The Journal of Sex Research

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The relation between early abuse and adult

sexuality

Cindy M. Meston , Julia R. Heiman & Paul D. Trapnell

To cite this article: Cindy M. Meston , Julia R. Heiman & Paul D. Trapnell (1999) The relation
between early abuse and adult sexuality, The Journal of Sex Research, 36:4, 385-395, DOI:
10.1080/00224499909552011

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Published online: 11 Jan 2010.

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 The Relation Between Early Abuse andAdult Sexuality
Cindy M. Meston
University of Texas at Austin
Julia R. Heiman
University of Washington

Paul D. Trapnell
Ohio State University at Mansfield

One thousand and thirty-two (566 non-Asian; 466 Asian) undergraduates were assessed in a confidential laboratory set-
ting regarding levels of physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and a wide range of sexuality variables. The
purpose was to examine relationships between specific forms of early abuse and later adult sexuality, and to assess poten-
tial gender and ethnic differences in these associations. Independent of other forms of abuse, sexual abuse in females was
significantly positively related to sexual drive and experience, range of sexual fantasies, liberal sexual attitudes, frequency
of intercourse and masturbation, and likelihood of engaging in unrestricted sexual behaviors and fantasies, and was nega-
tively related to virginity status. Among males, emotional abuse was significantly associated with poor body image and sex-
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ual dissatisfaction, independent of the other forms of abuse. There were no significant differences in associations between
early abuse and sexuality between persons of Southeast Asian and European ancestry.

Despite an expansive literature on the psychological nonclinical samples has noted that early sexual abuse is
correlates of childhood abuse, the possible relationships correlated with more sexuality in adulthood as indicated by
between specific categories of early abuse (e.g., sexual, greater variety of sexual activity and more lifetime sexual
physical, psychological) and adult sexuality have received partners (deYoung, 1982; Herman, 1981; Laumann et al.,
little research attention. Those studies that have examined 1994; Seidner & Calhoun, 1984).
a relationship between childhood abuse and adult sexuality Most studies on the consequences of childhood physical
understandably have focused almost exclusively on sexual abuse have tended to focus on adult interpersonal relation-
abuse. Decreases in sexual functioning such as sexual aver- ships rather than sexuality per se (e.g., Briere & Runtz,
sion, anxiety or avoidance, decreased sexual desire or sex- 1988), or have used childhood physical abuse as a family
ual self-esteem, inhibited sexual arousal or orgasm, vagin- risk factor or covariate (Mullen, Martin, Anderson, Romans,
ismus, dyspareunia, and negative attitudes toward sexuali- & Herbison, 1994). The focus has been primarily on adult
ty and intimate relationships in general have all been linked aggressive and criminal behavior, substance abuse, self-
to a history of early sexual abuse (for reviews, see injurious behaviors, emotional problems, and academic and
Beitchman et al, 1992; Browne & Finklehor, 1986; vocational difficulties (see review by Malinowsky-Rummell
Gilmartin, 1994). The prevalence and severity of these & Hansen, 1993). In their national telephone survey of 10-
findings have been questioned as being dependent on the to 16-year-old youths, Boney-McCoy and Finklehor (1995)
type of sample studied (Okami, 1991; Rind, 1995). found a significant correlation between severity of psycho-
Although Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, and Michaels' logical symptoms and sexual and parental assault histories.
(1994) random probability U.S. sample found that men There is also a large, primarily clinical, literature which
with sexual abuse histories reported three out of nine sexu- links childhood physical abuse, substance abuse, and other
ally related problems and women reported four out of eight self-injurious behaviors (Malinowsky-Rummell & Hansen,
problems, the differences between sexually abused and 1993). The consequences of childhood physical abuse for
non-sexually-abused groups were modest. This was further adult sexuality are potentially important. Indiscriminate sex-
quantified in meta-analyses by Rind and Tromovich uality, which might include multiple partners, unsafe sex
(1997), and Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman (1998) who practices, or drug/alcohol related sexual behavior, could put
calculated only small effect sizes on all the significant sex- a person's health and safety at risk and has been shown to be
ual problem variables. Other research on both clinical and related to the combination of childhood physical and sexual
abuse histories (Cunningham, Stiffman, & Dore, 1994). In
addition, partner selection, the capacity to make longer-term
relationship commitments, and the ability to engage in
This research was assisted by a postdoctoral fellowship to Cindy M. Meston
from the Sexuality Research Fellowship from the Social Science Research
meaningful sexual relationships, could be affected by a his-
Council with funds provided by the Ford Foundation. tory of childhood physical abuse.
Address correspondence to Cindy M. Meston, Ph.D., Department of
Psychology, Mezes Hall 330, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712; e- Like physical abuse, the independent impact of both
mail: [email protected]. emotional and neglectful abuse on adult sexual behavior

The Journal of Sex Research Volume 36, Number 4, November 1999: pp. 385-395 385
 386 Abuse and Sexuality

has not been explored. Research indicates that these forms Asian. For the purposes of simplicity and brevity, here and
of childhood maltreatment are associated with a number of throughout this manuscript, East and Southeast Asians are
negative child conditions/characteristics, including depres- referred to as Asians. All other individuals, including a small
sion, withdrawal, suicide, low self-esteem, dependency, portion of South and West Asians, are referred to as non••
prostitution, underachievement, emotional maladjustment, Asians. Asian status was coded on the basis of participants'
and inability to trust others (see review by Hart, Brassard, responses to the following question: "What is your predom-
& Karlson, 1996). Given the nature of these consequences inant ethnic background?" Approximately 85% of the Asian
and the fact that acts of emotional maltreatment and subsample were ethnic Chinese. The remaining 15% of
neglect are in direct conflict with basic psychological Asian respondents endorsed their ethnicity as: Hong Kong,
needs such as belongingness, love, and esteem (Hart, Japanese, Korean, Philippino, Taiwanese, or Vietnamese.
Germain & Brassard, 1987), it is reasonable to expect that Among non-Asians, approximately 84% listed English as
these forms of abuse may be contributing marker variables their first language, and 83% listed Canada as their country
for the development of adult sexuality. of birth. Among Asians, approximately 21% listed English
Overall, studies on the relationship of early abuse and as their first language, and 29% listed Canada as their place
adult sexuality have not addressed the potential contribu- of birth. Participants ranged in age from 17 to 48, with 91%
tion of multiple forms of maltreatment. This is surprising between the ages of 18 and 25. Given that people in their
given that sexual, physical, and psychological abuse fre- 40s would have been adolescents prior to the onset of the
AIDS epidemic and during the height of the "sexual revolu-
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quently occur together (Briere, 1992), and different types

