Department of Physics

Physics Laboratory I

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 Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory I
Ex. No: Date:

TORSIONAL PENDULUM -DETERMINATION OF

RIGIDITY MODULUS

Aim:

To determine rigidity modulus of the given material of a wire by using Torsional pendulum.

Apparatus Required:

Experimental wire, circular metal disc, screw gauge, Stop clock, meter scale, Vernier caliper,
etc.
Formula:

1. Moment of inertia of the disc

2. The rigidity modulus of the wire

Where

M - Mass of the circular disc in kilogram.

R - Radius of the circular disc in meter.

r - Radius of the experimental wire in meter.

ℓ - Length of the experimental wire in meter.

T - Time Period of pendulum in seconds.

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Principle:

Torsional pendulum is one form of oscillator. The period of oscillation depends upon the
rigidity of the wire. The period is used to calculate the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire.
The rigidity modulus is defined as the ratio between shearing stress and shearing strain.

Application;

i. Determine the characteristics property of the material like polymer and metal.
ii. Determine the friction force between the solid surface and flowing liquid environment.
Description:

The Torsional pendulum consists of a circular metal disc suspended from rigid support by
means of the experimental wire. When it is given a slight rotation in the horizontal plane by applying
a couple, the disc will execute torsional oscillations

To find the ℓ / T2:

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Time for 10 oscillations

Length of the
wire
Trial –1 Trial – 2 Mean Time Period for one ℓ /T 2
10-2 m oscillation
T T T m/sec2
‘ℓ’ ‘T’
seconds seconds seconds 10-2 m
seconds

40

45

50

55

60

Mean( ℓ /T 2) =

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Procedure:

1. The disc is suspended from the rigid support with the help of the given experimental wire as

shown in the figure.

2. The length of the wire from the lower end of the top chuck to the upper end of the bottom

chuck is ‘ℓ ’. The length ‘ℓ’ is adjusted to about 40 to 60 cm.

3. The disc is slightly rotated about the wire (twisting it) and released so that it begins to

execute torsional oscillations with small amplitude about the wire axis.

4. Start stop clock and simultaneously count the number of oscillations. The time for 10

oscillations is determined. The mean value of the two trials is taken and the time period of

oscillation T is found.

5. The experiment is repeated for 4 or 5 lengths by changing the length of the wire by 5 cm and

the corresponding values of T are determined. The readings were tabulated.

6. The diameter of the wire is measured by means of a screw gauge and taking readings at

different places of the wire. The mean diameter and hence radius ’r’ is obtained.

7. The disc is removed and its mass M is determined with a weight balance. The radius of the

disc is calculated by determining the circumference of the disc using thread method.

Diameter of the wire by using screw gauge:

LC = 0.01 mm
Calibration error = Zero
Error =

Calibration Correction (cc) = Zero correction

=

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Diameter of the wire by using screw gauge:
LC = 0.01 mm
Calibration error = Zero
Error =

Calibration Correction (cc) = Zero correction

=

PSR HSC OR = PSR+( HSC x L.C) CR = OR±Z.C

S.No
10-3 m (Div.) 10-3m 10-3m

Mean(r)
=…………………….10-3m

Final Value = Mean + (Calibration

Correction (cc))

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Radius of the disc:

Circumference of the Disc = 2R X 10-2 m.

Radius of the disc (R) = Circumference of the Disc/2 X 10-2 m

CALCULATION:

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Result:

The moment of inertia of the disc (I) = ……………….kgm 2

The rigidity modulus of the wire (n) =…………………Nm-2

Viva-voce:

1. What does Torsional Pendulum mean?

2. Define Rigidity Modulus.

3. What is the difference between the Oscillation of a simple pendulum and torsion pendulum?

4. Define moment of inertia.

5. What happens to the period of oscillation upon increasing the length of the pendulum?

6. What is shearing stress and shearing strain?

OBSERVATION(10) RECORD(10) VIVA-VOCE(10) TOTAL(30)

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 Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory I

YOUNG`S MODULUS - NON UNIFORM BENDING

Ex.No : Date :

YOUNG`S MODULUS - NON UNIFORM BENDING

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Aim:

To determine the Young’s modulus of the given material (meter scale) using Non-
Uniform bending method.
Application:
In the construction of bridges to measure the stress and strain factor.

The material of the beam can be accessed using young’s modulus.

Apparatus required:
Meter scale (given material), slotted weight, knife edges, travelling microscope, and
screw gauge.
Formula:

Mg l 3
Young modulus of the material Y= N/m2

4bd 3 y

where

y - Depression for M kg of Load.

M - Load applied in kg.

L - Length of the rod between the knife edges in meter.

g - Acceleration due to gravity in meter/second2

b - Breadth of the meter scale in meter.

d - Thickness of the meter scale in meter.

