),
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and pozzolanic activity index (PAI).
The pozzolanic capacity of G1, G2, G3, and G4 were studied by Chapelle method and mechanical tests (pozzolanic activity index).
To the development of pozzolanic reaction, the materials must have fineness and amorphous phase, which play an important role in
pozzolanic reaction [19]. The AAR test was performed in G1. This same G1 was used to make the SLMs.
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Table 3
Identification and design of the SLM experimental mixtures.
Mortars Id. Water/solids ratio (w/s)2 Mix design3 PIW (%) Water/binder ratio (w/b) Admixture (%)
1
Commercial SLM 1 CM1 0.21 - - - 2.5
Commercial SLM 2 CM21
SLM Ref mortar RM 0.23 1:2:0 0 0.7
SLM 25% PIW PM25 1: 1.5:0.5 25 0.7
SLM 50% PIW PM50 1:1:1 50 0.7
SLM 75% PIW PM75 1:0.5:1.5 75 0.7
SLM 100% PIW PM100 0.25 1:0:2 100 0.75
1
The producers do not show the mix design.
2
Solids = Cement + PIW.
3
Cement:sand:PIW.
Table 4
Surface area and specific gravity of SLMs.
2.3.5. Pozzolanic activity index (PAI) by Chapelle method and by pozzolanic activity (PA) by mechanical method
The PAI was determined by the Chapelle method [20]. This procedure aims to determine the potential of pozzolanic reaction of
material through the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) consumption. G1 and G4 were tested because these are thicker and thinner PIW
powders, respectively.
Chapelle method was performed as follows. Firstly, PIW, calcium oxide (CaO) and water free from CO2 were mixed. The mixture
was kept immersed in water at 90 ◦ C (±5 ◦ C) in an airtight container and it was shaken for 16 h (±1h), in accordance with NBR 15895
[20]. Thereafter, the material was removed and cooled in cold water to room temperature. Subsequently, sucrose solution (250 g/L)
was added and mechanically shaken in a Wagner rotary shaker for 15 min. After being shaken, the solution was filtered and titrated
with an HCl solution, using phenolphthalein solution (1 g/L).
The PA was determined with PC (mechanical method). The procedure was made in accordance with NBR 5752 [31]. The test
Table 5
Materials to determine the PA with Portland cement at 28 days age.
MA MG11 MG41
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consists of replacing PC with pozzolanic material, testing the compressive strength in mortars at 28 days, and also comparing with a
reference mortar prepared with PC (named MA). Compressive strength tests were performed in a Mohr & Federhaff machine BPP 20/2
(maximum load of 20,000 kN). Tests were made with PIW fineness G1 and G4. Reference mortar was denominated MA, and the
mortars with PIW were named MG1 and MG4.
Table 5 shows the materials and their quantity used to determine PA with PC at 28 days. Superplasticizer admixture was used on
MG1 and MG4 to maintain the same spread diameter of MA (179 mm ± 10 mm).
The available alkali content was determined according to Brazilian standard NBR NM 25 [32]. The test consists of quantifying the
content of alkali released during the reaction of pozzolan with Ca(OH)2 [32]. The method is used to determine only the available
alkalis presented in pozzolan that can potentially react.
The alkali content (total equivalent and available) presented in PIW was compared with the limits established by NBR 12653
(ABNT, 2008) and ASTM C618 [21] which prescribe the maximum content of alkalis available in pozzolans of 1.5%.
Brazilian standards NBR NM 25 [32] and NBR 12653 [33] also prescribe that the sulfuric anhydride (SO3) content must be lower
than 5.0%.
Table 6 shows the materials and quantities used to make the AAR test. The Brazilian standard NBR 15577-4 [34] prescribes a
water/cement ratio (w/c) of 0.47 to make the AAR test. The mortars containing PIW did not reach the required workability and a w/c
ratio of 0.70 was used.
Three prismatic specimens with dimensions of 25 mm × 25 mm × 305 mm were molded (Fig. 2). Immediately after molding, the
specimens still in the molds (Fig. 2a) were placed in a humidity chamber for 24 h. After demolding (Fig. 2b), the specimens were
immersed in a deionized water tank at 23 ◦ C (±2 ◦ C). The temperature was raised to 80 ◦ C for 6 h, and the specimens remained in hot
water for 18 h. After this period, the lengths of the specimens were measured, named L0. Then, the specimens remained in containers
with water at 80 ◦ C, and the dimensional change analyses were made at 3, 6, 10, 13, 16, 20, 24, 27, and 30 days. The final dimensional
change was expressed in percentage (%) concerning the original specimen length (L0) [26].
