Solutions Architecture

A Modern Approach to Cloud

and Digital Systems Delivery

Wasim Rajput
Solutions Architecture: A Modern Approach to Cloud and
Digital Systems Delivery
Wasim Rajput
Trabuco Canyon, CA, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9656-1 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9657-8

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9657-8

Copyright © 2023 by Wasim Rajput

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather than use a trademark
symbol with every occurrence of a trademarked name, logo, or image we use the names, logos,
and images only in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no
intention of infringement of the trademark.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not
they are subject to proprietary rights.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal
responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.
Managing Director, Apress Media LLC: Welmoed Spahr
Acquisitions Editor: Shivangi Ramachandran
Development Editor: James Markham
Editorial Assistant: Shaul Elson
Copy Editor: Mary Behr
Cover designed by eStudioCalamar
Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Springer Science+Business Media New York,
1 New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004-1562, USA. Phone 1-800-SPRINGER, fax (201)
348-4505, e-mail [email protected], or visit www.springeronline.com. Apress Media,
LLC is a California LLC and the sole member (owner) is Springer Science + Business Media
Finance Inc (SSBM Finance Inc). SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware corporation.
For information on translations, please e-mail [email protected]; for
reprint, paperback, or audio rights, please e-mail [email protected].
Apress titles may be purchased in bulk for academic, corporate, or promotional use. eBook
versions and licenses are also available for most titles. For more information, reference our Print
and eBook Bulk Sales web page at www.apress.com/bulk-sales.
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the author in this book is
available to readers on GitHub (github.com/apress). For more detailed information, please visit
https://www.apress.com/gp/services/source-code.
Paper in this product is recyclable
To my family, who have supported me throughout
all the projects of my life!
Table of Contents
About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi

About the Technical Reviewer�����������������������������������������������������������xiii

Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv

Chapter 1: Understanding Digital Solutions�����������������������������������������1

Digitalization and Digital Transformation��������������������������������������������������������������2
The New Digital Trends and Technologies�������������������������������������������������������������3
Examples: Successful Digital Projects and Solutions�������������������������������������������8
Complexity of Digital Solutions���������������������������������������������������������������������������11
Complexity Factors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11
Complexity Framework����������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
The Need for Solutions Architecture�������������������������������������������������������������������22
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28

Chapter 2: The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and

Activities���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31
What Is Solutions Architecture?��������������������������������������������������������������������������31
Solutions Architecture Activities vs. the Project Lifecycle����������������������������������41
Typical Project Lifecycle Activities�����������������������������������������������������������������42
Typical Solutions Architecture Activities��������������������������������������������������������48

v
Table of Contents

Solutions Architecture vs. Enterprise Architecture���������������������������������������������55

The Enterprise Architecture Process�������������������������������������������������������������55
The Difference Between Enterprise Architecture and
Solutions Architecture�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������60
The Solutions Architect and the Other Architects in Organizations���������������������64
Tailoring the Solutions Architecture Process������������������������������������������������������67
Example���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71

Chapter 3: Fostering Digital and Business Alignment������������������������73

Example: Misalignment of Technology and Business�����������������������������������������74
The Solutions Architect’s Role in Business Alignment����������������������������������������75
Using Business Strategy to Drive Solutions Architecture������������������������������������76
The Intersection of Business Strategy and Solutions Architecture:
Essential Dimensions and Components��������������������������������������������������������78
Aligning Solutions Architecture with Business Architecture�������������������������������82
Products and Services�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������84
Business Processes���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85
Data and Information Related to Business Processes�����������������������������������86
Business Rules����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������87
An Organization’s Stakeholders���������������������������������������������������������������������87
Business Performance Metrics���������������������������������������������������������������������88
Business Capabilities������������������������������������������������������������������������������������88
The Importance of Business Use Cases in Solutions Architecture����������������������90
Business Use Cases vs. Business Processes������������������������������������������������91
Business Use Cases vs. Business Requirements������������������������������������������92
Business Use Case Examples������������������������������������������������������������������������93
Business Use Cases for New Technologies���������������������������������������������������94

vi
 Table of Contents

Gathering Solution Requirements�����������������������������������������������������������������������96