of maltreatment are often associated with different long- tion," variables measuring sexual behavior, particular^'
term sequelae (e.g., Briere & Runtz, 1990; Crittenden, unrestricted sexual behaviors, may be expected to have a
1988). For example, the combination of physical and sex- different meaning for participants in their late 30s and 40s
ual abuse may account for some of the association between than for participants in their late teens and 20s.1 Because of
childhood sexual abuse and adult sexuality that has, thus this, subjects over the age of 30 were excluded from further
far, only been attributed to sexual abuse experiences, and analyses. Five female subjects fell into this category.
may also help to explain some of the inconsistencies Maximum final sample sizes, grouped by gender and eth-
reported in past findings. nicity, were 275 Asian females, 381 non-Asian females, 191
Asian males, and 185 non-Asian males. Mean age of each
The present study is intended to begin to examine the
of the four sub-samples was 19.8 (SD = 2.5) for non-Asian
associations between reported childhood/adolescent mal-
females, 20.6 (SD = 2.8) for non-Asian males, 19.5 (SD ==
treatment and adult sexuality. This study extends previous
1.8) for Asian females, and 19.6 (SD = 1.9) for Asian males.
research in this area by (a) examining the correlates of four
Approximately 29% of Asians were born in Canada, 45%
relatively distinct measures of early abuse (physical, emo-
were recent immigrants (i.e., 5 years or less in Canada), and
tional, sexual, neglect) with later adult sexual function, (b)
26% were long-term immigrants (i.e., more than 5 years in
examining the correlates of early abuse with a wide range
Canada). Among females, 0.9% reported being exclusively
of sexuality measures, (c) using a comparatively large
homosexual, 1.2% mostly homosexual, 3.6% bisexual,
sample of 1,037 undergraduates, (d) examining potential
19.1% mostly heterosexual, and 75.2% reported being
association differences between genders, (e) examining
exclusively heterosexual. Among males, 2.1% reported
potential association differences between persons of
being exclusively homosexual, 1.3% mostly homosexual,
Southeast Asian and European ancestry, and (f) testing in
1.6% bisexual, 8.1% mostly heterosexual, and 87% report-
a confidential laboratory setting. Given that the sample is
ed being exclusively heterosexual.
young and educationally homogeneous, the data provide
an opportunity to examine emerging, rather than necessar-
ily definitive, sexual patterns. Understanding how specific Abuse measures
forms of abuse influence adult sexuality has important Physical and emotional abuse and neglect were assessed
implications for the assessment and treatment of both sex- using 28 of the 32 items from the childhood and adolescent
ual and nonsexual abuse victims, and for deriving an etio- sections of the Emotional and Physical Abuse Questionnaire
logical theory of the mechanisms by which early abuse (Carlin et al., 1994). Items on this scale range from relative-
influences adult sexuality. ly common (e.g., "I was shaken") to relatively severe (e.g.,
"I have had broken bones following a beating") forms of
METHOD abuse. Subjects were asked to indicate whether or not, and
the degree to which, they experienced the abuse items as a
Participants
child (before age 18) by a parent or guardian. As per
Participants were 1,032 University of British Columbia Meston, Heiman, Trapnell, and Carlin (1999), items wert;
undergraduate volunteers (376 males and 656 females) who grouped into the following three categories, physical abuse
completed this study in exchange for introductory psychol- (13 items) (e.g., "I have received black eyes from being hit,"
ogy course credits. The study was conducted between
November, 1993 and December, 1996. Ethnic composition
of the sample was approximately 55% non-Asian and 45% 1
We are grateful to an anonymous reviewer for this comment.
 Meston, Heiman, and Trapnell 387