Principle:

This method is based on the principle of cantilever. When a load is applied at the
center of the scale supported by two knife edges, the rod may be considered as equivalent to
two inverted cantilevers fixed at the center, the bending produced by half of the loads acting
upwards at the knife edges.
Description:

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The given bar is supported symmetrically on two knife edges near the ends at equal
distance from the midpoint. When the load is applied to the bar at its midpoint it gets
depression and the maximum depression is produced at mid point. As the outline of the beam
doesn’t have the shape of an arc of a circle and hence the bending is set to be Non-Uniform
bending.

Determination of depression ‘y’ for M kg using traveling microscope:

Least count = 0. 001 cm

Load Microscope reading

Depression (y)
‘M’ Loading Unloading
for
S.No. 10-3 Mean
M kg
VSC CR MSR VSC CR
MSR
kg 10 m
-2
10-2 m 10-2 m
div. 10-2 m 10-2 m div. 10-2 m

1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

5 W+200

6 W+250

Mean

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Mean y =….
………………….10-2m

Procedure:

1. The metre scale is placed to rest over two knife edges supported horizontally. A suitable

hanger for weights is suspended from a string tied to the bar at a point midway between

the knife edges as shown figure.

2. A pin is fixed on the rod between knife edges over the string. The position of the knife

edges is adjusted so that the length of the rod between the knife edges is sufficiently great.

3. Without changing the distance between the knife edges, an initial dead load is put on

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the hanger to make the bar rest evenly and firmly on the knife edges.

4. The rod is now loaded and unloaded a number of times to bring it in the elastic

condition. After bringing the bar in the elastic condition the microscope readings are

taken corresponding to different loads, while loading and unloading. The readings are

tabulated. The distance ‘l’ between the knife edges A and B is measured.

5. The thickness of the meter scale is measured with the help of a screw gauge at different

places on the scale and from the observed values, the mean thickness of the beam is

found. The breadth of the beam is measured using vernier caliper.

Thickness of the meter scale using screw gauge :

Least count = 0.01 mm

Calibration error = Zero Error :

Calibration Correction (cc) = Zero correction :

PSR O.R = (PSR+ (HSCxL.C)) CR = OR±Z.C

S.No.

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HSC

10-3m div. 10-3m 10-3m

Mean (d) =…………….10-3m

Final value = Mean + (cc)

Breadth of the meter scale using vernier caliper :

Least count = 0.01 cm

Calibration error = Zero Error :

Calibration Correction (cc) = Zero correction :

HSR VSC O.R =(HSR+(VSCxL.C)) CR = OR±Z.C

S.No.
10-2m div. 10-2m 10-2m

3
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Mean (B) =…………………10-2m

Final value = Mean + (cc)

CALCULATION:

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Result:

The Young’s modulus of the given meter scale Y=

Viva - Voice Questions:

1. What is meant by Non-Uniform bending?

2. Define neutral axis.
3. Define elasticity.
4. Define elastic limit.
5. What is meant by elastic constant?
6. Will there be any change in Young modulus, if the thickness of the bar is altered?
7. What is use of keeping an optimum of 0.7 to 0.8 m distance between the knife edges?
8. Name any two methods to determine Young’s modulus of the given bar.
9. What is the use of I-shape girders?

OBSEVATION(10) RECORD(10) VIVA-VOCE(10) TOTAL(30)

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Physics Laboratory I

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Physics Laboratory I
Ex. No: Date:

Date:
YOUNG`S MODULUS OF A BEAM - UNIFORM BENDING

Aim:

To determine the Young’s modulus of the material of a given meter scale by using uniform
bending method.

Apparatus required:

Meter scale, (given material), slotted weights, knife edges, traveling microscope, screw gauge
and Vernier caliper.

Formula: Young’s modulus of the material,

Where,

M - Load applied in kg.

g - Acceleration due to gravity in m/ sec2.

D - Distance between the weight hanger and knife edge in meter.

l - Distance between the two knife edges in meter.

b - Breadth of the meter scale in meter.

d - Thickness of the meter scale in meter.

y - Elevation for M in kg.

Principle:

This method is based on the principle of cantilever. When a load is applied at the either ends
of the scale supported by two knife edges, the scale gets elevated. The elevation produced by the
loads acting downwards at the ends of the scale. The total arrangement may be considered as two
equivalent cantilevers.
Application:
i. Young’s modulus of the different materials can be calculated, from this data suitable
material may be optimized for particular application.

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ii. From the optimized material the beam can be designed to give high young’s modulus
economically.
iii. Determine the maximum load to be subjected to the beam.
Description:
The given scale is supported symmetrically on two knife edges near the ends at equal
distance from the midpoint. When the loads are applied to the scale on either side of the knife edges
at equal distance from the ends of the scale, the scale gets elevation. As the outline of the scale have
the shape of an arc of a circle and hence the bending is said to be uniform bending.