Gathering Functional Requirements��������������������������������������������������������������97
Gathering Non-Functional Requirements����������������������������������������������������105
Example: Non-Functional Requirements of an AR Application��������������������108
Best Practices for Achieving Business and Technology Alignment�������������������111
Acting As a Technical Mentor and Advisor to the Business�������������������������112
Establishing Higher-Level Strategic-­Level Agreements������������������������������113
Engaging Closely with the Business Outcome Owners�������������������������������114
Improving Communication and Collaboration Between Technical and
Business Teams�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������115
Working Closely with the Product Owner����������������������������������������������������115
Project Deliverables (Business Alignment)�������������������������������������������������������116
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������118
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������119

Chapter 4: Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture�������121

Example: Technical Architecture�����������������������������������������������������������������������122
Conduct a Current State Infrastructure and Technology Assessment���������������124
The Value of Performing Current Technology Assessment��������������������������125
Defining the Scope of the Technology Assessment�������������������������������������130
Example: Technology Assessment for an IoT-­Based System�����������������������131
Selection of Technology Stacks������������������������������������������������������������������������134
Examples of Technology Stacks������������������������������������������������������������������136
Considerations When Selecting a Specific Technology Stack���������������������138
Conducting POCs and Technical Evaluation of Tools and Services�������������������141
Solutions Alignment with Enterprise Architecture��������������������������������������������145
Technology Architecture������������������������������������������������������������������������������148
Data Architecture�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������149

vii
Table of Contents

Application Architecture������������������������������������������������������������������������������151
Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������152
Developing the Solution’s Target Technology Architecture�������������������������������153
Technology and Infrastructure Architecture������������������������������������������������154
Creating the Application Architecture����������������������������������������������������������157
Creating A Data Architecture�����������������������������������������������������������������������162
Creating the Security Architecture��������������������������������������������������������������168
Target Technology Architecture Risk Assessment���������������������������������������������172
Examples: Technology Risk Assessment�����������������������������������������������������172
Project Deliverables (Technology Architecture)�������������������������������������������������174
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������177
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������178

Chapter 5: Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and

Best Practices����������������������������������������������������������������������������������181
Why Choose an Architectural Framework?�������������������������������������������������������184
Industry Digital Architectural Frameworks�������������������������������������������������������186
Amazon Web Services Well-­Architected Framework�����������������������������������186
The Azure Well-Architected Framework������������������������������������������������������187
Google Cloud Architecture���������������������������������������������������������������������������187
Cloud Native Computing Foundation Cloud Native Landscape��������������������188
CISA Internet of Things Acquisition Guidance����������������������������������������������189
OpenStack Architecture�������������������������������������������������������������������������������189
Kubernetes Architecture������������������������������������������������������������������������������189
Tanzu�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������190
Example: AWS Well-Architected Framework�����������������������������������������������������191
About the AWS Well-Architected Framework����������������������������������������������191
The Six Pillars of the AWS Well-­Architected Framework�����������������������������192
Design Principles�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������193

viii
 Table of Contents

Best Practices����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������195
AWS Well-Architected Lenses����������������������������������������������������������������������196
Deciding on a Custom Architectural Framework�����������������������������������������������197
Example: Selecting the Right Kubernetes Service��������������������������������������������198
Self-Managed Kubernetes���������������������������������������������������������������������������198
Managed Kubernetes Services��������������������������������������������������������������������198
Kubernetes as a Service������������������������������������������������������������������������������199
Hybrid Approach������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������200
Technical Debt Considerations in Solutions Architecture����������������������������������200
Technical Debt and Its Relevance to Solutions Architecture�����������������������201
The Role of the Solutions Architect in Influencing Technical Debt��������������204
Example: Technical Debt-Related Decisions������������������������������������������������205
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������208
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������209