"I was hit or spanked with a board, stick, or wire"), emo- assessed by asking respondents to circle a number between
tional abuse (9 items) (e.g., "I was mocked or taunted," "At 0 (not at all) and 8 (4 or more times a day) corresponding
home I was criticized and made to feel worthless"), and to how often they typically engage in intercourse. The
neglect (6 items) (e.g., "I was locked out or went out of the Sexual Experience Subscale was used to evaluate variety
house without sufficient or appropriate clothes or shoes in of sexual experience. This scale consists of 24 specific sex-
the winter," "I have had food or water withheld from me for ual acts representing a broad spectrum of sexual experi-
more than a day"). Participants were asked to indicate on a ences, ranging from behaviors such as "Kissing on the lips"
5-point Likert scale (0 = never to 5 = very frequently) the to "Mutual oral stimulation of genitals" and various posi-
frequency with which they experienced each of these items. tions of coitus (e.g., "Intercourse-sitting position"). These
Abuse composites were formed by summing responses to 24 items are summed to provide an overall index of the
the items included in each respective composite. Coefficient range of sexual experience (coefficient alphas = .96, .97 for
alpha reliability estimates based on the current sample were males and females, respectively). Unrestricted sexual
.81, .80, .65 (non-Asian males); .82, .87, .65 (non-Asian behavior was scored by summing two behavior items from
females); .76, .77, .46 (Asian males); and .80, .83, .44 the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (Simpson and
(Asian females) for physical abuse, emotional abuse, and Gangestad, 1991) ("With how many different partners have
neglect, respectively. you had sex in the past year," and "total number of one-
A sexual abuse score was derived using the following night stands") plus four additional items. The four addi-
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items from the sexual abuse questionnaire (Carlin & Ward, tional items were (a) "With how many different partners
1992): have you engaged in any sexual foreplay (e.g., deep kiss-
ing, petting, genital caressing) in the past year?," (b) "With
1 ."I have been casually touched, pinched, or fondled in a sexual how many partners have you had sexual intercourse in your
manner when I did not want that to happen."
lifetime (include all long-term relationships, brief relation-
2."I have been touched or fondled in a sexual manner for a long ships, and one-time-only relationships and encounters)?,"
period of time when I did not want that to happen." (c) "Have you ever been involved in more than one on-
3."I have been undressed and have had my genitals and/or breasts going sexual relationship at the same time (yes/no)!" and
touched when I did not want that to happen." (d) "If you were in a happy and committed relationship, can
you imagine a situation in which you might have a brief
4."I have been forced to touch or fondle another person's genitals sexual encounter with someone other than your partner
when I did not want to." (assume there was absolutely no risk of the affair continu-
5."I have been forced to engage in oral-genital sexual relations
ing, or of pregnancy, disease, or discovery by your partner)
when I did not want to." (yes/no)!" This latter item was adapted from Symons
(1987). Prior to the computation of this composite, individ-
6."I have been forced to have sexual intercourse when I did not ual items were first standardized within each gender by eth-
want to." nicity (i.e., Asian vs. non-Asian) subsample. Coefficient
Participants responded to these questions on a yes/no alphas for the unrestricted sexual behavior composite were
basis. A sexual abuse composite score was calculated as .77 and .78 for males and females, respectively.
follows. A positive endorsement (yes) to question 1 was Intrapersonal sexual behavior. Frequency of masturba-
scored as one, positive endorsements to questions 2 tion was assessed by asking respondents to circle a number
through 4 were each scored as two, and positive endorse- between 0 (not at all) and 8 (4 or more times a day) corre-
ments to questions 5 and 6 were each scored as four sponding to how often they typically engage in masturba-
(Meston et al., 1999). These scores were summed to pro- tion. Range of sexual fantasies were assessed using the 20
vide an overall index of sexual abuse. Coefficient alpha fantasy items from the DSFI fantasy subscale plus 20 addi-
reliability estimates based on the current sample were .79 tional items which addressed fantasy areas not assessed by
(non-Asian males), .79 (non-Asian females), .61 (Asian the DSFI (e.g., romance, exhibitionism, voyeurism). The
males), and .69 (Asian females). Only endorsements of fantasy items were summed to provide an overall index of
sexual abuse which occurred in either childhood or ado- variety of sexual fantasy (coefficient alphas = .94 for males
lescence before age 18 (not adulthood) were included in and females). Follow-up analyses were conducted on six
the composite scoring. independent fantasy subscales: masochism (e.g., "being sex-
ually degraded"), promiscuity (e.g., "having more than one
Sexuality Measures sexual partner at the same time"), voyeurism (e.g., "secretly
Interpersonal sexual behavior. Experience with intercourse watch others engage in sex"), sadism (e.g., "whipping or
was scored as a dichotomous variable. Persons were con- beating your sexual partner"), exhibitionism (e.g., "engag-
sidered to have experienced intercourse if they wrote an age ing in sex while some person or persons are watching you"),
for first intercourse or if they had experienced any of the and romance (e.g., "making love outdoors in a romantic set-
sexual intercourse items included in the Sexual Experience ting"). The DSFI Attitudes Subscale was used to assess lib-
Subscale of the Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory eral sexual attitudes. This subscale is composed of 15 liber-
(DSFI; Derogatis, 1978). Frequency of intercourse was al and 15 conservative statements relative to sexual behav-
 388 Abuse and Sexuality