Determination of elevation ‘y’ for M kg using traveling microscope:

Least count = 0. 001 cm CR = (MSR + (VSC * LC)

Microscope reading
Load Elevation
Mean
Loading Unloading
S.No. ‘M’ (y) for
“M˝ kg
(10 - 3 VSC CR MSR VSC CR
MSR 10-2m 10-2m
kg)
10-2m div. 10-2m 10-2m div 10-2m

1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

5 W+200

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Mean y =……………
10 m
-2

Procedure:

1. The meter scale is placed to rest over two knife edges supported horizontally.

2. A pin is fixed on the scale between knife edges at the midpoint. The position of the knife

edges is adjusted so that the length of the scale between the knife edges is sufficiently great

(l =80 cm).

3. A suitable weight hangers are suspended from a string tied to either ends of the bar at equal

distances (x=5cm) from the ends as shown in the figure.

4. Without changing the distance between the knife edges, an initial dead load is put on the

hangers to the make the scale rest evenly and firmly on the knife edges.

5. The rod is now loaded and unloaded a number of times to bring it in the elastic condition.

After bringing the bar to elastic condition, the microscope readings are taken corresponding

to different loads, (for loading and unloading). The distance ‘l’ between the knife edges A

and B is measured and the readings are tabulated.

6 .The thickness of the meter scale is measured with the help of a screw gauge at different

places on the scale and from the observed values, the mean thickness of the beam is found.

Similarly the breadth of the beam is measured using Vernier calipers. Then, the young’s

modulus of the material of a given meter scale can be calculated using the formula

respectively.

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Thickness of the meter scale (d) using screw gauge:

Least count = 0.01 mm

Calibration error = Zero Error =

Calibration Correction (cc) = Zero correction =

PSR HSC O.R = PSR+(HSCxL.C) CR = OR ± Z.C

S.No.
10-3 m (div.) 10-3 m 10-3 m

Mean (d)
=………………..10 m -3

Final Value = Mean+ (Calibration

Correction (cc))

Breadth of the meter scale (b) using Vernier caliper:

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Least count: 0.01 cm

Calibration error = Zero Error =

Calibration Correction (cc) = Zero correction =

S.No MS R VSC OR = MSR+(VSC x L.C) CR = OR ± Z.C

. 10-2m (Div.) 10-2m 10-2m

Mean (b)
=……………..10 m -2

Final Value = Mean+ (Calibration

Correction (cc))

CALCULATION:

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Result:

The Young’s modulus of the material of a given meter scale Y =

Viva – Voce:

1. State Hooke’s law

2. Classify the elasticity and plasticity.

3. How does ‘Y’ can be increased?

4. Point out the factors affecting elasticity.

5. Does the neutral axis undergo strain?

OBSERVATION(10 RECORD(10) VIVA-VOCE(10) TOTAL(30)

)

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Physics Laboratory I
LASER PARAMETERS – WAVE LENGTH DETERMINATION

LASER SOURCE
GRATING SCREEN

D
D

Ex.No : Date :

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 Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory I

LASER PARAMETERS – WAVELENGTH DETERMINATION

Aim:

To determine the wavelength of the given laser source using grating.

Application:

In industries:

* Cutting welding & drilling

In medical:

* Eye surgery, skin treatment and used in endoscope.

Apparatus Required:

Diode Laser, Grating, Screen, Meter scale etc...,

Formula:
Sin
The wavelength of the given laser source  = metre
Nm
Where,
 - Angle of diffraction in degree.
m - Order of diffraction.
N - No. of lines per meter in the grating (6 x 105 lines/metre).

Procedure:

1. The laser source and the grating are mounted on separate stands and kept along the path of
laser beam as shown in the figure.
2. The distance (x) between the grating and the screen is noted and the laser source is switched
on.
3. The diffracted beams are collected on the screen in the form of spots as shown in the figure.
4. The first order spots on either side of the central maximum are marked and the corresponding
distances are noted, as ‘y1’ on left side and ‘y2’ on right side.
5. The experiment is repeated for various values of x and the positions of spots are noted.

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Distance between the

central maximum and corresponding order Mean

Distance between
grating and screen = Sin 
of the diffracted spots 10 m-2
y = (y1+y2 ) =tan (y/x)
-1
Order of
diffraction (m) (x) mN
S.No Left side 2 Sin
Right side
(10-2 m)
(y1) (y2)
Å
(10-2m) (10-2m) (10-2m)

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To determine the wavelength of the Laser Source(λ) :

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CALCULATION :-

RESULT:

(i) The Wavelength of the given laser source () =…………….Å

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PARTICLE SIZE

G
R
A
T
LASER
I
N
G

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Physics Laboratory I
LASER PARAMETERS – PARTICLE SIZE
DETERMINATION

Aim:

To determine the size of the given micro particle (Lycopodium Powder) using a diode laser.

Apparatus Required:

Diode Laser, Lycopodium powder, Glass plates, Meter Scale, Screen etc.
Formula:
Size of the given particle
1.22mD
2a = metre
rm
Where,
m - Order of the dark ring.

 -Wavelength of laser source in Å.

