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Porcelana de Revestimento Elétrico - Argamassa Autonivelante

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25 views16 pages

Porcelana de Revestimento Elétrico - Argamassa Autonivelante

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Djalma Neto
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Porcelain waste from electrical insulators in self-leveling mortar:


Materials characterization and properties
Valdir M. Pereira a, b, Rodrigo H. Geraldo a, c, Raphael Baldusco d,
Gladis Camarini a, e, *
a
School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design, University of Campinas - UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
b
Department of Construction Engineering, Polytechnical School, University of São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, Brazil
c
FACENS University, Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil
d
Institute for Technological Research (IPT), São Paulo, Brazil
e
University Center of Minas South – UNIS-MG, Varginha, Minas Gerais, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The addition of waste in building materials is a technical and economical alternative for modern
Self-leveling mortar construction. Self-leveling mortar (SLM) is a material used in floors because it is able to flow and
Porcelain waste fill a base area without using extra energy. The present studied SLMs using porcelain insulator
Characterization waste (PIW) as partial and total sand replacement. Different methods were used to characterize
Pozzolan the PIW (e.g. X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and pozzolanic activity index) and tests
Alkali-aggregate reaction
were made in SLMs in fresh and hardened states. XRD results revealed that PIW presented
Sustainability
pozzolanic characteristics and increased the compressive strength of mortars. Tests also not
verified alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) when PIW was added. SLMs containing PIW presented
compressive and flexural strengths of 24.11 MPa and 7.07 MPa, respectively. The spread diameter
reached values found in the literature.

1. Introduction
The use of alternative materials to partially replace Portland cement (PC) or aggregates has positive impacts on the environment,
such as the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, the natural resources conservation, the decrease in total waste landfilled, as
well as economic and industrial advantages [1,2].
Supplementary cementitious materials decrease the clinker content of PC, and contribute to cleaner production. Similarly, the
replacement of natural aggregates by waste prolongs the lifespan of natural resources [3,4]. Waste recycling is very important, and the
characterization of the waste generated by industrial activities is essential for a safe application [5].
An electrical insulator is used in the network of energy distribution due to its high insulating capacity. The material loses its
properties with time passing and has a life cycle of approximately 10 years when it needs to be replaced [6]. The maintenance activities
on electrical energy distribution, replacing the electrical insulator, generate a significant quantity of porcelain insulator waste (PIW),
which is also generated during the production due to the disposal of parts refused in the quality tests [7–9].
Several studies have been conducted to develop materials containing PIW from electrical insulators Portella et al. [10], Higa­
shiyama et al. [11], Zambili, Salin and Ndambuki [12], Higashiyama et al. [13], Jang and So [14], Campos, Paulon and Ferrão [7],

* Corresponding author. School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design, University of Campinas - UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Camarini).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105297
Received 18 May 2022; Received in revised form 7 August 2022; Accepted 17 September 2022
Available online 24 September 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Pereira and Camarini [15], Pivak et al [16] evaluated the potential of using PIW as supplementary cementitious materials or aggre­
gates in PC based products. The results indicated that PIW is mostly composed of siliceous material (SiO2) and it can act as a pozzolan,
promoting a better performance with the improvement of mechanical properties and durability of the cementitious materials.
Higashiyama et al. [11] replaced the natural sand with PIW in mortar production, and the mortar had lower chloride ions (Cl− )
penetration, obtaining longer durability than the specimens with natural sand, The higher performance was attributed to a lower pore
volume generated by PIW, as a result of pore size and grain size refinement due to the pozzolanic reaction [17].
The use of certain types of PIW in cement-based materials can cause expansion due to alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR), occurred by
silica glass formed during thermic process use in its production [10], which is one of the most important deleterious reactions in
cement-based materials [18]. This expansive reaction occurs between alkali ions (Na2O and K2O) present in the PC composition and
some chemically reactive aggregates. The aggregates of silica, silica mineral, hydrated silica (opal), or amorphous silica (obsidian and
silica glass) tend to react in high alkalinity solutions containing more than 6% of alkalis [18,19].
When PIW is added as a partial replacement for cement or aggregates, the content of alkalis present in the system can be higher,
achieving in some cases values higher than 1.5%, the maximum value established by Standards [20,21]. The increase in alkali content
can cause several changes in the physicochemical structure and microstructure of concretes and/or mortars, and generate harmful
reactions, such as alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR), affecting the durability of cementitious matrices [12,22].
Self-leveling mortars (SLMs) are often prepared with PC, fine aggregates, mineral fillers, and chemical admixtures. When mixed
with water, SLMs have the property of leveling with high fluidity [23]. SLMs have the advantages of high workability, simple con­
struction, good flatness, good compressive strength, and a thin leveling layer without using high external energy [23,24]. These
properties are reached with a good materials design, correct admixtures and mixture processing [24].
The present work prepared and characterized PIW for use in a cementitious matrix. To it, the waste was evaluated considering the
chemical composition, pozzolanic activity, and also the potential to develop AAR. Thereafter, SLMs were produced replacing partially
and totally the natural sand by PIW as fine aggregate. Some effects of PIW incorporation were investigated in fresh and hardened
properties of the SLMs.