iors. Respondents are asked to answer the 30 questions on a & Martin, 1948). Participants indicated their sexual orien-
5-point Likert scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly tation on the scale from 1 (exclusively homosexual) to 5
agree (5). Endorsements of conservative items are reverse (exclusively heterosexual).
scored and summed together with the liberalism items to
provide an overall index of liberal attitudes towards sexual- Self-Esteem Measures
ity (coefficient alphas = .82, .88 for males and females, Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-
respectively). A composite variable representing unrestrict- Esteem Inventory (Rosenberg, 1965). This scale consists
ed sexual attitudes and fantasies was constructed by sum- of 10 items which assess positive (e.g., "On the whole, I
ming z-scores for the following two composites: (a) a four- am satisfied with myself) and negative (e.g., "I certainly
item cluster of Sociosexual Orientation Inventory attitudes feel useless at times") feelings about oneself. Participants,
regarding casual sexual involvements (e.g., "I can imagine indicate the degree to which they believe each of the state-
myself being comfortable and enjoying "casual" sex with ments accurately describes themselves on a scale from 1
different partners": 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). Negative items;
agree), and (b) a three-item composite of DSFI fantasies are reverse scored and summed with the positive items to
about unrestricted sex (e.g., "Having intercourse with an provide an overall measure of self-esteem.
anonymous, attractive stranger": 0 = never to 4 = quite
often). A composite variable representing subjective sexual Data Analyses
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drive was constructed by summing z-scores to two vari- Meston, Trapnell, and Gorzalka (1996, 1998) recently
ables, (a) "Overall, how would you rate your level of sex reported significant differences in a wide range of sexuali-
drive?" (1 - below average to 5 = above average), and (b) a ty measures between undergraduate students of Southeast
three-item composite of self-rated sexual arousability ("I am Asian and European ancestry. In addition, Meston et al.
a really sensual and sexual kind of person, someone who (1999) reported significant differences in the incidence and
feels very aroused, very often," "Once in a while, I feel so forms of abuse experienced by students of Southeast Asian
sexually aroused, I can't think of anything but sex," "I've and European ancestry. As a result of these findings, a
never really felt very interested in sex" [latter item reverse series of moderated multiple regressions were performed
scored]: 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). separately on the females' and males' data to test for ethnic:
Sexual satisfaction. Sexual satisfaction was evaluated differences in associations between the abuse and sexualit}'
using the Sexual Satisfaction Scale of the Sexual measures. In each analysis, measures of either physical
Experiences Inventory (Trapnell & Meston, 1995). This abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, or neglect were first
scale consists of 23 items which evaluate global sexual satis- regressed on the dichotomous ethnicity variable and the
faction and a range of specific sources of sexual dissatisfac- sexuality variable of interest (e.g., "variety of sexual expe-
tion, including sexual contentment (e.g., "I often feel some- rience"), and then the cross-product of ethnicity and the
thing is missing from my present sex life"), sexual compe- sexuality variable was statistically evaluated for any resid-
tence (e.g., "I'm concerned that my occasional problems ual association with the abuse variable. None of the 96
becoming aroused could occur again or become worse"), cross-products (12 sexuality variables x 4 abuse variables x
sexual communication (e.g., "I usually feel comfortable dis- gender) fell below a nominal pairwise alpha of .05 (for all
cussing sex when my partner wants to"), and sexual compat- Fs, p > .05) indicating there were no significant ethnic dif-
ibility (e.g., "I often feel that my partner's beliefs and atti- ferences in associations. Subsequent analyses were there-
tudes about sex are too different from mine"). Respondents fore performed on data collapsed across ethnicity.
were asked to answer the 23 questions, with reference to Past research has found age to be positively correlated
their most recent close relationship, on a 5-point Likert scale with sexual experience in college samples (Meston et al.,
from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Coefficient 1996). Because age might also be correlated with abuse his-
alphas for the sexual satisfaction composite were .91, .92 for tory, we conducted a series of Pearson correlations between
males and females, respectively. Body image was assessed age and sexual experience, and between age and each of the
using the Body Image subscale of the DSFI. This scale con- abuse measures, separately for males and females. Age was
sists of self-ratings on 5 gender specific physical attributes significantly correlated with sexual experience in both
(e.g., "Women/men would find my body attractive") and 10 males, r(348) = .30, p < .001, and females, r(645) = .23, p
general body attributes (e.g., "My face is attractive"), for a < .001, and with emotional abuse in females, r(614) = .08,
total of 15 ratings. Respondents are asked to answer the 15 p < .05. Age was not significantly related to any of the other
questions on a 5-point Likert scale from not at all (1) to abuse variables in females or to any of the abuse measures
extremely (5). These items are summed in a positive direction in males. Because age was significantly related to both sex-
to provide a single numerical index of satisfaction with one's ual experience and emotional abuse in females, all further
physical appearance. Coefficient alphas based on the current analyses of sexuality variables with emotional abuse in
sample were .83, .82 for males and females, respectively. females were conducted with age controlled for.
Sexual orientation. Sexual identification was assessed To evaluate the relation between abuse and sexuality, par-
using a 5-point Likert scale similar to the Kinsey tial correlations, controlling for ethnicity, were conducted
Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale (Kinsey, Pomeroy, separately, by gender, between sexuality measures and each
 Meston, Hciman, and Trapnell 389

of the physical abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, and sexual the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory as part of a separate,
abuse composite scores. Consistent with past research (e.g., unrelated study. The results from the Rosenberg Self-
Ney, Fung, & Wickett, 1994), there was a high intercorrela- Esteem Inventory were used to conduct follow-up analyses
tion among abuse measures noted in the present study (see to the present results. This subsample did not differ signif-
Table 1). We therefore conducted follow-up analyses on icantly (p > .05) from the overall sample in ethnic compo-
all significant correlations using hierarchical regression sition or sexual experience.
analyses to evaluate whether the relation between the abuse
and the sexuality variable of interest remained significant RESULTS
after controlling for the effects of ethnicity and the remain-
Physical Abuse
ing three abuse variables. To be cautious about accumulat-
ing Type I error on comparisons across the 12 sexuality vari- At least one physical abuse item was endorsed by 51% of
ables, for all analyses only differences of p < .004 (p < non-Asian females, 69% of Asian females, 71% of non-
.05/12) were considered statistically reliable. Asian males, and 82% of Asian males. Severe physical
abuse (defined here as the endorsement of one or more of
PROCEDURE the severe physical items, e.g., "I have received black eyes
Participants completed the questionnaires in same-sex from being hit," "I was injured seriously enough by a par-
groups of approximately 5-10 individuals in a large testing ent or guardian to require medial care," "I have had broken
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room arranged to provide maximum privacy for responding bones following a beating" was reported by 10%, 19%,
(e.g., visual barriers between participants). All participants 14%, and 34% of non-Asian females, Asian females, non-
completed the sexuality measures (DSFI, Sexual Asian males, and Asian males, respectively.
Experiences Inventory, Sociosexual Orientation Inventory) Among females, there was a significant positive corre-
first, followed by the Emotional and Physical Abuse lation between the frequency of childhood physical abuse
Questionnaire and the Sexual Abuse Questionnaire. A and unrestricted sexual behavior and variety of sexual fan-
same-sex researcher was present during all sessions to pro- tasy (see Table 2). These relations did not remain signifi-
vide instructions and to answer any questions. Testing con- cant after controlling for the effects of ethnicity, childhood
ditions were made confidential by requesting that no names sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. Frequency of
or other personally identifying information be placed on childhood physical abuse in males was significantly posi-
any of the forms, and by using a randomly selected number tively correlated with range of sexual fantasies and reports
for participant identification across the two sessions. In of unrestricted sexual attitudes and fantasies. These corre-
addition, confidentiality was stressed verbally, and in writ- lations did not remain significant after the effects of eth-
ten instructions by requesting that each participant fold nicity, childhood sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and
their completed answer sheets, seal them in a blank enve- neglect were controlled for. There were no significant cor-
lope, and deposit the envelope in a large drop box upon relations at p < .004 between physical abuse and measures
leaving the testing room. Before beginning the question- of sexual adjustment or orientation in either males or
naires, all participants were asked to read a brief statement females.
informing them of the sexual, personal nature of the ques-
tionnaires; the voluntary and confidential nature of all Emotional Abuse
responses; and their right to withdraw from the session at At least one emotional abuse item was endorsed by 70% of
any time, for any reason, without any loss of credit. No par- non-Asian females, 88% of Asian females, 81% of non-
ticipants withdrew from the study. Asian males, and 93% of Asian males. Severe emotional
Approximately one to two weeks prior to the study, a abuse (defined here as an emotional abuse composite score
subset of participants (160 males; 359 females) completed of greater than 10) was reported by 25%, 39%, 25%, and
53% of non-Asian females, Asian females, non-Asian
males, and Asian males, respectively.
Table 1. Correlations Between Self-Reported Measures of Among females, after the effects of age and ethnicity
Early Abuse were controlled for, frequency of emotional abuse was sig-
Physical Emotional Neglect Sexual nificantly positively related to range of sexual fantasies and
abuse abuse abuse significantly negatively related to (positive) body image
Males (see Table 2). These correlations did not remain significant
Physical abuse .67* .52* .06 after the effects of ethnicity, age, sexual abuse, physical
Emotional abuse .54* .04
Neglect .11 abuse, and neglect were controlled for. Among males, fre-
quency of emotional abuse was significantly positively
Females
Physical abuse .67* .49* .23*
related to variety of sexual fantasy and unrestricted sexual
Emotional abuse .49* .20* attitudes and fantasies, and significantly negatively related
Neglect .16* to sexual satisfaction and (positive) body image. After con-
Note: Maximum n = 359 males; 618 females. trolling for the effects of ethnicity, childhood sexual abuse,
*/7<.001. physical abuse, and neglect, negative relations between
 390 Abuse and Sexuality