D - Distance between the glass plate and screen in metre.

rm - Radius of the mth dark ring in metre.
Principle:
When a laser light is passed through a glass plate consists of uniform spreading of equal sized particles,
alternate dark and bright circular rings are observed due to diffraction.
Description:
Diffraction occurs only when the size of the obstacle must be comparable with the wavelength (in the
order of micron or still lesser dimension).
Procedure:

1. The given micro particles (Lycopodium Powder) are sprayed uniformly on the glass plate and the glass
plate is mounted on the stand.
2. The stand is placed along the path of the laser beam and the diffracted pattern consists of faint
concentric circles (Bright and Dark circles) are obtained on the screen.
3. The radii (Rm) of the dark rings from their centers are measured and the values are recorded.

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4. The distance (D) between the glass plate and the screen is measured.
5. Assuming the wavelength of laser source as , the particle size can be determined from the given
formula, corresponding to each order and the mean value is obtained.
6. The dark room is preferred to see the diffraction pattern clearly and for better results.

To determine the average particle size of micro particle:

Wave length of the Laser Source () = ………………… Å

Distance between Order of the ring Radius of the rings Average Particle
screen and glass
plate 10-2m size = 2a

S.No. (D) 10-6m

10-2m

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Mean 2a = ….……………… 10-6m

CALCULATION :

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RESULT:

(ii) Average size of the micro particle (2a) =…..…..……….micrometer

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ACCEPTANCE ANGLE IN AN OPTICAL FIBER

Aim:

To determine the Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture in an optical fiber.

Apparatus Required:

A Laser source, optical fiber cables, Jig for numerical aperture measurement, etc.
Formula:
r
Numerical Aperture (NA) =
(r 2 +d2)1/2

Where,
r – Radius of the circular spot in metre
d – Distance between the fiber tip and the screen in metre

Acceptance angle  max = sin –1 (NA) degrees

Principle:
When a laser light is passed through an optical fiber, the out coming light will form a cone,
called acceptance cone. From the knowledge of acceptance cone, the acceptance angle can be
calculated.
Description:
Acceptance angle refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident on the fiber, gets
total internal reflection and transmitted. Numerical aperture refers to the figure of merit of the optical
fiber.
Procedure:

1. One end of the fiber is coupled with laser output and insert the other end of the fiber into Jig.
2. The graph sheet is holded in the such a manner that the sheet face perpendicularly fiber.

3. 1cm distance is maintained between fiber & graph sheet.

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4. Gen

tly tighten the screw and thus fix the fiber in that place.

5. The radius of the cone formed by laser is measured.

Determination of Numerical Aperture and Acceptance angle.

Numerical Acceptance
Aperture Angle
Distance between the fiber tip
Radius of the circular spot
S.No and the graph sheet
10 –2 m
10 –2 m

CALCULATION:

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6.The Numerical Aperture and the Acceptance Angle can be calculated using the formula.

r
NA =
(r2 +d2)1/2
 max = sin –1 (NA) degrees.

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Result:

i) Numerical Aperture of the optical fiber NA =

ii) Acceptance angle of the optical fiber  max =

Viva - Voce

1. What is numerical aperture?

2. What is acceptance cone of an optical fiber?
3. What is acceptance angle?
4. What is total internal reflection?
5. What is diffraction?
6. What is laser?
7. What is Fraunhoffer diffraction?
8. What is diffraction grating? How does it produce diffraction?
9. What type of laser is used in this experiment?
10. What are the types of lasers available? Mention their corresponding wavelength?

OBSEVATION(10) RECORD(10) VIVA-VOCE(10) TOTAL(30)

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THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY – LEE’S DISC METHOD

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Ex.No : Date :

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY – LEE’S DISC METHOD

Aim:

To determine the thermal conductivity of

a bad conductor by Lee’s disc method.
Application:
Used to identify the material opted to a particular application.

Used to determine thermal conductivity of a given material.

Apparatus Required:

Lee’s disc apparatus, bad conductor, steam boiler, two thermometers, screw gauge, vernier
caliper, stop clock etc.

Formula:

Thermal conductivity of a given bad conductor

MSd ( r+2 l) dθ W m-1 k-1

K=

π r ²(2r+2l ) (1-2) dt

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Where

M - Mass of the disc placed over the experimental disc in kilogram.

S - Specific heat capacity of the material of the disc (370 J kg -1K-1).

d - Thickness of the bad conductor in metre.

r - Radius of the brass disc in metre.

l - Thickness of the brass disc in metre.

q1 - Temperature of the steam chamber in °C.

q2 - Steady state temperature of the brass disc in °C

dθ -Rate of heat radiation of the brass disc at q2.in °C

dt

Principle:

A state at which the temperature of anybody remains constant is called steady state. At
steady state, the heat energy gained by the body will be dissipated by means of radiation.

Observation:-

Steady state temperature of the steam chamber q1=…………. °C.

Steady state temperature of the metallic disc q2 =………………..°C.