2. Experimental procedures
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Portland cement
High initial strength PC, named CPV-ARI [25] was used to evaluate some of the PIW characteristics (AAR and, pozzolanic activity
tests) and to produce SLMs. This cement is similar to ASTM type III. Table 1 shows the PC chemical composition and the limits of NBR
16697 [26] for CPV-ARI.

2.1.2. Natural sand


Natural sand was used to make the SLMs. The grain dimensions varied from 0.6 mm to 0.3 mm, e.g. passing in 0.6 mm and retained
in 0.3 mm sieves. Natural sand has a specific surface area of 520 m2/kg (measured by BET), and a density of 2710 kg/m3 (measured by
Helium gas picnometer). Specific area was obtained by nitrogen adsorption, and surface area was determined by the BET method
(Belsorp Max equipment, Bel Japan).

2.1.3. Admixture
The admixture used was a superplasticizer Basf® Melment F10, in powder (sulfonated melamine).

2.1.4. Porcelain insulator waste (PIW)


PIW was obtained from a Brazilian insulator industry. The waste was ground by the following steps: 1. fragmented by a jaw crusher
and after by a hammer crusher; 2. grinding in a ball mill for 16 h until obtaining a powder having a fineness modulus of 0.9 (named
G1); 3. after this grinding process, different particle sizes intervals were selected by sieving G1.
The physical properties of PIW are presented in Table 2. The fineness was determined by sieving (material passing through a 75 μm
sieve) and by Blaine method [27]. Specific and surface area were determined according to methods and equipment described in item
2.1.2. The specific gravity was determined by Le Chatelier [28] and by using a gas helium pycnometer.

Table 1
Chemical analysis of Portland cement.

Determinations Results (%) Limits Determinations Results (%) Limits

CaO 61.62 - Na2O 0.47 -


SiO2 18.40 - TiO22 0.25 -
Al2O31 4.97 - Mn2O32 0.09 -
MgO 3.41 ≤6.5 LOI 3.52 ≤6.5
SO3 3.62 ≤ 4.51 IR (Insoluble Residue) 0.33 ≤3.5
Fe2O3 2.59 - CO23 1.99 -
K2 O 1.06 -
1
Tricalcium aluminate content (C3A) was obtained by: C3A = 2.65 x Al2O3 – 1.692 x Fe2O3 = 7.2%. C3A ≤ 8.0%, the limit of SO3 will be ≤ 3.5% and C3A > 8.0%, the
limit of SO3 will be ≤ 4.5%.
2
Chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF).
3
Gasometric determination.

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Table 2
Physical properties of PIW (G1).

Physical property Results

Fineness modulus 0.9


Fineness (material passing through 75 μm sieve) (%) 55.2
Blaine fineness (m2/kg) 437
Surface area Nitrogen adsorption (BET) (m2/kg) 660
Specific gravity Helium gas pycnometer (kg/m3) 2590
Le Chatelier (kg/m3) 2550

After the first grinding process (G1), PIW was divided into more 3 different particle diameters (G2, G3, and G4). The identifications
of each particle size tested are:
- G1 - grains obtained after the grinding process.
- G2 - G1 sieved, and grains retained on 75 μm sieve opening.
- G3 - G1 sieved, and grains passing 75 μm sieve opening.
- G4 - G1 sieved, and grains passing 45 μm sieve opening.
The particle size distributions of PIW G1, G2, G3, and G4 are presented in Fig. 1. The results showed that PIW had about 70%
particle sizes ranging from 1.2 mm to less than 75 μm after grinding. These different particle sizes were used to evaluate the PIW
characteristics.