Table 2. Partial Correlations of Sexuality Reports with Self-Reported Early Abuse Controlling for Ethnicity
Females Males
Physical Emotional Neglect Sexual Physical Emotional Neglect Sexual
abuse abuse abuse abuse abuse abuse
Interpersonal sexual behavior
Experience with intercourse (1) .02 -.04 -.05 .21* .04 .01 .08 -.00
Frequency of intercourse (1) -.02 -.04 -.04 .17* .03 .01 .10 -.07
Variety of sexual experience (24) .05 -.06 -.01 .26* .04 .01 .12 .02
Unrestricted sexual behavior (6) .18* .08 .07 .25* .05 .01 .13 .01
Intrapersonal sexual behavior
Frequency of masturbation (1) .07 .06 .06 .14* .07 .12 .02 .03
Variety of sexual fantasy (40) .14* .12* .10 .23* .21* .22* .17* .15
Liberal sexual attitudes (30) .03 .03 .00 .16* .07 .05 .04 .05
Unrestricted sexual attitudes
& fantasies (2) .10 .09 .05 .19* .18* .18* .15 .09
Subjective sexual drive (2) -.11 -.07 -.03 -.21* -.09 -.10 -.09 -.08
Sexual adjustment
Total sexual satisfaction (25) -.04 -.10 -.13* .04 -.16 -.29* -.17* -.10
Positive body image (15) -.06 -.14* -.10 .05 -.01 -.15* -.02 -.01
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Sexual orientation
Sexual identification (1) -.04 -.04 -.07 -.10 .02 -.10 -.05 -.07
Note: Maximum n = 354 males; 617 females. Number of items per scale is indicated in parentheses. Semipartial correlations and beta weights are
available from the first author upon request.
Correlations between emotional abuse and sexuality variables in females have been conducted with ethnicity and age controlled for.
* p < .004.

emotional abuse and sexual satisfaction, (F( 1,275) = 16.00, sufficient or appropriate clothes or shoes in the winter," "I
p < .001 ; sr = -. 16), and between emotional abuse and (pos- have had food or water withheld from me for more than a
itive) body image, (F( 1,274) = 8.41, p < .004; sr = -.12), day,") was reported by 9%, 18%, 18%, and 32% of non-
remained significant, whereas relations between emotional Asian females, Asian females, non-Asian males, and Asian
abuse and the former two variables did not. males, respectively.
One notable pattern of association which was similar Frequency of neglect was significantly negatively relai-
between genders was the relation between physical abuse ed to sexual satisfaction in both males and females, and
and emotional abuse and variety of sexual fantasies. significantly positively related to variety of sexual fantasy
Because of the large number (i.e., 40) of fantasy items among males (see Table 2). After controlling for the effects
included in this composite measure, follow-up analyses of ethnicity, physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual
were conducted to examine whether the specific types of abuse, these relations did not remain significant.
fantasies endorsed might differ between genders. Six fanta-
sy subgroups were examined: exhibitionism, voyeurism, Sexual Abuse
promiscuity, romance, sadism, and masochism. Among One or more of the six sexual abuse items were endorsed
males, after controlling for the effects of ethnicity, physical by 40%, 25%, 11%, and 11% of non-Asian females, Asian
abuse and emotional abuse were significantly (p < .008 [p females, non-Asian males, and Asian males, respectively.
.05/6]) positively related to promiscuous, sadistic, and Being forced to have sexual intercourse was endorsed by
voyeuristic fantasies, and emotional abuse was also signif- 9%, 4%, 1%, and 1% of non-Asian females, Asian females,
icantly related to romantic and exhibitionistic fantasies. non-Asian males, and Asian males, respectively.
Among females, after controlling for the effects of ethnici- Sexual abuse was significantly related (p < .004) to all
ty, childhood physical abuse was significantly positively measures of inter- and intrapersonal sexuality in women.
related to promiscuous sexual fantasies, and after control- Frequency of sexual abuse was negatively related to sexu-
ling for the effects of ethnicity and age, emotional abuse al drive, and positively related to experience with inter-
was significantly positively related to both promiscuous course, variety of sexual experience, range of sexual fan-
and masochistic fantasies. tasies, liberal sexual attitudes, frequency of intercourse
and masturbation, and likelihood of engaging in unre-
Neglect
stricted sexual behaviors and fantasies. There were no sig-
At least one neglect item was endorsed by 32% of non- nificant correlations (p < .004) between sexual abuse and
Asian females, 46% of Asian females, 46% of non-Asian measures of sexual adjustment or sexual orientation
males, and 64% of Asian males. Severe neglect (defined among females, and no significant correlation between
here as the endorsement of one or more of the severe sexual abuse and any of the sexuality variables among
neglect items, e.g. "I was locked out of the house without males (see Table 2).
 Meston, Heiman, and lY-apnell 391