Temperature Vs Time

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Time
Sl. No. Temperature °C
Minutes Seconds Time in Seconds

1 q2+5

2 q2+4

3 q2+3

4 q2+2

5 q2+1

6
q2

7
q2-1

8
q2-2

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9 q2-3

10 q2-4

11 q2-5

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FROM GRAPH :
Temperature

Time

Description:

Lee’s disc apparatus consists of a heavy brass disc (B) placed over a cylindrical steam
chamber (S) of same diameter. A bad conductor of same diameter whose thermal conductivity to
be determined is place in between them. At steady state, the amount of heat energy (Q) passes

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through the bad conductor and the amount heat energy dissipated by the disc are equal. If Q is
known, thermal conductivity (K) can be calculated.

Procedure:

1. Lee’s disc experimental set up is made as shown in figure.

2. Steam is passed through the chamber. As heat gets conducted into the brass disc through the
bad conductor, the disc gets heated up.
3. The temperature of brass disc is watched from time to time. At a stage the temperature
becomes steady. When the temperature is stable for at least 10 minutes, the steady state
temperature of the brass disc (2 °C) and the temperature of steam chamber (1 °C) are noted.
4. Now the bad conductor is removed and the brass disc is placed over the steam chamber
directly, until the temperature of brass disc raises by 5 °C above the steady temperature (2).
5. Then, the brass disc is suspended separately away from the steam chamber.
6. Power supply to the heater is cut off.
7. Time is noted for every 1°C fall in temperature of the brass disc from (2+5) to
(2-5) oC and the values are tabulated.

8. A graph is drawn with temperature on the y-axis and the time on the x-axis and a horizontal
line is drawn corresponding to the steady temperature 2 oC.
9. Time ‘dt’ for a fall of temperature ‘d’ can be found by taking two points, one is at one degree
above 2 and the other one is at one degree below 2. From this, the rate of heat radiated from
experimental disc can be determined.
10. Note down the mass (M) of the brass disc B as noted over it or determine its mass using
balance.
11. The thickness (l) of brass disc & bad conductor are determined using screw gauge and the
radius of the brass disc is determined using thread method.

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Thickness of the brass disc (l) using screw gauge:

Least count = 0.01 mm

Calibration error = Zero Error :

Calibration Correction (cc) = Zero correction :

S.No PSR HSC O.R= (PSR+(HSC x L.C)) C.R =O.R±ZC

10-3 m div. 10-3 m 10-3 m

Mean = 10-3 m

Final value = Mean + (cc)

Thickness of the bad conductor (d) using screw gauge:

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Least count = 0.01 mm

Calibration error = Zero Error :

Calibration Correction (cc) = Zero correction :

S.No PSR HSC O.R= (PSR+(HSC x L.C)) C.R =O.R±ZC

10-3 m div. 10-3 m 10-3 m

Mean =

Final value = Mean + (cc)

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CALCULATION:-

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Result:

Thermal conductivity of the bad conductor, K = …………….Wm -1K-1.

Viva – Voce:

1. Define thermal conductivity

2. Can we use this apparatus to determine the thermal conductivity of air?
3. Why do we use the polished plate?
4. State some of the application of bad conductors?
5. Give some examples of Bad conductor?
6. State some application of Bad conductors?
7. What do you understand by the term steady state?

OBSEVATION(10) RECORD(10) VIVA-VOCE(10) TOTAL(30)

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ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER

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Ex.No : Date :

ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER
Aim:

(i).To determine the velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid using Ultrasonic interferometer

(ii). To determine the compressibility of the given liquid

Application:

In industries

*A Non-Destructive Testing tool.

In medical

* A scanner clean medical instrument

Apparatus required:

Ultrasonic interferometer, measuring cell, frequency generator , given liquid, etc

Formula:

(i). Velocity of ultrasonic waves in the liquid v = nλ ms-1

Where, Wavelength λ= 2d/x metre

(ii).Compressibility of the given liquid K= 1/v2ρ m-2 N-1

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Explanation of Symbols:

Symbols Explanation Unit

n Frequency of the generator which excites the crystal Hertz

λ Wavelength of ultrasonics Metre

ρ Density of the given liquid Kgm-3

d Distance moved by the micrometer screw Metre

x Number of oscillations Unit

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(i)To find the velocity of ultrasonic waves in liquid

Type of liquid = ……………. Frequency of generator =……….Hz

TR=PSR+ (HSC×LC)

S.NO. No. of Reading of `x’ oscillation

Velocity
oscillations
Initial reading d=R1~R2 λ =2d/x V=nλ
(x) PSR HSR TR 10-3m` 10-3m ms-1

10-3 m div. 10-3m

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(ii)Compressibility of the given liquid k = 1/v2ρ

=……………………………….m2N-1

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THEORY:

An Ultrasonic Interferometer is a simple and direct device to determine the velocity of

ultrasonic waves in liquid with a high degree of accuracy. Here the high frequency generator
generates variable frequency which excites the Quartz Crystal placed at the bottom of the measuring
cell (Fig.ii). The excited Quartz Crystal generates ultrasonic waves in the experimental liquid. The
liquid will now serve as an acoustical grating element. Hence when ultrasonic waves passes through
the rulings of grating, successive maxima and minima occurs, satisfying the condition and
diffraction

Initial adjustments: In high frequency generator two knobs are provided for initial
adjustment. One is marked with `Adj` (set) and the other with `Gain` (sensitivity). With knob
marked `Adj` the position of the needle on the ammeter is adjusted and with the knob marked
`Gain`, the sensitivity of the instrument can be increased for greater deflection, if desired.