2.2. SLM experimental mixtures


The SLM identification and design of the SLM experimental mixtures are shown in Table 3 and Table 4 shows the SLM specific area
and the specific gravity in powder.
The specific area and surface area were determined according to methods and equipment described in item 2.1.2. Two commercial
SLMs (CM1 and CM2) were used as a reference to compare properties with laboratory produced SLMs. An expressive difference was
observed between the surface areas of the commercial SLMs (CM1 and CM2) (Table 4). The mortars prepared in the laboratory had an
increase in the surface area with the increase of the replacement of the fine aggregate by PIW. The increase in the replacement of fine
aggregate by PIW also decreased the specific gravity of the SLM.

2.3. Methods
G1, G2, and G3 were subjected to the following tests: chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD),
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and pozzolanic activity index (PAI).
The pozzolanic capacity of G1, G2, G3, and G4 were studied by Chapelle method and mechanical tests (pozzolanic activity index).
To the development of pozzolanic reaction, the materials must have fineness and amorphous phase, which play an important role in
pozzolanic reaction [19]. The AAR test was performed in G1. This same G1 was used to make the SLMs.

2.3.1. Mortar mixture


The mortar was mechanically mixed using a Contenco equipment model Pavitest. The Water was put in the mixer bowl and the dry
material was put inside it with the mixer on. After that, the mortar was mixed for 5 min.

2.3.2. Chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF)


XRF was performed according to the general guidelines of ISO/FDIS 29,581-2 (E) [29]. The test was made to verify the number of
total alkalis present in PIW, and to analyze the potential for AAR formation.
The equipment used was a Panalytical model Minipal Cement (Na–U) XRF spectrometry, (Claisse model M4), using fluxes based on
lithium tetraborate/metaborate mixtures, brand Maxxiflux (66.67% Li2B4O7, 32.68% LiBO2, and 0.50% LiBr), with a sample of 0.6 g

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of PIW.

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Table 3
Identification and design of the SLM experimental mixtures.

Mortars Id. Water/solids ratio (w/s)2 Mix design3 PIW (%) Water/binder ratio (w/b) Admixture (%)
1
Commercial SLM 1 CM1 0.21 - - - 2.5
Commercial SLM 2 CM21
SLM Ref mortar RM 0.23 1:2:0 0 0.7
SLM 25% PIW PM25 1: 1.5:0.5 25 0.7
SLM 50% PIW PM50 1:1:1 50 0.7
SLM 75% PIW PM75 1:0.5:1.5 75 0.7
SLM 100% PIW PM100 0.25 1:0:2 100 0.75
1
The producers do not show the mix design.
2
Solids = Cement + PIW.
3
Cement:sand:PIW.

Table 4
Surface area and specific gravity of SLMs.

Mortars Surface area (m2/kg) Specific gravity (kg/m3)

CM1 490 2680


CM2 900 2606
RM 660 2708
PM25 740 2706
PM50 820 2740
PM75 740 2670
PM100 860 2640

and 6.75 g of flux.

2.3.3. X-ray diffraction (XDR)


XRD was made with a Rigaku model Windmax 2000, operating in the radiation Kα copper with 40 kV–20 mA, scan between 3◦ and
70◦ , and scan time of 1◦ /min. The mineralogical identification was determined with X-pert HighScore Plus software (2.2 version) of
Panalytical and diffractometric standards provided by ICCD (International Center for Diffraction Data).

2.3.4. Thermogravimetric analysis


Thermogravimetry (TG) and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) analysis were made in G1, G2, and G3 in powder state. The tests
were based on ASTM E794 [30] using TA Instrument equipment, model SDT 2960 Simultaneous. It was used an uncoated aluminum
crucible, with nitrogen (N2) flow rate of 50 mL/min and a thermal rate of 10 ◦ C/min until approximately 1000 ◦ C. Chemical compound
identifications were made using the Software TA Universal Analysis 2000.

2.3.5. Pozzolanic activity index (PAI) by Chapelle method and by pozzolanic activity (PA) by mechanical method
The PAI was determined by the Chapelle method [20]. This procedure aims to determine the potential of pozzolanic reaction of
material through the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) consumption. G1 and G4 were tested because these are thicker and thinner PIW
powders, respectively.
Chapelle method was performed as follows. Firstly, PIW, calcium oxide (CaO) and water free from CO2 were mixed. The mixture
was kept immersed in water at 90 ◦ C (±5 ◦ C) in an airtight container and it was shaken for 16 h (±1h), in accordance with NBR 15895
[20]. Thereafter, the material was removed and cooled in cold water to room temperature. Subsequently, sucrose solution (250 g/L)
was added and mechanically shaken in a Wagner rotary shaker for 15 min. After being shaken, the solution was filtered and titrated
with an HCl solution, using phenolphthalein solution (1 g/L).
The PA was determined with PC (mechanical method). The procedure was made in accordance with NBR 5752 [31]. The test

Table 5
Materials to determine the PA with Portland cement at 28 days age.