After controlling for the effects of ethnicity, physical low-up tests suggest that most of the association between
abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect, correlations remained emotional abuse and body image and between neglect and
statistically significant between sexual abuse and drive, (F satisfaction in females can be accounted for by the associ-
(1, 523) = 20.45, p < .001; sr = -.19); unrestricted sexual ation between these variables and self-esteem.
attitudes and fantasies, (F (1, 523) = 14.51, p < .001; sr = Follow-up analyses were conducted to examine whether
.16); liberal sexual attitudes, ( F ( l , 523) = 11.82, p < .001; relations between emotional abuse and body image and
sr = .14); variety of sexual fantasy, (F (1, 523) = 20.64, p sexual satisfaction in males might also be explained in
< .001; sr= .19); frequency of masturbation, (F (I, 513) = terms of self-esteem. Both (positive) body image, r(144) =
7.93, p = .005; sr = .12); unrestricted sexual behavior, (F .44, p < .001, and sexual satisfaction, r(144) = .20, p < .05,
(1, 516) = 23.13, p < .001; sr = .20); variety of sexual were significantly positively related to self-esteem scores
experience, (F (1, 523) = 36.43, p < .001; sr = .24); fre- after the effects of ethnicity were controlled for. After con-
quency of intercourse, (F (1, 515) = 18.33, p < .001; sr = trolling for the effects of ethnicity and self-esteem the cor-
.18); and experience with intercourse, (F (1, 523) = 25.05, relation between emotional abuse and body image, r(139)
p < .001; sr = -.20); in women. = -.05, p > .05, did not remain significant. This suggests
that most of the association between emotional abuse and
Does Self-Esteem Account for the Relation Between
body image in males can be accounted for by the associa-
Abuse and Sexual Adjustment?
tion between these variables and self-esteem. The correla-
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Note that the two sexual adjustment variables, sexual satis- tion between emotional abuse and sexual satisfaction, how-
faction and body image, are the only two variables that ever, remained significant, r(139) = -.36, p < .001, after the
explicitly involve evaluative appraisals. It is reasonable, effects of ethnicity and self-esteem were controlled for.
therefore, to speculate that the associations between abuse
and these two variables may reflect more general self DISCUSSION
appraisal (i.e., self-esteem) rather than sexual appraisal per The present study examined relations between four rela-
se. In the present sample, Rosenberg Self Esteem scores tively distinct forms of early abuse (physical, emotional,
were significantly negatively related to frequency of physi- sexual, neglect) and measures of adult interpersonal sexu-
cal abuse, (r (345) = -.16, p = .005), emotional abuse, (r al behavior, intrapersonal sexual behavior, sexual adjust-
(345) = -.32, p < .001), and neglect, (r (345) = -.20, p < ment, and sexual orientation. Sexual abuse, independent of
.001), among females. The multiple correlation between the effects of childhood physical abuse, emotional abuse,
self-esteem and the four abuse predictors, controlling for and neglect, was significantly related to all forms of inter-
ethnicity, was significant in females, (R2 = .14, F (5,355) = personal and intrapersonal sexuality variables in females.
11.4, p < .001); however, the only significant beta weight There were no significant relations between childhood
was for emotional abuse, (beta = -.36, t = -5.4, p < .001). physical abuse, emotional abuse, or neglect and any of the'
Among males in the present sample, self-esteem scores sexuality variables in females, independent of the effects
were significantly negatively related to frequency of emo- of other forms of abuse. In males, frequency of emotional
tional abuse (r (155) = -.17, p < .05). Correlations between abuse was significantly negatively related to sexual satis-
self-esteem scores and measures of physical abuse and faction and body image, independent of the effects of
neglect did not reach statistical significance (p > .05). The physical abuse, neglect, and sexual abuse. Independent of
multiple correlation of the four abuse variables, controlling other forms of abuse, there were no significant relations
for ethnicity, was not significant for males, (R2 = .05, F between childhood physical abuse, neglect, or sexual
(5,153) = 1.4, p > .05). Note that although a significant abuse and any of the sexuality variables in males.
association between sexual abuse and adult self-esteem has A relation between childhood sexual abuse and adult
previously been reported (for review, see Browne & sexual behavior in females has been previously reported. In
Finkelhor, 1986), in the present study associations between the present study, sexual abuse was associated with more
self-esteem and sexual abuse did not reach statistical sig- liberal sexual attitudes and behavior, as evidenced by a
nificance in either males or females. higher frequency of intercourse and masturbation, a greater
Follow-up analyses were conducted to examine whether range of sexual experience and fantasies, and a greater like-
relations between emotional abuse and body image, and lihood of engaging in unrestricted sexual behavior. These
between neglect and sexual satisfaction might be explained findings are consistent with past research (e.g., Courtois,
in terms of self-esteem in females. Self-esteem scores were 1979; deYoung, 1982; Herman, 1981; Meiselman, 1978;
significantly positively related to both (positive) body Laumann et al., 1994; Potterat, Rothenberg, Muth, Darrow,
image, r(345) = .51, p < .001, and sexual satisfaction, & Phillips-Plummer, 1998; Seidner & Calhoun, 1984; Tsai,
r(345) = .35, p < .001, after the effects of ethnicity were Feldman-Summers, & Edgar, 1979; Wisniewski, 1989)
controlled for. Neither the correlation between emotional which has also noted that a sexualization of relationships
abuse and body image, r(344) = -.05, p > .05, or the corre- and increased sexual activity were associated with a histo-
lation between neglect and sexual satisfaction, r(344) = ry of childhood sexual abuse. These findings may, in part,
-.09, p > .05, remained significant after controlling for the be explained within the framework of Finkelhor and
effects of ethnicity and self-esteem. The results of these fol- Browne's (1985) theory of sexual traumatization. Briefly,
 392 Abuse and Sexuality