Chapter 6: Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions

Architects�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������211
A Message to CIOs and CTOs����������������������������������������������������������������������������211
Ensuring Alignment Through the Domain of Solutions Architecture������������212
The Role of Solutions Architects������������������������������������������������������������������213
Becoming a Solutions Architect������������������������������������������������������������������������214
Definition of a Solutions Architect���������������������������������������������������������������215
Key Skills Needed to Become a Solutions Architect������������������������������������216
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������222

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������223

ix
About the Author
  a digital and technology professional with
As
many years of experience in both consulting
and client organizations, Wasim Rajput has
led multiple digital transformation projects
and directed teams and technology vendors
to deliver enterprise solutions. He has also
managed multiple PMOs that were established
to deliver large programs and projects. He
has extensive program management and
process improvement experience. He has worked with many technologies
involving 5G, IoT, cloud technologies, AI/ML, and analytics, and he
has extensive research and writing experience in the area of digital and
information technologies.  

xi
About the Technical Reviewer
Van VanArsdale has spent most of his life working with technology.
His dad started teaching him to program at age 8 and it became a lifelong
passion. He earned a B.S. degree in Computer Information Systems from
the University of Massachusetts Lowell and a M.S. in CIS from Missouri
State University. He has spent the last 30 years designing and building
systems for educational and financial services companies.

xiii
Introduction
This book provides a comprehensive understanding of the end-to-end
solutions architecture process and the crucial role that solutions architects
play in designing digital solutions for modern organizations. Solutions
architects are responsible for translating high-level business propositions
into actionable steps that result in useful and effective digital solutions
that meet organizational requirements. This book covers the various steps
involved in achieving this objective, from understanding business needs
to designing, implementing, and maintaining solutions that align with
business goals.

 Technology-Agnostic Approach
A
to the Solutions Architecture Process
As the focus of this book is mostly on the solutions architecture method
and the overall process, it doesn’t focus on architecting any specific type
of digital technology or related solutions. Rather, it focuses on the general
principles and best practices related to creating a solutions architecture
for any type of digital system. It provides solution architects with a
comprehensive guide to the solutions architecture process, enabling
them to approach their work with a structured and adaptable mindset.
By focusing on the general principles and best practices of solutions
architecture, the book provides a foundation for architects to apply their
skills and knowledge to a wide range of digital technologies and solutions,
including cloud native applications and systems, mobile applications,
AI/ML applications, enterprise software, Internet of Things (IoT) solutions,
and others. In this context, the book offers various examples of digital

xv
Introduction

systems architecture and design to illustrate key solutions architecture

concepts and best practices. This can help architects to stay current and
relevant in a rapidly evolving technological landscape, and to approach
each new project with a structured and adaptable mindset.
The remainder of this introduction introduces the solutions
architecture domain and provides a summary of the other chapters in this
book to assist you in preparing for the topics covered later.

 hat Is Solutions Architecture and What

W
Is It Not?
The solutions architecture process is a critical component of the digital
system project delivery lifecycle, emphasizing activities that maximize
business alignment and the creation of a target technology architecture
for the solution. It is a strategic approach to designing and implementing
technology solutions that align with business goals and objectives. It
involves understanding the business context, identifying underlying
problems, and designing a solution that meets the needs of the business
while considering factors such as scalability, security, reliability,
maintainability, and others. A successful organizational solutions
architecture process thus ensures the delivery of digital and technology
solutions that meet the needs of the business and are scalable, secure,
reliable, and maintainable in the long term.
Here we should recognize that a solutions architecture process is a
complex process that requires much more than just collecting business
requirements and creating a technology architecture. It involves
understanding the business context, strategy, and processes, and also
identifying the underlying problems that need to be addressed. This
requires a deep understanding of the business, the industry, and the
technological landscape. Additionally, effective communication with
stakeholders and the ability to balance technical considerations with
business needs are critical to the success of the process.