PROCEDURE:

The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high frequency generator
through a shielded cable. The cell is filled with the experimental liquid before switching ON the
generator. Now, when the frequency generator is switched ON, the ultrasonic waves move normal
from the Quartz Crystal till they are reflected back by the movable reflector plate. Hence, standing
waves are formed in the liquid in between the reflector plate and the quartz crystal.

The distance between the reflector and crystal is varied using the micrometer screw such that
the anode current of the generator increases to a maximum and the decreases to a minimum and again
increases to a maximum. The distance of separation between successive maximum or successive
minimum in the anode current is equal to half the wavelength of the Ultrasonic waves in the liquid
(Fig.ii). Therefore, by noting the initial and final positions of the micrometer screw for one complete
oscillation (maxima-minima-maxima) the distance moved by the reflector can be determined.

To minimize the error, the distance (d) moved by the micrometer screw is noted for `x` number
of oscillations (successive-maxima), by noting the initial and final readings in the micrometer
screw and is tabulated. From the total distance (d) moved by the micrometer screw and the
number of oscillations (x), the wavelength of ultrasonic waves can be determined using the

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formula λ=2d/x. From the value of λ and by noting the frequency of the generator (n), the
velocity of the ultrasonic waves can be calculated using the given formula.

After determining the velocity of the Ultrasonic waves in liquid, the compressibility of the
liquid is calculated using the given formula.

CALCULATION :-

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RESULT:

(i) The velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid

=…………………………………ms-2
(ii) Compressibility of the given liquid =…………………………….…
m-2N-1

VIVA-VOCE

1. What is meant by compressibility?

2. Explain the terms stress and strain?

3. What is the frequency range of ultrasonic?

4. What is mean by acoustical grating?

5. Explain the principal of determining the compressibility of liquid.

6. What is meant by node and Antinode?

7. What do you understand by the term “Over tones” ?

8. Is ultrasonic wave, an Electromagnetic wave? Explain.

9. What are the various liquids that can be used for finding the compressibility using

ultrasonic interferometer?

11. What type of crystal is thrown into vibration in the case of ultrasonic interferometer?

OBSEVATION(10) RECORD(10) VIVA-VOCE(10) TOTAL(30)

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Ex.No : Date :

SPECTROMETER GRATING

Aim:
To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury spectrum using
grating.
Application :
In laboratory

* Used to find the no on line in a given grating.

* Used to find the wavelength of a spectrum.
Apparatus Required:
Diffraction grating, Spectrometer, Mercury vapour lamp, Reading lens, Table lamp and
Sprit level.
Formula:

The number of lines drawn on the grating per metre N = sin θ

mλ

The wavelength of the prominent lines of the mercury spectrum λ = sin θ Å

Nm
Where,
 - Angle of diffraction in degrees.
m - Order of spectrum.
N - Number of lines in the grating / metre
 - Wavelength of mercury green = 5461x10-10 m.
Principle:
When light passes through a very narrow slit (dimension comparable to the wavelength of
light), diffraction takes place.
Description:

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Very large number of closely spaced opaque and transparent narrow slits forms a grating.
The fine groves on a glass plate drawn using diamond tip. When light passes through a grating,
diffraction takes place. Angle of diffraction depends on wavelength of light and number of lines per
metre on the grating.

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II. Reading for the diffracted image (determination of wave length of spectral lines):
Least count = 1’
Telescope Reading

2B=B1 ~ B2
2A=A1 ~ A2
Mean angle of Sin 
Left Right =
Spectral diffraction
Vernier A (A1) Vernier B (B1) Vernier A (A2) Vernier B (B2) =2A+2B Nm
lines
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR 4

Deg. Div. Deg Deg. Div. Deg. Deg. Div. Deg. Deg. Div. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg.
10-10 m

Violet

Indigo

Blue

Green

Yellow1

Yellow2

Red1

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Red2

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Procedure:

(A) Initial adjustments of the spectrometer.