this theory posits that, through a variety of means, child- abuse and adjustment measures, relations between sexual
hood sexual abuse shapes sexuality in a way that may fos- abuse and liberal sexual behavior may be specifically relat-
ter confusion and misconceptions about sexual self-con- ed to consequences of the sexual act per se. Perhaps in
cepts, unusual emotional associations to sexual activities, some way the early sexual abuse experience awakened sex-
and an inappropriate repertoire of sexualized behaviors ual interests which, over time, led to the development of
(Finkelhor & Browne, 1985). For example, the child may more sexually liberal values. This is not to say, of course,
be rewarded for sexual behavior that is developmentally that social environment would not play an important role in
inappropriate and learn to use sexual behavior as a strategy this sexual development. A disruptive family background
for manipulating others (see Footnote 1). While this theory may foster conflicting messages about sex, may be associ-
may help explain why childhood sexual abuse in the pres- ated with a lack of supervision which may open up more
ent study was related to increased sexual activity, it cannot opportunities for sexual experiences, and may create anxi-
explain why childhood sexual abuse was unrelated to mea- ety over abandonment which may encourage sexualized
sures of sexual adjustment. ties (for review of childhood sexual abuse risk factors sec
A number of researchers have reported that the relation Higgins & McCabe, 1994).
between childhood sexual abuse and later adult adjustment The striking gender difference in the relation between
(broadly defined) appears to be accounted for, to a large sexual abuse and measures of both inter- and intrapersonal
extent, by family background rather than sexual abuse per sexual behavior warrants comment. In females, childhood
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se. For example, using path analysis to examine child sex- sexual abuse was related to all measures of inter- and
ual abuse-adjustment relations among female students intrapersonal sexual behaviors; in males it was related to
across 32 U.S. colleges, Wisniewski (1989) concluded that none. First, it should be noted that there was a substantial-
factors such as family violence had a greater impact on cur- ly greater (i.e., 25-40% females; 11% males) incidence of
rent emotional adjustment than did the specific effects of childhood sexual abuse among female participants than
sexual abuse. In a recent review of seven studies on child- among male participants in the present study, which may
hood sexual-abuse-symptom relations which used national statistically account for some of this gender difference in
probability samples, Rind and Tromovitch (1997) conclud- equivalence. In both a meta-analytic review of childhood
ed that "the results from psychological adjustment mea- sexual-abuse-symptom national probability studies (Rind
sures imply that, childhood sexual abuse is related to poor- and Tromovitch, 1997), and a meta-analyses of 59 college
er adjustment in the general population, the magnitude of sample studies (Rind, Tromovitch, & Bauserman, 1998), it
this relation is small... [and] cannot safely be assumed to was reported that the relation between sexual abuse and
reflect causal effects of the childhood sexual abuse" adjustment problems was considerably stronger for women
(p. 253). The authors suggested that differences in adjust- than for men. Whereas a majority of females (approximate-
ment between sexually abused persons and controls ly two thirds) reported negative effects of sexual abuse,
observed in national samples may be attributable to larger only a minority (approximately one third) of males did so.
differences in social environment, rather than to the sexual The authors suggested that these differences may be
abuse. In a later meta-analyses of 59 studies based on col- accounted for by the fact that males and females typically
lege samples, Rind et al. (1998) similarly concluded that do not have the same type of childhood sexual abuse expe-
students with childhood sexual abuse histories were slight- riences. Females are more likely than males to report being
ly less well adjusted than controls, but that this was more coerced during the sexual abuse experience, females are
likely attributable to family environment than abuse experi- generally younger than males when they experienced the
ences per se. These assertions are consistent with other sexual abuse, and female childhood sexual abuse experi-
studies that have noted when other abuse (i.e., physical, ences are more likely to involve an incestuous act than are
emotional) experiences are held constant, childhood sexu- male childhood sexual abuse experiences. Because we did
al-abuse-symptom relations frequently disappear (e.g., not assess coercion or perpetrator relations in the present
Cole, 1987; Eckenrode, Laird, & Doris, 1993; Higgins & study, we unfortunately are unable to assess whether such
McCabe, 1994; Ney et al., 1994). In the present study, factors may account for this gender difference.
when other forms of abuse were statistically controlled for,
relations between sexual abuse and measures of inter- and A sex-role perspective might explain the gender differ-
intrapersonal sexuality remained significant. Although we ence in relations between childhood sexual abuse and adult
did not directly measure family background in the present sexuality in terms of a persisting double standard in the gen-
study, and measures of physical abuse, emotional abuse, der appropriateness of sexual constraint (i.e., females should
and neglect may serve as only proxy measures, if it were be more restrained than males). The self-evaluative conse-
the case that relations between childhood sexual abuse and quences of childhood sexual abuse could be expected to dif-
increased sexual activity were accounted for primarily by fer between women and men because of this norm. For
social environment one would expect such relations to example, abused women may come to see themselves as
decline substantially when other, nonsexual forms of abuse sexually atypical (i.e., unconstrained, seductive, provoca-
were controlled for. The fact that these relations remained tive, "damaged") with respect to the norm of constraint, and
significant suggests that, unlike relations between sexual that self-image could disinhibit later sexual constraint via
the phenomenon of self-verification (Swan, Wenzlaff, &
 Meston, Heiman, and Trapnell 393