Material Mass (g)

MA MG11 MG41

PC 624 ± 0.4 468 ± 0.4


PIW - 156 ± 0.2
Sand 1872 1872
Water 300 ± 0.2 300 ± 0.2
Spread diameter (mm) (flow table) 2 179 185
Superplasticizer3 - 2%
1
Pozzolanic material previously mixed and homogenized with PC.
2
NBR 13276 [7].
3
Superplasticizer used to obtain a flow similar to that presented by MA (179 ± 10 mm).

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

consists of replacing PC with pozzolanic material, testing the compressive strength in mortars at 28 days, and also comparing with a
reference mortar prepared with PC (named MA). Compressive strength tests were performed in a Mohr & Federhaff machine BPP 20/2
(maximum load of 20,000 kN). Tests were made with PIW fineness G1 and G4. Reference mortar was denominated MA, and the
mortars with PIW were named MG1 and MG4.
Table 5 shows the materials and their quantity used to determine PA with PC at 28 days. Superplasticizer admixture was used on
MG1 and MG4 to maintain the same spread diameter of MA (179 mm ± 10 mm).

2.3.6. Alkali content and alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR)


PIW alkalis content was determined by XRF. The total equivalent alkalis content present in PIW was determined from the per­
centages of sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium oxide (K2O) presented in XRF test (Equation (1)).
Na2 Oequiv = Na2 O + 0.658 K2 O Equation 1

The available alkali content was determined according to Brazilian standard NBR NM 25 [32]. The test consists of quantifying the
content of alkali released during the reaction of pozzolan with Ca(OH)2 [32]. The method is used to determine only the available
alkalis presented in pozzolan that can potentially react.
The alkali content (total equivalent and available) presented in PIW was compared with the limits established by NBR 12653
(ABNT, 2008) and ASTM C618 [21] which prescribe the maximum content of alkalis available in pozzolans of 1.5%.
Brazilian standards NBR NM 25 [32] and NBR 12653 [33] also prescribe that the sulfuric anhydride (SO3) content must be lower
than 5.0%.
Table 6 shows the materials and quantities used to make the AAR test. The Brazilian standard NBR 15577-4 [34] prescribes a
water/cement ratio (w/c) of 0.47 to make the AAR test. The mortars containing PIW did not reach the required workability and a w/c
ratio of 0.70 was used.
Three prismatic specimens with dimensions of 25 mm × 25 mm × 305 mm were molded (Fig. 2). Immediately after molding, the
specimens still in the molds (Fig. 2a) were placed in a humidity chamber for 24 h. After demolding (Fig. 2b), the specimens were
immersed in a deionized water tank at 23 ◦ C (±2 ◦ C). The temperature was raised to 80 ◦ C for 6 h, and the specimens remained in hot
water for 18 h. After this period, the lengths of the specimens were measured, named L0. Then, the specimens remained in containers
with water at 80 ◦ C, and the dimensional change analyses were made at 3, 6, 10, 13, 16, 20, 24, 27, and 30 days. The final dimensional
change was expressed in percentage (%) concerning the original specimen length (L0) [26].

2.3.7. Spread diameter


The spread diameter tests were made with a conical mold with dimensions of 70–160 mm in diameter and 60 mm in height. Fig. 3a
shows the dimensions of the conical mold. Fig. 3b illustrates the molding removal containing SLM to determine the spread diameter of
SLMs, which was performed 30 s after molding.

2.3.8. Mortar density and entrapped air in fresh state


The test was made using a cylinder of volume 399 cm3. Density in fresh state was determined by Equation (2). Tests were per­
formed according to the NBR 13278 [25].
mc − mv
d= × 100 Equation 2
vr

Where: d = density in fresh state (kg/m3), mc = cylinder mass filled with mortar (kg), mv = cylinder weight (1418 kg), and vr =
cylinder volume (m3).
The density result was used to calculate the entrapped air by Equation (3).
( )
d
A = 100 1 − Equation 3
dt

Where: A = entrapped air (%), d = mortar density (kg/m3); dt = theoretical mortar density (no voids) (kg/m3) which was calculated by
Equation (4).

mi
dt = ∑ mi Equation 4
δi

Where: mi = dry mass of the mortar components plus the water mass; and δi = water mass.

Table 6
Materials to alkali-aggregate reaction tests.