1. The eyepiece is adjusted until the cross-wires are clearly seen, when viewed through the
telescope.
2. The telescope is directed towards a distant object and the distance between the objective and
the eyepiece is adjusted until a clear, well defined, inverted and diminished image of the
object is seen through it. Now the telescope is capable of receiving parallel rays.
3. The telescope is rotated and fixed in line with the collimator. The width of the slit is made
narrow; the slit is illuminated by a source of light. On looking through the telescope, the slit
is moved forward and backward with the help of the rack and pinion screw until a clear
image of the slit is seen through the telescope. Now the rays of light emerging out from the
collimator will be rendered parallel.
4. The base of the spectrometer is adjusted to be horizontal with the help of levelling screws
and spirit level.
5. The prism table is now adjusted to be horizontal. For this, a spirit level is placed on the
prism table, parallel to the line joining any two levelling screw. One of the screw is adjusted
until the air bubble comes to the center of the spirit level. Now the prism table will be
horizontal.
(B) Normal incidence:
1. The collimator and telescope are arranged in line and the image of slit of collimator is
focused.
2. Mount the grating on the prism table.
3. Slit is coincide with vertical cross wire and the readings are set as 0-0 and 0 - 180 on both
venires and fixed.
4. The Telescope is now rotated through 90º in one direction and fixed.
5. The prism table with grating is rotated so that the reflected image coincides with the vertical
cross wire.
6. Turn the vernier disc from this position through 45º in the direction of rotation of telescope.
7. Now the grating is kept in normal to the incident beam.

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Determination of Least count = 1 MSD – 1VSD

= 1/2 degree – 29/60 degree
= (30 – 29)/60 degree
= 1/60 degree
= 1'
I. Reading for the diffracted image (determination of no. of lines per meter on the grating):

Least count = 1’
Telescope Reading
Mean angle Sin 
2A 2B of diffraction N=
Left Right
Spectral line

A ~A B ~B =2A+2B λm
Vernier A (A1) Vernier B (B1) Vernier A (A2) Vernier B (B2) 1 2 1 2
4
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR

Deg. Div. Deg. Deg. Div. Deg. Deg. Div. Deg. Deg. Div. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg.
Lines/m
GREEN

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CALCULATION :-

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(C) Determination of No. of lines and wavelength:

1. When the telescope is brought in line with the collimator and the central white image is
observed.
2. On either side of the white image, diffraction spectra of different colors are obtained.
3. The difference between the two readings of left (vernierA) and right (vernier B) for each

spectral line gives 2 for that line.

4. Hence the angle of diffraction  is obtained for each line. The angle of diffraction for the

prominent green line of the mercury spectrum is used to determine the no. of lines per
meter on the grating and hence the wavelength of each prominent line can also be

determined.

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Result:

The wavelength of lines in the mercury spectrum has been determined and tabulated.

VIVA-VOCE

1. Define Diffraction.
2. Define wavelength.
3. What is meant by Normal incidence.?
4. What is meant by monochromatic light?
5. What is the condition for diffraction?
6. Using a laser, can you calculate the number of lines per unit length of the grating
with using grating?
7. What is the use of collimator & telescope?
8. What are the initial adjustments made in spectrometer?
9. What is the purpose of using spirit level?
10. Why the sky appears red during sunset?

OBSEVATION(10) RECORD(10) VIVA-VOCE(10) TOTAL(30)

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BAND GAP DETERMINATION USING POST OFFICE BOX

Objective:

To find the band gap of material of the given thermistor using post office
box.

Introductory Information:

All solids have a valance hand, conduction band and forbidden gap. This
forbidden gap (energy corresponding to the bottom of the conduction and energy
corresponding to the top of the valance band) is the “Band Gap” denoted as Eg.
The band gap is the factor based on which all solids can be divided into metals,
semiconductors and insulators. In a metal there is no band gap ‘normally. Whereas
in a insulator the band gap is very high. In a semiconductor the band gap is much
smaller than that of an insulator.

Instruments Required:

Thermistor, thermometer, post office box, leclanche cell, galvanometer and

insulating oil.

Theory:

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Thermistor is made up of a semi conducting material The resistance of a

semiconductor RT at absolute temperature T is given by the formula

RT =Roe (Eg / kT )

where
Ro is a constant.
K is Boltzmann’s constant and
Ø is called the band gap energy, which is the minimum energy required for an
electron to be promoter from the valance band to conduction band.

The above formula can be written after taking the logarithm as,

log RT = loge Ro+ Eg / kT

2.303 log10 RT = 2.303 log10Ro + Eg / kT

Plotting graph of (2.303 log10 RT) against l/T, the slope enables one to calculate the
band gap Eg.

To find the resistance at various temperatures, post office box is used.

(Whcatstone’s network.)

For Wheatstone’s network,

P/Q = R/RT

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Where P,Q,R. are known resistance and RT is the resistance of the

thermistor.

Procedure:

The connections are given as in Fig1 . 10 ohms resistance are taken in P and
Q, the tap keys are pressed. The resistance in R is adjusted to find the resistances,
which differ, by 1 ohm. Now the defections in the galvanometer for these
resistances will be on either side of Zero of galvanometer. This means that the
resistance of the thermistor lies between R and (R+1). Then keeping the resistance
in Q the same, the resistance in P is changed to 100 Again two resistances. Which
differ by one ohm, are found out such that the deflections in the galvanometer are
on either side of “o”.

