COMS 2014A / 2020A

Computer Networks

Mr. Gift Khangamwa

Office: TWK MSB UG05

Introduc
tion: 1-1
Lecture 1
▪ Networks basics
▪ What is the internet
• a network of networks, platform etc
▪ Network edge
▪ Network core
▪ Wireshark
▪ Slides adapted from prescribed Textbook authors version and some
from Prof. A. Mislove

Introduction: 1-2
Chapter 1: introduction
Chapter goal: Lectures 1 and 2 roadmap:
▪ Get “feel,” “big picture,” ▪ What is a computer network? What is
introduction to terminology the Internet? What is a protocol?
• more depth, detail later in ▪ Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
course
▪ Network core: packet/circuit switching,
internet structure
▪ Performance: loss, delay, throughput
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ Security
▪ History

Introduction: 1-3
What is a
Computer
network ?

Virtual computer network created using GNS3 Introduc

tion: 1-4
 ▪ Motivation for ▪ Design approaches for
Computer networking devices. networks. How?
network: Why?
• Communication
• Star , bus, ring etc

nature, • Sharing
▪ Classification by scale.
character How?
▪ Components of a • LAN, PAN
network. What? • MAN
▪ Computing • WAN
devices • Internet
▪ Connectors
▪ Protocols,
standards

Introd
uction
: 1-5
The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
Billions of connected mobile network
computing devices: national or global ISP
▪ hosts = end systems
▪ running network apps at
Internet’s “edge”

Packet switches: forward

local or
packets (chunks of data) Internet
regional ISP
▪ routers, switches
home network content
Communication links provider
network datacenter
▪ fiber, copper, radio, satellite network

▪ transmission rate: bandwidth

Networks enterprise
▪ collection of devices, routers, network
links: managed by an organization
Introduction: 1-6
“Fun” Internet-connected devices
Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use

bikes

Pacemaker & Monitor

Amazon Echo Web-enabled toaster +

IP picture frame
weather forecaster
Internet
refrigerator
Slingbox: remote cars
control cable TV
Security Camera AR devices
sensorized, scooters
bed
mattress

Gaming devices
Others?
Internet phones Fitbit
Introduction: 1-7
The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
4G
▪ Internet: “network of networks” national or global ISP

• Interconnected ISPs
Streaming
▪ protocols are everywhere Skype
IP
video
• control sending, receiving of
messages local or
regional ISP
• e.g., HTTP (Web), streaming video,
Skype, TCP, IP, WiFi, 4G, Ethernet home network content
provider
HTTP network datacenter
▪ Internet standards network
Ethernet
• RFC: Request for Comments
• IETF: Internet Engineering Task enterprise
TCP

Force network

WiFi
Introduction: 1-8
The Internet: a “services” view
▪ Infrastructure that provides mobile network

services to applications: national or global ISP

• Web, streaming video, multimedia

teleconferencing, email, games, e- Streaming
commerce, social media, inter- Skype video
connected appliances, … local or
regional ISP
▪ provides programming interface
to distributed applications: home network content
provider
• “hooks” allowing sending/receiving HTTP network datacenter

apps to “connect” to, use Internet

network

transport service
• provides service options, analogous enterprise
to postal service network

Introduction: 1-9
What’s a protocol?
Human protocols: Network protocols:
▪ “what’s the time?” ▪ computers (devices) rather than humans
▪ “I have a question” ▪ all communication activity in Internet
▪ introductions governed by protocols
▪ Open and proprietary
Rules for:
… specific messages sent Protocols define the format, order of
… specific actions taken messages sent and received among
when message received, network entities, and actions taken
or other events on message transmission, receipt

Introduction: 1-10
What’s a protocol?
A human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? GET http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

Introduction: 1-11
 Protocols: Organizing Network Functionality

• Many kinds of networking functionality

– e.g., encoding, framing, routing, addressing, reliability, etc.
• Many different network styles and technologies
– circuit-switched vs packet-switched, etc.
– wireless vs wired vs optical, etc.
• Many different applications
– ftp, email, web, P2P, etc.