Material Weight (g)

Portland cement 440


PIW 990
Water 308
Water/cement ratio 0.70

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Fig. 2. AAR: (a) casting, (b) hardened specimens, and (c) equipment to expansion measurement.

Fig. 3. Scheme of spread diameter test: a) cylindrical mold and b) illustrative scheme of the test and spread diameters measures.

2.3.9. Density in the hardened state, compressive and flexural strengths


Density in hardened state was calculated from the dry mass divided by the volume of the specimen. Specimens were oven-dried at
100 ◦ C ± 3 ◦ C for 24 h before the mass and measurement determinations. Compressive strength and flexural strength were determined
using an Emic DL machine (maximum load of 100 kN).
To density in hardened state and mechanical tests, three prismatic specimens (40 mm × 160 mm × 160 mm) of each composition
were molded. The specimens were cured in total water immersion until the testing age (7 days).

Table 7
Porcelain waste chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF).

Elemental composition (%) G1 G2 G3

SiO2 74.70 74.90 74.50


Al2O3 17.30 17.70 17.30
K2 O 3.70 3.70 3.74
Na2O 1.54 1.55 1.51
Fe2O3 0.90 0.80 0.90
CaO 0.50 0.50 0.60
SO3 0.10 0.10 -
TiO2 0.20 0.20 0.20
LOI* 0.96 0.42 1.28
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 92.90 93.40 92.70
*
LOI – Loss on ignition.

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

3. Results and discussion


3.1. PIW characterization
3.1.1. Chemical analysis
Table 7 presents the XRF results of PIW. PIW is mainly compound of silicon oxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and potassium
oxide (K2O). Other chemical compounds were verified in lower contents.
Based on ASTM C618 [21] and NBR 12653 [35] a pozzolan needs to present a SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 content equal to or higher than
70%, considering the total oxides of the material. XRF results revealed that PIW presented a quantity of silica, aluminum, and iron
oxides higher than the minimum values (Table 7), indicating the pozzolanic potential. Higashiyama et al. [13] stated that PIW con­
taining values of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 equal to 92.81%, which is similar to the values obtained in this study (Table 7).

3.1.2. Mineralogical composition


Table 8 shows the mineralogical composition of PIW. The main mineral phases observed in the material were quartz (Q), mullite
(M), corundum (C), and zinc (Z).
The zinc in low quantity, observed by diffractometry, is resulted from the glaze used on electrical insulator surface treatment [36].
The quartz probably comes from clay, a raw material used in high quantities to produce the porcelain electrical insulators. The mullite
was formed during the burning process [8]. Mullite is artificially obtained from reactive powders rich in quartz (SiO2) and alumina
(Al2O3) sintering at temperatures higher than 1400 ◦ C, forming a crystalline structure [37]. The corundum is an aluminum oxide-based
mineral (mica group), usually associated with alumina-oversaturated basic igneous rocks with low silica content. This material is the
most common form of alumina (Al2O3), whose structural formula is α-Al2O3, and it is the main responsible for the mechanical
properties of porcelain electrical insulators [38].
Figs. 4–6 show the XRD results of PIW. The minerals that compound PIW varies according to the mineralogical constitution of the
raw material, which varies depending on region [8].
The presence of an amorphous halo was observed in all the powders, independently of particle size. The amorphous halo, designed
as "Bragg’s halo”, is located between angles 17◦ and 31◦ 2θ, indicating the presence of an amorphous phase, showing that the material
may have pozzolanic properties [39,40]. The amorphous halo in PIW was also stated byShiroma [22] in angles between 15◦ and 34◦
2θ, a result similar to that verified in the present work (2θ between 17◦ and 31).

3.1.3. Thermogravimetric analysis


TGA of G1, G2, and G3 powders are shown in Fig. 7. All the specimens presented a very small loss of mass because the temperatures
used during porcelain production are high (~800 ◦ C to 1800 ◦ C). So, the phases present in PIW were already sintered [41]. The low
mass loss of PIW in the thermal analysis was expected, once the test was performed at a temperature lower than the one applied during
the porcelain insulator manufacturing process. The low mass losses PIW indicate that the minerals were fully synthesized, indicating
their potential for use as an aggregate in cementitious materials due to their inert characteristics.
There was a mass loss at the temperature of ~50 ◦ C derived from the free water. A second mass loss was observed at ~200 ◦ C, which
is commonly observed in clays, derived from some not synthesized material. At the temperature range of ~600 ◦ C there was a mass loss
derived from the decarbonation, which may have been caused by the presence of CaO that hydrated with moisture, becoming Ca(OH)2
and, subsequently, having carbonated with CO2 present in the atmosphere.
From TGA, the percentage mass loss was determined (Fig. 8). The increase in the powder fineness resulted in a slightly decreased
mass loss. G2 had a DTG peak at approximately 200 ◦ C, which was lower than the verified in G1 and G3. The difference is due to the
increase in surface area, which caused a higher surface contact area, increasing the humidity in G2 (T~50 ◦ C). It also caused a higher
contact surface to the temperature act on the particles, causing higher loss of combined water (T~200 ◦ C) and decarbonation
(T~600 ◦ C). Similar behavior was also observed comparing the G2 and G3 particle sizes, decreasing particle size increased mass loss
(Fig. 8).