Where: d = density in fresh state (kg/m3), mc = cylinder mass filled with mortar (kg), mv = cylinder weight (1418 kg), and vr =
cylinder volume (m3).
The density result was used to calculate the entrapped air by Equation (3).
( )
d
A = 100 1 − Equation 3
dt
Where: A = entrapped air (%), d = mortar density (kg/m3); dt = theoretical mortar density (no voids) (kg/m3) which was calculated by
Equation (4).
∑
mi
dt = ∑ mi Equation 4
δi
Where: mi = dry mass of the mortar components plus the water mass; and δi = water mass.
Table 6
Materials to alkali-aggregate reaction tests.
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Fig. 2. AAR: (a) casting, (b) hardened specimens, and (c) equipment to expansion measurement.
Fig. 3. Scheme of spread diameter test: a) cylindrical mold and b) illustrative scheme of the test and spread diameters measures.
Table 7
Porcelain waste chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF).
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3.1.4. Pozzolanic activity index (PAI) and pozzolanic activity (PA) by mechanical method
The results of the pozzolanic activity index (PAI by Chapelle method of PIW varied with the particle size (Fig. 9). There was an
increase in the consumption of Ca(OH)2 in powders with lower particle sizes, which means that PIW had a typical behavior of
pozzolan, consuming silica and forming C–S–H [42].
G2 (sample with the largest number of larger particles) had the lowest content of Ca(OH)2 consumption. It occurred because the
pozzolanic rate depends on particle size [19,43]. The results of PAI are in accordance with the amorphous halos observed in XRD
results.
Raverdy et al. [44] stated that a material can be considered pozzolanic when it has a CaO consumption of 330 mg CaO/g. From the
Table 8
Porcelain waste mineral composition.
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stoichiometric transformation to the consumption of Ca(OH)2, the value obtained is 436 mg of Ca(OH)2/g [45]. Thus, the particle size
named G3 is practically considered a pozzolanic material, and G4 is a pozzolan. The results confirm the data obtained by Fernades et al.
[46]. The authors used the electrical conductivity method to confirm that PIW has pozzolanic properties.
Fig. 10 shows the compressive strength results of mortars to evaluate the pozzolanic activity by mechanical method. The results
showed that the particle size of PIW affected the compressive strength of mortars. The replacement of PC by PIW in MG1 resulted in the
lowest compressive strength. G1 has PIW with larger particles (>75 μm), which prevented the pozzolanic reaction. The decrease in the
compressive strength is due to the lower PC content in mortar, with the addition of an inert material (PIW with large particles).
Differently, MG4 had an increase in the compressive strength of approximately 27% when compared to MA. The higher mechanical
strength is a result of the pozzolanic reaction that generates higher contents of C–S–H gel in the microstructure of mortars [47]. With
the lower particle size, PIW had pozzolan properties; even with the reduction of PC content, C–S–H gel was formed through a
pozzolanic reaction.
The pozzolanic activity indicated by the mechanical method and the amorphous halo observed in the XRD revealed the pozzolanic
potential of PIW, which is also influenced by the particle size.
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Table 9
Equivalent alkali content and available alkalis in PIW.
Particle sizes G1 G2 G3
prescribed by NBR 12653 [35] and ASTM C618 [21], which establish that pozzolans must have an available alkali content ≤1.5%. This
result is important because the available alkalis are those that can effectively react with the aggregates. The alkali equivalent from the
total alkali content (Table 9) was lower than the limit prescribed by the Standards [21,35].
The dimensional changes of the mortar prepared with PIW to verify the AAR potential are shown in Fig. 11.
The Brazilian standard NBR 15777-1 [48] prescribes that the material can be considered inert when the longitudinal dimensional
change is lower than 0.19%, considering the initial length.
The results showed that PIW is not reactive when mixed with PC, with an expansion of 0.05% at 30 days age. Even though the PIW
can contributes to increasing the free alkali content in the system, the mortar with PIW did not have expansion. PIW can be considered
as innocuous material, without presenting potential to cause AAR.
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Fig. 12. Visual aspect of SLMs during the spread diameter test.
general, it was found that the replacement of natural sand by PIW tends to increase the entrapped air content, with a maximum
difference of approximately 5%, considering PM25 when compared to RM.
The higher content of entrapped air in mortars containing PIW is due to the particle morphology. Natural sand generally presents
more rounded and more symmetrical shapes, while the crushing and grinding process of the PIW tends to generate more irregular
particles with angular shapes, causing an increase in the content of entrapped air [51].