• Network architecture
– How should different pieces be organized?
– How should different pieces interact?

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University 12

 Protocols: problem

Application SMTP SSH FTP HTTP

Transmission Coaxial Fiber Packet

Media cable optic radio

• new application has to interface to all existing media

– adding new application requires O(m) work, m = number of media
• new media requires all existing applications be modified
– adding new media requires O(a) work, a = number of applications

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University

3
 Recall: Software Modularity

Break system into modules:

• Well-defined interfaces gives flexibility

– can change implementation of modules
– can extend functionality of system by adding new modules

• Interfaces hide information

– allows for flexibility
– but can hurt performance

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University 6

 Network Modularity

Like software modularity, but with a twist:

• Implementation distributed across routers and hosts

• Must decide both:

– how to break system into modules
– where modules are implemented

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University 7

 Protocol Layering

• Layering is a particular form of modularization

• The system is broken into a vertical hierarchy of

logically distinct entities (layers)

• The service provided by one layer is based solely

on the service provided by layer below

• Rigid structure: easy reuse, performance suffers

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University 9

 Layering cencept

• Layering
– how to break network functionality into modules
– Each layer to offer a service to the layer above

• The End-to-End Argument

– where to implement functionality across the
layers from sender to receiver

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University 8

 ISO OSI Reference Model

• ISO – International Standard Organization

• OSI – Open System Interconnection
• Goal: a general open standard
• allow vendors to enter the market by using their own
implementation and protocols
• Not as successful as the TCP/IP protocol stack
• More academic and good as an instruction tool

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University 10

 ISO OSI Reference Model
• Seven layers
– Lower two layers are peer-to-peer
– Network layer involves multiple switches
– Next four layers are end-to-end

Host 1 Intermediate switch Host 2

Application Application
Presentation Presentation Not found
Session Session in TCP/IP
Transport Transport
Runs in
Network Network Network
network
hardware Datalink Datal ink Datalink
Physical Physi cal Physical
Physical medium A Physical medium B

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University 11

 Layering Solves Problem

• Application layer doesn’t know about anything below

the presentation layer, etc.

• Information about network is hidden from higher

layers

• This ensures that we only need to implement an

application once!

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University 12

 Key Concepts

• Service – says what a layer does

– Ethernet: unreliable subnet unicast/multicast/broadcast
datagram service
– IP: unreliable end-to-end unicast datagram service
– TCP: reliable end-to-end bi-directional byte stream service
– Guaranteed bandwidth/latency unicast service
• Service Interface – says how to access the service
– E.g. UNIX socket interface
• Protocol – says how is the service implemented
– a set of rules and formats that govern the communication
between two peers

Alan Mislove amislove at ccs.neu.edu Northeastern University

13
Introduction: 1-22
HTTP3
Reference For
Comments
WIFI

RFCs

Introduction: 1-24
 ISO/OSI reference model
Two layers not found in Internet
application
protocol stack! (TCP/IP)
presentation
▪ presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., encryption, session
compression, machine-specific conventions transport
▪ session: synchronization, checkpointing, network
recovery of data exchange link
▪ Internet stack “missing” these layers!
physical
• these services, if needed, must be
implemented in application The seven layer OSI/ISO
reference model
• needed?
Introduction: 1-25
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
▪ Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
▪ Performance: loss, delay, throughput
▪ Security
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ History
Introduction: 1-26
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

▪ hosts: clients and servers

▪ servers often in data centers
local or
regional ISP

home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-27
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

▪ hosts: clients and servers

▪ servers often in data centers
local or
Access networks, physical media: regional ISP

▪wired, wireless communication links home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-28
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

▪ hosts: clients and servers

▪ servers often in data centers
local or
Access networks, physical media: regional ISP

▪wired, wireless communication links home network content

provider
network datacenter

Network core: network

▪ interconnected routers
▪ network of networks enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-29
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end systems to mobile network

edge router? national or global ISP

▪ residential access nets i.e internet to the

home
▪ institutional access networks (school,
company)
▪ mobile access networks (WiFi, 4G/5G) local or
regional ISP

home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-30
Access networks: cable-based access
cable headend