3.1.4. Pozzolanic activity index (PAI) and pozzolanic activity (PA) by mechanical method
The results of the pozzolanic activity index (PAI by Chapelle method of PIW varied with the particle size (Fig. 9). There was an
increase in the consumption of Ca(OH)2 in powders with lower particle sizes, which means that PIW had a typical behavior of
pozzolan, consuming silica and forming C–S–H [42].
G2 (sample with the largest number of larger particles) had the lowest content of Ca(OH)2 consumption. It occurred because the
pozzolanic rate depends on particle size [19,43]. The results of PAI are in accordance with the amorphous halos observed in XRD
results.
Raverdy et al. [44] stated that a material can be considered pozzolanic when it has a CaO consumption of 330 mg CaO/g. From the

Table 8
Porcelain waste mineral composition.

Symbol Composite ICCD Code Chemical composition

Q Quartz 01-085-0796 SiO2


M Mullite 01-083-1881 Al4+2xSi2-2xO10 (x≈0.4)
C Corundum 00-005-0712 Al2O3
Z Zinc 01-089-7102 Zn

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Fig. 4. X-ray diffraction of PIW G1.

Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction of PIW G2.

Fig. 6. X-ray diffraction of PIW G3.

stoichiometric transformation to the consumption of Ca(OH)2, the value obtained is 436 mg of Ca(OH)2/g [45]. Thus, the particle size
named G3 is practically considered a pozzolanic material, and G4 is a pozzolan. The results confirm the data obtained by Fernades et al.
[46]. The authors used the electrical conductivity method to confirm that PIW has pozzolanic properties.
Fig. 10 shows the compressive strength results of mortars to evaluate the pozzolanic activity by mechanical method. The results
showed that the particle size of PIW affected the compressive strength of mortars. The replacement of PC by PIW in MG1 resulted in the
lowest compressive strength. G1 has PIW with larger particles (>75 μm), which prevented the pozzolanic reaction. The decrease in the
compressive strength is due to the lower PC content in mortar, with the addition of an inert material (PIW with large particles).
Differently, MG4 had an increase in the compressive strength of approximately 27% when compared to MA. The higher mechanical
strength is a result of the pozzolanic reaction that generates higher contents of C–S–H gel in the microstructure of mortars [47]. With
the lower particle size, PIW had pozzolan properties; even with the reduction of PC content, C–S–H gel was formed through a
pozzolanic reaction.
The pozzolanic activity indicated by the mechanical method and the amorphous halo observed in the XRD revealed the pozzolanic
potential of PIW, which is also influenced by the particle size.

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Fig. 7. Thermogravimetric analysis (TG/DTG) of the PIW: G1, G2 and G3.

Fig. 8. Results of G1, G2 and G3 weight loss by TG analysis.

Fig. 9. Results of pozzolanic index of the porcelain waste by Chapelle method.

3.1.5. Alkalis content and alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR)


AAR in cementitious materials is developed due to the presence of reactivity aggregates with alkalis available to react. XRF revealed
that the sodium oxide (Na2O) contents were equal to 1.54%, 1.55%, and 1.51% for G1, G2, and G3, respectively. The total alkali
content (Na2O + K2O) was calculated and defined as around 4% (Table 9). However, the content of available alkalis was lower than

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Fig. 10. Pozzolanic activity index of PIW.

Table 9
Equivalent alkali content and available alkalis in PIW.