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Fig. 14. Entrapped air content and density of SLMs in fresh state.
presented by SLMs prepared with PIW is also a result of difference between the specific masses of PIW and sand. The entrapped air
content also influenced the density in the hardened state. SLMs with PIW had a larger number of voids, resulting in lower density.
Fig. 16 shows the correlation of powder density, density in the fresh state, and entrapped air with density in the hardened state.
Despite the low coefficients obtained by the correlations (R2 = 0.15, R2 = 0.63, and R2 = 0.47, respectively), it is evident that the
density in the hardened state is influenced by the specific mass of the PIW, density in the fresh state, and also by the entrapped air
content. Fig. 16a shows that the density in the hardened state decreased with a lower specific mass of the mortar in the powdered state.
Similar behavior was verified in the correlation between the densities of the mortars in the fresh and hardened states (Fig. 16b).
The SLMs containing PIW presented higher mechanical strength (compressive and flexural strengths) than commercial mortars
made with natural sand (Fig. 17), observed until the content of 75%. The decrease in mechanical strength (compressive and flexural
strengths) of SLM containing 100% of PIW was caused by the higher w/c ratio used in this mortar.
The flexural strength of SLMs did not have a significant change until the PIW content of 75% (Fig. 17). There was a decrease in the
flexural strength of CM100, which is due to the higher w/c ratio employed in this sample.
PIW had a lower specific gravity than the fine aggregate and this may have caused a decrease in the density of mortars in the fresh
and hardened states, but increased the SLM mechanical strength with higher PIW contents (Fig. 18a). This may be associated with a
better particle packing, once PIW has a lower particle diameter than natural sand. The lower particle size of PIW contributed to better
particle packing, reducing the voids and improving the mechanical strength. The flexural strength increased with the density
increasing (Fig. 18b).
SLMs are often used for subflooring and their required compressive in usual situations is lower than 10 MPa [43]. All the SLMs
evaluated in the present study developed the minimum compressive strength for floor application.
4. Conclusions
The present paper characterized the porcelain insulator waste (PIW), focusing its use on self-leveling mortar (SLM).
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Fig. 16. Correlation of: a) Specific gravity in powder state vs density in the hardened state, b) Density in fresh state vs density in the hardened state and c) Voids vs
density in the hardened state.
PIW is mainly composed of quartz, corundum, mullite, and zinc. Mineralogical tests indicated that PIW has amorphous phases. The
reactivity of these amorphous phases was proven by pozzolanic activity index test and by the increase in compressive strength.
Pozzolanic activity index of PIW depended on its fineness (the thinner the more reactive).
Chemical analysis indicated that PIW presents total alkali content higher than prescribed by some standards; however, the free
alkalis meet the limit prescribed by the standards. Despite the high alkali content, the test of AAR revealed that the PIW is potential
innocuous material with low dimensions changes, according to the standard limits.
The results obtained in the study showed that PIW has the potential to be used as supplementary cementitious material, resulting in
a durable material with pozzolan reactions and no AAR.
SLM containing PIW did not have segregation or bleeding, resulting in stable material. Entrapped air in SLM with PIW increased
and densities of SLM with PIW in fresh and hardened states are lower than reference, which was expected due to the waste low specific
gravity (powder). The mechanical properties are improved when sand was replaced by PIW. This can be explained by the roughness
and fineness of the PIW particles, and better particle packing.
Author statement
Conceptualization, Valdir Moraes Pereira and Gladis Camarini; Data curation, Valdir Moraes Pereira; Formal analysis, Valdir
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Fig. 18. Relationship between: a) Density in the hardned state and compressive strength and b) Density in the hardned state and flexural strength.
Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini; Funding acquisition, Valdir Moraes Pereira and Gladis Camarini;
Investigation, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini; Methodology, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Raphael
Baldusco, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini; Project administration, Valdir Moraes Pereira and Gladis Camarini; Re
sources, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Raphael Baldusco and Gladis Camarini; Software, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo;
Supervision, Gladis Camarini; Validation, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini; Visualization, Valdir
Moraes Pereira and Gladis Camarini; Writing – original draft, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo, and Gladis Camarini;
Writing – review & editing, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini.
Data availability
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Foundation of the Technological Research Institute of the State of São Paulo (FIPT) for funding the Tech
nological Initiation on Research Grant (awarded 06/2015), to the Laboratory of Buildings Materials of Institute for Technological
Research (LMCC-IPT) in special to Alexandre Rodolfo Cunha de Souza and Eduardo Leão Rocha (in memorian). The authors thank
Espaço da Escrita – Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa - UNICAMP - for the language services provided.
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