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing (FDM): different channels transmitted in

different frequency bands
Introduction: 1-31
Access networks: cable-based access
cable headend

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system
data, TV transmitted at different
frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

▪ HFC: hybrid fiber coax

• asymmetric: up to 40 Mbps – 1.2 Gbps downstream transmission rate, 30-100 Mbps
upstream transmission rate
▪ network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
• homes share access network to cable headend
Introduction: 1-32
Access networks: digital subscriber line (DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

voice, data transmitted ISP

at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

▪ use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

• data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
• voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
▪ 24-52 Mbps dedicated downstream transmission rate
▪ 3.5-16 Mbps dedicated upstream transmission rate
Introduction: 1-33
Access networks: home networks
Wireless and wired
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

WiFi wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54, 450 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (1 Gbps)
Introduction: 1-34
Wireless access networks
Shared wireless access network connects end system to router
▪ via base station aka “access point”

Wireless local area networks Wide-area cellular access networks

(WLANs) ▪ provided by mobile, cellular network
▪ typically within or around operator (10’s km)
building (~100 ft) ▪ 10’s Mbps
▪ 802.11b/g/n (WiFi): 11, 54, 450 ▪ 4G cellular networks (5G )
Mbps transmission rate

to Internet
to Internet
Introduction: 1-35
Access networks: enterprise networks

Enterprise link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router
Ethernet institutional mail,
switch web servers

▪ companies, universities, etc.

▪ mix of wired, wireless link technologies, connecting a mix of switches
and routers (we’ll cover differences shortly)
▪ Ethernet: wired access at 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps
▪ WiFi: wireless access points at 11, 54, 450 Mbps
Introduction: 1-36
Access networks: data center networks
mobile network
▪ high-bandwidth links (10s to 100s national or global ISP
Gbps) connect hundreds to thousands
of servers together, and to Internet

local or
regional ISP

home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

Courtesy: Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing enterprise

Center (mghpcc.org) network

Introduction: 1-37
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
▪ takes application message
▪ breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
known as packets, of length L bits L bits each

▪ transmits packet into access

2 1
network at transmission rate R
• link transmission rate, aka link host
capacity, aka link bandwidth R: link transmission rate

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
Introduction: 1-38
Links: physical media
▪ bit: propagates between Twisted pair (TP)
transmitter/receiver pairs
▪ two insulated copper wires
▪ physical link: what lies • Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps Ethernet
between transmitter & • Category 6: 10Gbps Ethernet
receiver
▪ guided media:
• signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
▪ unguided media:
• signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction: 1-39
Links: physical media
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
▪ two concentric copper conductors ▪ glass fiber carrying light pulses, each
pulse a bit
▪ bidirectional
▪ high-speed operation:
▪ broadband: • high-speed point-to-point
• multiple frequency channels on cable transmission (10’s-100’s Gbps)
• 100’s Mbps per channel ▪ low error rate:
• repeaters spaced far apart
• immune to electromagnetic noise

Introduction: 1-40
Links: physical media
Wireless radio Radio link types:
▪ signal carried in various ▪ Wireless LAN (WiFi)
“bands” in electromagnetic • 10-100’s Mbps; 10’s of meters
spectrum ▪ wide-area (e.g., 4G cellular)
▪ no physical “wire” • 10’s Mbps over ~10 Km
▪ broadcast, “half-duplex” ▪ Bluetooth: cable replacement
(sender to receiver)
• short distances, limited rates
▪ propagation environment
effects: ▪ terrestrial microwave
• reflection • point-to-point; 45 Mbps channels
• obstruction by objects ▪ satellite
• Interference/noise • up to 45 Mbps per channel
• 270 msec end-end delay
Introduction: 1-41
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
▪ Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
▪ Performance: loss, delay, throughput
▪ Security
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ History
Introduction: 1-42
The network core
▪ mesh of interconnected routers mobile network
national or global ISP
▪ packet-switching: hosts break
application-layer messages into
packets
• network forwards packets from one local or
regional ISP
router to the next, across links on
path from source to destination home network content
provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-43
 Two key network-core functions

routing algorithm Routing:

Forwarding: local
local forwarding
forwarding table
table
▪ global action:
header value output link determine source-
▪ aka “switching” 0100 3
destination paths
▪ local action:
0101 2
0111 2
taken by packets
move arriving 1001 1

packets from ▪ routing algorithms

router’s input link 1
to appropriate
router output link 3 2

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction: 1-44
routing

Introduction: 1-45
 forwarding
forwarding

Introduction: 1-46
 Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet
3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

▪ packet transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to One-hop numerical example:

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R bps ▪ L = 10 Kbits
▪ store and forward: entire packet must arrive at ▪ R = 100 Mbps
router before it can be transmitted on next link ▪ one-hop transmission delay
= 0.1 msec

Introduction: 1-47
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Queueing occurs when work arrives faster than it can be serviced:

Introduction: 1-48
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link exceeds
transmission rate (bps) of link for some period of time:
▪ packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link
▪ packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills up
Introduction: 1-49
Alternative to packet switching: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to,
reserved for “call” between source
and destination
▪ in diagram, each link has four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
▪ dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
▪ circuit segment idle if not used by call (no
sharing)
▪ commonly used in traditional telephone networks

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive
Introduction: 1-50
Circuit switching: FDM and TDM
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) 4 users

frequency
▪ optical, electromagnetic frequencies
divided into (narrow) frequency
bands
▪ each call allocated its own band, can
transmit at max rate of that narrow time
band

frequency
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
▪ time divided into slots
▪ each call allocated periodic slot(s), can
transmit at maximum rate of (wider) time
frequency band (only) during its time
slot(s) Introduction: 1-51
Packet switching versus circuit switching
example:
▪ 1 Gb/s link
• (1 Gb/s =1000Mbps) N
▪ each user: users 1 Gbps link
• 100 Mb/s when “active”
• active 10% of time

Q: how many users can use this network under circuit-switching and packet switching?

▪ circuit-switching: 10 users
▪ packet switching: with 35 users, Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10 active at same time
is less than .0004 *
A: HW problem (for those with
course in probability only)

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive
Introduction: 1-52
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner”?
▪ great for “bursty” data – sometimes has data to send, but at other times not
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
▪ excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss due to buffer overflow
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control
▪ Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior with packet-switching?
• “It’s complicated.” We’ll study various techniques that try to make packet
switching as “circuit-like” as possible.

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching) versus

on-demand allocation (packet switching)?
Introduction: 1-53
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
mobile network
▪ hosts connect to Internet via access national or global ISP
Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
▪ access ISPs in turn must be
interconnected
• so that any two hosts (anywhere!) local or
regional ISP
can send packets to each other
▪ resulting network of networks is
home network content
provider
very complex network datacenter
network

• evolution driven by economics, enterprise

national policies network

Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure

Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-55
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP to

each other directly doesn’t scale:
access
access
net O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-56
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-57
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net ISP A

access
net ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-58
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors …. who will
want to be connected
Internet exchange point
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-59
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPs

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-60
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai) may
run their own network, to bring services, content close to end users
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net ISP A

Content provider network

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-61
 Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google
IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

At “center”: small # of well-connected large networks

▪ “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national & international coverage
▪ content provider networks (e.g., Google, Facebook): private network that connects its
data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs
Introduction: 1-62
 Wireshark: Labs
application
(www browser,
packet
email client)
analyzer
• Packet sniffer application

• Capture packets OS
packet Transport (TCP/UDP)
• Analyse packets Network (IP)
capture copy of all
Ethernet frames Link (Ethernet)
(pcap) sent/received
Physical

Introduction: 1-63
See you in lecture 2

Introduction: 1-64
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
▪ Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
▪ Performance: loss, delay, throughput
▪ Security
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ History
Introduction: 1-65