Then the resistance in P is made 1000 ohms keeping same 10 ohms in Q. Again two

resistances R and (R+1) are found out such that the deflection in galvanometer changes its

direction.

Then the correct resistance

RT= [Q/P] x R or (R+1) - 0.01(R+1).

Thus the resistance of the thermistor. Is found out accurately to two decimals at
room Temperature The lower value may be assumed to be R T (0.01R) Then the
thermistor is heated, by keeping it immersed in an immersed in an insulating oil.
For every 10L rise in temperature. The resistance of the thermistor is found out.
(i.e.) RT s is found out. The readings are entered in Table 1.

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Graph

A graph is drawn between 1/T in x-axis and 2.303 (log 10 RT) in Y axis
where, T is the temperature in K and R T is the resistance of the therimstor at T K
The graph will be as shown in Fig.

Slope of the graph : dy/dx = Eg/ 2k

Band gap Eg =2k x slope of the graph dy/dx

Where k – Boltzmann’s constant

Inference:

The band gap of the material of the thermistor =

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S.N

Unit
0
C
Resistance of the therimstor

K
Temperature of the
thermistor

L/T
K-1

s
Ohm
Resistance in p ‘p’

77
Ohms

Resistance in Q ‘Q’
Ohms

Resistance in R ‘R’
Ohms

Resistance of the therimstor

Ohms

(2.3003)log10 RT

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2.303log10RT

l/T

Ex. No: Date:

DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF A WIRE - AIR

WEDGE METHOD

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Aim:

To determine the thickness of thin wire by forming interference fringes using an air wedge
arrangement.

Apparatus required:

Two optically plane rectangular glass plates, sodium vapour lamp, thin wire and traveling
microscope.
Formula:

Where,
λ - Wavelength of monochromatic light (sodium vapour lamp) (5893x 10-10 m).

 - Band width of fringes in meter.

L - Distance between the edge of the contact and the wire in meter.
Principle:

When a light beam reflected by top and bottom surfaces of any thin film of media will form

interference pattern. The spacing of the fringes depends upon the thickness of the thick media.

Application:
i. Paint coating thickness can be measured.
ii. It is a precision instrument used to evaluate the research data’s.

Description:
If two glass plates are placed face to face with one end separated by a wire or a piece of paper an
air wedge is formed. If monochromatic light is on the plates a series of straight line fringes are seen
parallel to the line along which the glass plates touch. This is due to interference by division of
amplitude. Some light reflected at the bottom surface of the top plate and some from the top surface
bottom plate superpose to give the interference fringes. These fringes can be clearly seen through a
microscope only if the wedge angle is less than 4 minutes of arc.

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Determination of bandwidth using traveling microscope:

Least count = 0.001X 10-2m

Order of the Microscope reading Width of 10 Band width 

S.No. fringes Fringes
MSR VSC TR
x10-2m div. x10-2m x10-2m x10-2m
1 n

2 n+5

3 n+10

4 n+15

5 n+20

6 n+25

7 n+30

8 n+35

9 n+40

10 n+45

Mean ()=…………
x10-2m

Determination of the distance between the point contact and the object (x)

S.No Rubber band position reading Wire position reading Distance (x)
10-2m 10-2m 10-2m

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MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR

x10-2m div. x10-2m x10-2m div. x10-2m

Procedure:

1. An air wedge is formed by keeping two optically plane glass plates in contact at one end and

placing a thin wire in between the glass plates, near the other end of the glass plates parallel to

the edges of conduct as shown in figure.

2. This arrangement is placed on the bed of the traveling microscope

3. A parallel of monochromatic light is reflected down on the air wedge by a glass plate kept

inclined at an angle if 450 to the horizontal.

4. Interference takes place between the light reflected at the top and bottom surfaces of the air film

between the two plane glass plates.

5. Interference pattern consisting of a series of bright and dark bands of equal width is viewed by a

traveling microscope arranged above the air wedge.

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6. The reading on the horizontal scale of the microscope is taken. Cross wire is made to coincide

with successive fifth fringes (n+5, n+10, n+15……….n+45) and the corresponding readings are

taken.

7. Using the traveling microscope the distance ‘L’ between the edges of the contact of the plate and

the wire is measured.

CALCULATION:

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Result:

The diameter of the given thin wire (d) =

Viva-Voce:

1. Define coherence.
2. How to test optical flatness using this arrangement?
3. In Newton’s expt. Circular rings are formed while in air wedge
Straight-line fringes are formed. Give reason?
4. What is the condition for the formation of bright rings?
5. Why do we get straight-line fringes in an air wedge?
6. What happens to the fringe width if the thickness of the material (thin object) doubled?
7. What happens to the fringe width if the distance between the edge of contact and thin wire
increased?
8. What happens to the fringe width if the thickness of the material (thin object) doubled?
9. What happens to the fringe width if the distance between the edge of contact and thin wire
increased?
10. Is there any loss of energy in interference phenomenon?

OBSERVATION(10) RECORD(10) VIVA-VOCE(10) TOTAL(30)

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