Particle sizes G1 G2 G3

Total oxides (Na2Oequiv) (%) 3.79 3.98 3.97


Oxides Available alkali (%) Na2Oequiv in terms of available alkali (%)
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.42 0.97
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.84

prescribed by NBR 12653 [35] and ASTM C618 [21], which establish that pozzolans must have an available alkali content ≤1.5%. This
result is important because the available alkalis are those that can effectively react with the aggregates. The alkali equivalent from the
total alkali content (Table 9) was lower than the limit prescribed by the Standards [21,35].
The dimensional changes of the mortar prepared with PIW to verify the AAR potential are shown in Fig. 11.
The Brazilian standard NBR 15777-1 [48] prescribes that the material can be considered inert when the longitudinal dimensional
change is lower than 0.19%, considering the initial length.
The results showed that PIW is not reactive when mixed with PC, with an expansion of 0.05% at 30 days age. Even though the PIW
can contributes to increasing the free alkali content in the system, the mortar with PIW did not have expansion. PIW can be considered
as innocuous material, without presenting potential to cause AAR.

3.2. SLMs containing PIW


3.2.1. Fresh properties: spread diameter, entrapped air, and density
Images of the spread diameter of SLMs evaluated in this study are presented in Fig. 12. The SLMs did not show exudation and/or
segregation, which indicates that the SLMs were able to flow without losing their homogeneity.
SLMs are susceptible to segregation, which is result of the separation of the aggregates from the paste when the mortar is flowing.
However, exudation (separation of the water from the solid particles) is more usual. Fig. 12 revealed that the SLMs had high stability.
None of the mortars presented a "halo" of water on borders after spreading, indicating the maintenance of the homogeneity with the
replacement of sand by PIW [49].
Considering the spread diameter value (Fig. 13), the SLMs prepared with PIW had values in the range indicated by Barluenga and
olivares [43]; which is from 250 mm to 350 mm. Only the sample CM2 had fluidity out of the indicated range, presenting a spread
diameter of 400 mm.
There was a slight tendency to a decrease in the spread diameter of the SLMs with PIW content increasing. Fig. 13 does not clearly
represent this trend because the w/c ratio of PM100 was increased to 0.75 to achieve a spread diameter within the pre-established
range (250 mm–350 mm). The decrease in the spread diameter with the increase in the replacement of sand by PIW is caused by
the lower dimension particles of PIW.
The lower dimensions of PIW when compared to the sand particles increased the surface area of the PIW mortars, affecting the
water necessary to cover the particles and provide mobility of the mixture [50].
CCM1 and CM2 were prepared with the same water/solids ratio (21%), but CM2 resulted in a larger spread diameter, although this
mortar presented a surface area almost twice higher than the surface area of CM1. The higher fluidity is related to the properties and
proportions of the materials used in SLM production.
The results of entrapped air and density in the fresh state of the SLMs are shown in Fig. 14.
SLMs prepared in the laboratory presented higher entrapped air content than the commercial ones (CM1 and CM2). There was no
clear tendency in the behavior of the entrapped air content as a function of the increase in PIW content of SLMs. The mixture containing
25% of PIW had a higher entrapped air content; however, there was a decrease in entrapped air content with the increase of 50% and
75% of replacement of the fine aggregate by PIW. The mortar prepared with 100% PIW had an increase in the entrapped air content. In

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Fig. 11. Potential to alkali-aggregate reaction of PIW.

Fig. 12. Visual aspect of SLMs during the spread diameter test.

Fig. 13. Spread diameter of SLMs.

general, it was found that the replacement of natural sand by PIW tends to increase the entrapped air content, with a maximum
difference of approximately 5%, considering PM25 when compared to RM.
The higher content of entrapped air in mortars containing PIW is due to the particle morphology. Natural sand generally presents
more rounded and more symmetrical shapes, while the crushing and grinding process of the PIW tends to generate more irregular
particles with angular shapes, causing an increase in the content of entrapped air [51].

3.2.2. Hardened properties: density, compressive and flexural strengths


Fig. 15 also shows the density results of SLMs in the fresh state. All the SLMs containing PIW presented lower density in the fresh
state when compared to mortar made with natural sand (RM), which is due to the lower specific mass of sand. The decrease in density
in the fresh state in SLMs with PIW is also associated with the entrapped air increase.
The PIW addition caused a decrease in the density of SLMs in the hardened state (Fig. 15). The total replacement of sand by PIW
caused a decrease of approximately 14% in the density of the SLM in the hardened state. The lower density in the hardened state

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Fig. 14. Entrapped air content and density of SLMs in fresh state.