xvi
 Introduction

Once the underlying problems have been identified and analyzed in

light of an organization's business strategy, the solutions architect is tasked
with finalizing the target technology architecture before the detailed
design and then implementation can proceed. However, this process
should not be rushed or done haphazardly. It involves conducting proof-­
of-­concepts (POCs), evaluating different technologies and vendors, and
aligning with enterprise architecture (EA) principles. This also involves
ensuring that the chosen technologies are compatible with existing
systems and meet the organization's standards for security, scalability,
reliability, and maintainability.
The solutions architecture (blueprint) of a project, therefore, is much
more than its technical components. It goes beyond just the technical
aspects of the solution and includes how the overall solution will work
in business terms and solve an organization’s problems. The solutions
architecture should align with the organization's goals and requirements
and should provide a clear roadmap for achieving those goals. Therefore,
solutions architecture is not just about technology. It is also about
understanding the business needs and designing a solution that delivers
business value.
Accordingly, it's important to recognize that the solutions architecture
process is complex and requires a deep understanding of the business,
the industry, and the technological landscape. Rushing through this
process can lead to suboptimal solutions that may not meet the needs
of the business, and may not be scalable, secure, or maintainable in the
long term. This can result in additional costs and potentially disrupt the
operations of the organization. Therefore, taking the time to carefully plan
and execute the solutions architecture process is essential for delivering
effective solutions that align with business goals and drive value.

xvii
Introduction

 ow Solutions Architecture Contributes To 

H
Executing an Organization’s Technology Strategy
As CIOs and technology executives strive to deliver innovative digital
solutions quickly and efficiently, they face several technology strategy
related challenges. A McKinsey report [1] highlights these key challenges:

• Modernizing IT systems for speed, security, resiliency,

and reusability

• Reducing technical debt, which refers to the cost

of additional work incurred due to shortcuts or
suboptimal decisions during technology delivery

• Positioning the organization to fully benefit from

constantly emerging technologies

• Enhancing productivity within technical teams

• Leveraging the evolving AI landscape and capitalizing

on the decentralized market's available capabilities

• Combining multiple technology trends to create

innovative solutions and unlock greater potential
• Integrating AI capabilities throughout the technology
stack to improve applications and processes

• And more

A solutions architecture process can help address these challenges

by providing a structured approach to designing and implementing
technology solutions. This process ensures that the organization's
technology investments are well aligned with business goals, optimized
for performance, and adaptable to emerging trends. For example, in the
context of the above, here's how a solutions architecture process can help
address the challenges mentioned:

xviii
 Introduction

• Modernizing IT systems: A solutions architecture

process can help identify the right technologies and
design patterns that promote speed, security, resiliency,
and reusability. It aids in assessing current systems and
recommending improvements or replacements to align
with modern architectural principles.

• Reducing technical debt: A solutions architecture

process can enable a thorough analysis of requirements
and trade-offs, promoting informed decision-making
that minimizes shortcuts and suboptimal choices,
thereby reducing technical debt.

• Embracing emerging technologies: As the solutions

architecture process involves continuous research and
evaluation of new technologies, it can help organizations
understand the implications and benefits of integrating these
technologies into their current systems and processes.

• Enhancing productivity: By providing a clear vision

and roadmap for technology implementations,
the solutions architecture process can help in the
streamlining of development efforts, enabling technical
teams to work more efficiently and effectively.

• Leveraging AI and decentralized capabilities:

A solutions architect can guide the organization in
understanding and incorporating AI and decentralized
technologies into existing systems, ensuring the
business stays competitive and capitalizes on these
emerging trends.

xix
Introduction

• Combining multiple technology trends: Solutions

architects can identify opportunities for combinatorial
innovation by analyzing various technology trends
and devising strategies to integrate them effectively,
unlocking greater potential and enabling innovative
solutions.

• Integrating AI capabilities: The solutions architecture

process helps organizations identify the best way
to incorporate AI-driven intelligence throughout
their technology stack, enhancing applications and
processes and delivering greater value to the business.