Tafarodi, 1992). Abused men are unlikely to develop such a intrapersonal sexual behavior, and held significantly more
self-perception if being sexually indiscriminate is what suc- conservative sexual attitudes. Given such strong cultural
cessful men (i.e., agentic, powerful, competent) do. differences, one might have expected, for example, cultur-
In males, after the effects of other forms of abuse were al pressures to have inhibited sexually abused females from
controlled for, frequency of emotional abuse remained sig- acting in a sexually unrestrained manner. The fact that none
nificantly negatively related to (positive) body image and of 96 associations between abuse and sexuality measures
sexual satisfaction. As was the case with relations between differed significantly between Asian and non-Asian per-
nonsexual forms of abuse and sexual adjustment measures sons emphasizes the strength of these relationships and
in females, the relation between emotional abuse and body their potential universality across certain ethnic groups.
image in males was primarily accounted for by the effects In summary, the results of this study suggest an inde-
of self-esteem. This suggests that such relations may be pendent relation between childhood sexual abuse and sexu-
explained largely in terms of global, negative self- al behavior in females, and between emotional abuse and
appraisal. Global self-esteem did not, however, account for measures of body image and sexual adjustment in males.
the relation between emotional abuse and sexual satisfac- These findings highlight the importance of examining rela-
tion among males. The relation was also not due to a nar- tionships between early abuse and adult sexuality separate-
row association involving specific content within either the ly, within gender, and within specific subcategories of
sexual satisfaction or emotional abuse scales. We exam- abuse. Several factors limit interpretation of the present
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ined individual correlations between emotional abuse results and their generalizability to other populations. First,
items and sexual satisfaction. There was no discernible with regard to the measures used in this study, the coeffi-
pattern between the content of emotional abuse items and cient alphas for the neglect composite were relatively low
the strength of their relationship with sexual satisfaction. (i.e., .44 to .65) across ethnic groups. This suggests that the
The largest correlation was for the emotional abuse item particular items used in the present study may not form a
"At home I was criticized and made to feel worthless," reliable composite indicator of neglect. The items referred
r(146) = .32, p < .001. The satisfaction composite consists primarily to insufficient food or clothing, lack of cleanli-
of four internally consistent subscales derived via factor ness, and being left home alone; lack of supervision, a com-
analysis (Trapnell & Meston, 1995), namely competence, monly used indicator of neglect, was not well represented.
communication, compatibility, and contentment. The
Second, the sample used in the present study was com-
strength of the association with emotional abuse did not
prised exclusively of an undergraduate student population.
vary meaningfully between scales. Partial correlations,
This worked to an advantage in that (a) students have bet-
controlling for ethnicity, ranged from r(337) = .14,/? = .01,
ter recall than older populations (Finkelhor, 1979); (b)
for competency, to r(337) = .24, p < .001, for contentment.
emerging sexual patterns can be examined within a rela-
If the relation between emotional abuse and sexual sat- tively homogeneous group with respect to age, intelli-
isfaction in males is a general one that involves multiple gence, and socioeconomic status; and (c) student popula-
facets of sexual satisfaction and emotional abuse, but is not tions may be more representative of the community than
due to general negative self-appraisal (i.e., low self- are clinical or criminal populations (Higgins & McCabe,
esteem), what accounts for this association and why is it 1994). However, student samples exclude most persons
specific to males? One potential explanation is differences who are severely troubled, below average intelligence, or
in sex roles governing courtship initiation. If males need to from deviant subcultures (Finkelhor, 1979). Hence, the
be the initiator to get involved in a sexual relation, it might present sample may have excluded persons who have been
require a certain amount of dating efficacy. If one assumes most negatively affected by early abuse experiences.
that the experience of repeated emotional abuse (i.e., belit- A third limitation of this study is that the findings are
tlement, criticism) impairs the development of social effi- based strictly on retrospective, self-report data. Several
cacy, such as dating efficacy, then gender differences in measures were taken to maximize honest self-disclosure in
courtship initiation could potentially explain the associa- the present study, such as the administration of question-
tion between emotional abuse and sexual satisfaction in naires in a confidential laboratory setting, the use of same-
males and not females. This speculation would seem to be sex testing scenarios, and frequent reminders within the
ruled out however, by the fact that emotional abuse was not questionnaire for honesty and accuracy. Using the same
related to sexual experience levels in males. This interest- student sample, Meston et al. (1999) found no significant
ing gender difference, if replicable, may warrant future relation between measures of socially desirable respond-
research attention. ing and reports of early physical, emotional, or sexual
Associations between early abuse and adult sexual abuse or neglect, and Meston, Heiman, Trapnell, and
behavior did not differ significantly between persons of Paulhus (1998) found only minimal evidence for the role
Southeast Asian and European ancestry. Among a compa- of social desirability in self-reported sexuality variables
rable sample of 702 undergraduate students, Meston et al. under anonymous testing conditions. Despite these facts,
(1996; 1998) found that Asian students were significantly however, the possibility that participants may have either
more sexually conservative or restrained than their non- over or under reported abuse experiences cannot be ruled
Asian counterparts on virtually every measure of inter- and out. Several researchers (e.g., Finkelhor, 1984; Watkins &
 394 Abuse and Sexuality

Bentovim, 1992) have noted a tendency for males to under Crittenden, P. M. (1988). Relationships at risk. In J. Belsky & R. Nezworski
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cific reporting bias may have masked potential relations physical and sexual abuse with HIV risk behaviors in adolescence and
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its the interpretation of results. While it is tempting to spec- Baltimore MD: Clinical Psychometrics Research.
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