Fig. 15. SLM density in hardened state.

presented by SLMs prepared with PIW is also a result of difference between the specific masses of PIW and sand. The entrapped air
content also influenced the density in the hardened state. SLMs with PIW had a larger number of voids, resulting in lower density.
Fig. 16 shows the correlation of powder density, density in the fresh state, and entrapped air with density in the hardened state.
Despite the low coefficients obtained by the correlations (R2 = 0.15, R2 = 0.63, and R2 = 0.47, respectively), it is evident that the
density in the hardened state is influenced by the specific mass of the PIW, density in the fresh state, and also by the entrapped air
content. Fig. 16a shows that the density in the hardened state decreased with a lower specific mass of the mortar in the powdered state.
Similar behavior was verified in the correlation between the densities of the mortars in the fresh and hardened states (Fig. 16b).
The SLMs containing PIW presented higher mechanical strength (compressive and flexural strengths) than commercial mortars
made with natural sand (Fig. 17), observed until the content of 75%. The decrease in mechanical strength (compressive and flexural
strengths) of SLM containing 100% of PIW was caused by the higher w/c ratio used in this mortar.
The flexural strength of SLMs did not have a significant change until the PIW content of 75% (Fig. 17). There was a decrease in the
flexural strength of CM100, which is due to the higher w/c ratio employed in this sample.
PIW had a lower specific gravity than the fine aggregate and this may have caused a decrease in the density of mortars in the fresh
and hardened states, but increased the SLM mechanical strength with higher PIW contents (Fig. 18a). This may be associated with a
better particle packing, once PIW has a lower particle diameter than natural sand. The lower particle size of PIW contributed to better
particle packing, reducing the voids and improving the mechanical strength. The flexural strength increased with the density
increasing (Fig. 18b).
SLMs are often used for subflooring and their required compressive in usual situations is lower than 10 MPa [43]. All the SLMs
evaluated in the present study developed the minimum compressive strength for floor application.

4. Conclusions
The present paper characterized the porcelain insulator waste (PIW), focusing its use on self-leveling mortar (SLM).

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Fig. 16. Correlation of: a) Specific gravity in powder state vs density in the hardened state, b) Density in fresh state vs density in the hardened state and c) Voids vs
density in the hardened state.

Fig. 17. Compressive and flexural strengths.

PIW is mainly composed of quartz, corundum, mullite, and zinc. Mineralogical tests indicated that PIW has amorphous phases. The
reactivity of these amorphous phases was proven by pozzolanic activity index test and by the increase in compressive strength.
Pozzolanic activity index of PIW depended on its fineness (the thinner the more reactive).
Chemical analysis indicated that PIW presents total alkali content higher than prescribed by some standards; however, the free
alkalis meet the limit prescribed by the standards. Despite the high alkali content, the test of AAR revealed that the PIW is potential
innocuous material with low dimensions changes, according to the standard limits.
The results obtained in the study showed that PIW has the potential to be used as supplementary cementitious material, resulting in
a durable material with pozzolan reactions and no AAR.
SLM containing PIW did not have segregation or bleeding, resulting in stable material. Entrapped air in SLM with PIW increased
and densities of SLM with PIW in fresh and hardened states are lower than reference, which was expected due to the waste low specific
gravity (powder). The mechanical properties are improved when sand was replaced by PIW. This can be explained by the roughness
and fineness of the PIW particles, and better particle packing.

Author statement
Conceptualization, Valdir Moraes Pereira and Gladis Camarini; Data curation, Valdir Moraes Pereira; Formal analysis, Valdir

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V.M. Pereira et al. Journal of Building Engineering 61 (2022) 105297

Fig. 18. Relationship between: a) Density in the hardned state and compressive strength and b) Density in the hardned state and flexural strength.

Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini; Funding acquisition, Valdir Moraes Pereira and Gladis Camarini;
Investigation, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini; Methodology, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Raphael
Baldusco, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini; Project administration, Valdir Moraes Pereira and Gladis Camarini; Re­
sources, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Raphael Baldusco and Gladis Camarini; Software, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo;
Supervision, Gladis Camarini; Validation, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini; Visualization, Valdir
Moraes Pereira and Gladis Camarini; Writing – original draft, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo, and Gladis Camarini;
Writing – review & editing, Valdir Moraes Pereira, Rodrigo Henrique Geraldo and Gladis Camarini.

Declaration of competing interest


The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Foundation of the Technological Research Institute of the State of São Paulo (FIPT) for funding the Tech­
nological Initiation on Research Grant (awarded 06/2015), to the Laboratory of Buildings Materials of Institute for Technological
Research (LMCC-IPT) in special to Alexandre Rodolfo Cunha de Souza and Eduardo Leão Rocha (in memorian). The authors thank
Espaço da Escrita – Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa - UNICAMP - for the language services provided.

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