• And more

As you go through the rest of this book, I will provide guidance on the
processes, architectural parameters, best practices, and industry trends
related to a solutions architecture process that can help address the above
challenges.

 ow Solutions Architecture Methods Vary

H
Across Technologies
In general, the overall solutions architecture process should follow a
general framework regardless of the type of digital technology or system
being implemented. However, the specific steps plus business and
technical considerations within each stage may differ depending on the
nature of the technology and the specific requirements of the solution
being designed.
Let’s consider the following example. When gathering requirements
for a cloud-based software solution, the focus may be on understanding
the needs of the users who will be accessing the software through a web
browser or mobile app. This may involve identifying the user personas,

xx
 Introduction

understanding their workflows and tasks, and determining the features

and functionalities they need to perform their work efficiently.
The requirements gathering process for an IoT solution, on the
other hand, may involve identifying the specific sensors and devices that
will be used to collect data from the physical world. This may include
understanding the type of data that needs to be collected, the frequency
of data collection, the accuracy and precision requirements for the
sensors, and the communication protocols used to transmit the data to the
cloud. In addition, the requirements gathering stage for an IoT solution
may involve more stringent security and privacy requirements that are
necessary to safeguard the data collected from the sensors.
As you can see, the focus of the requirements gathering stage differs
depending on the technology being implemented. For a cloud-based
software solution, the focus is on user needs and workflows, whereas for an
IoT solution, the focus is on sensor and device requirements. By tailoring
the requirements gathering process to the specific technology being
implemented, architects can ensure that the solution meets the needs of
the users and the business requirements.
Similarly, the implementation stage may involve different tasks and
considerations depending on the technology being implemented. For
example, implementing a blockchain solution may require a different
approach to infrastructure and security than implementing a machine
learning solution.
In conclusion, while the general framework for a solutions architecture
process should remain the same regardless of the type of digital technology
being implemented, the specific steps and considerations within each
stage may vary depending on the technology and requirements of the
solution being designed.

xxi
Introduction

 ow the Solutions Architecture Process Can

H
Vary Across Organizations and Teams
It's also important to recognize that although the overall process of
solutions architecture, which typically involves collecting business
requirements, evaluating technologies, and so on, may remain the same,
it may differ due to the way it is executed across organizations and even
within the same organization due to factors such as department cultures,
structure, and governance. For example, a more hierarchical department
or group may have a more formalized and structured process for solutions
architecture, while another part of the organization may prefer a more
decentralized approach and may allow for more flexibility and autonomy
in the way solutions are developed and implemented.
This book focuses on each of the stages of the solutions architecture
process, regardless of how it is executed within the organization. The
aim of the book is to provide insights and guidance on each stage of the
solutions architecture process, with a focus on identifying and promoting
best practices for each stage. This ensures that the solutions architecture
aligns with the business goals and delivers maximum value, regardless of
the specific context in which it is executed.

 ow Has the Role of the Solutions Architect

H
Changed Over Time?
The role of solutions architects has undergone a considerable
transformation over the years, primarily due to the rise of digital and cloud
technologies. This evolution has shifted the focus from a highly technical,
software-centric role to a more comprehensive approach that considers
the interplay of various technical elements. Today's solutions architects
are not only tasked with integrating individual components but also
with understanding the broader business context and aligning technical

xxii
 Introduction

solutions to overarching business strategies. This expanded role ensures

that organizations effectively leverage technology to drive growth and
innovation in an increasingly complex digital landscape.
To be effective in this role, solutions architects, therefore, need to
do more than just understand technical requirements. They must also
understand the larger business context and work to create solutions that
are forward-looking and aligned with future business needs. This requires
a deep understanding of the value proposition, as well as the ability to
define and communicate it effectively.
Moreover, solutions architects need to have a comprehensive
understanding of organizational processes and how proposed solutions
will impact them. This is critical because the success of a digital solution
often depends on its ability to integrate with existing business processes
and systems. Therefore, solutions architects must be able to evaluate the
impact of proposed solutions on various organizational functions and
work to minimize any potential disruptions.

E xample: From Traditional ERP Systems

to Cloud-Based Digital Systems
Let's examine an example that contrasts the role of a solutions architect
working on traditional ERP systems with that of a solutions architect tasked
with designing a cloud-based digital system. Traditionally, solutions
architects working on Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems were
primarily concerned with integrating business processes within a single,
often monolithic, system. Their focus was on understanding business
requirements, mapping them to ERP functionalities, and customizing
the system as needed. They often worked with established, on-premises
systems, and their decisions were largely influenced by the constraints of
these systems. Scalability and flexibility were often challenging due to the
limitations of the hardware infrastructure and the monolithic nature of the
ERP system.

xxiii
Introduction

Contrastingly, a solutions architect working on modern, cloud-based

systems operates in a significantly different landscape. They still need to
understand the business requirements and map them to functionalities,
but the flexibility, scalability, and vast service offerings of the cloud
broaden their possibilities. They can design architectures that leverage
microservices, serverless computing, AI, and big data analytics, to name a
few. Cloud solutions architects also need to be proficient in managing and
integrating multiple cloud services and vendors, ensuring data privacy and
security in the cloud, and optimizing cloud service costs.
Furthermore, the advent of DevOps and Agile methodologies has
changed the role of the solutions architect. They are now expected to work
closely with development teams throughout the software development
lifecycle, facilitating continuous integration and delivery. They also need
to be aware of the latest trends and best practices in cloud architecture and
stay updated on the rapidly evolving cloud service offerings.
In conclusion, the transition from traditional ERP systems to cloud-­
based digital systems has fundamentally reshaped the role of the solutions
architect. No longer confined to a system-specific, integration-focused
role, solutions architects now hold strategic, holistic, and continuous
responsibilities in the design, development, and maintenance of flexible,
scalable, and cost-effective cloud solutions. This expanded role goes
beyond its technical roots, necessitating a deep understanding of both
technical and business requirements and the ability to align technical
solutions with broader organizational strategies. Modern solutions
architects must also be future-oriented, anticipating upcoming business
needs and architecting solutions that are scalable, flexible, and seamlessly
integrated with existing processes. By doing this, solutions architects
can support organizations in achieving their objectives while driving
innovation and growth.

xxiv
 Introduction

 nderstanding Solutions Architecture

U
vis-à-­vis Other Technical Architectures
When designing and developing digital solutions, it's crucial to take
into account several sub-architectural domains, including application
architecture, data architecture, and infrastructure architecture, among
others. Additionally, each digital technology, such as IoT and AI, as
well as their associated products and services, may bring unique
architectural considerations that need to be addressed. This is where
solutions architecture becomes essential, adopting a holistic approach
that integrates all these architectural domains and digital technologies,
as illustrated in Figure 1-1. As can be seen, the primary aim of solutions
architecture is to harmonize the various architectural aspects while
ensuring that the comprehensive solution remains aligned with business
requirements and integrates smoothly with the organization's technical
infrastructure and overarching architecture. Essentially, solutions
architecture focuses on the bigger picture, making sure all components
work together effectively to deliver the desired outcomes.

xxv
Introduction

Figure 1-1.  The relationship of solutions architecture to other

architectural domains

Suppose a company wants to develop a smart agriculture solution that

uses IoT devices to monitor crop health and AI to analyze the data and
make recommendations. In this scenario, the solutions architect needs
to consider the application architecture for the software that collects and
displays the data, the data architecture for how the data from the IoT
devices will be stored and accessed, and the infrastructure architecture
for the servers and networks that will support the solution. They also
need to consider the unique architectural aspects of the IoT devices and
AI algorithms being used. The goal is to ensure that all these elements
integrate seamlessly and that the final solution aligns with the company's
technical infrastructure and meets the business objectives of improving
crop yield and reducing waste. In this way, the solutions architect focuses
on the bigger picture and ensures that all the parts work together effectively.

xxvi
 Introduction

Focus of This Book

The focus of this book is to provide a comprehensive and holistic view
of digital solutions architecture. While there are sub-domains such as
application, data, and network architectures, the objective of this book is
not to delve into the specifics of each of these disciplines. Instead, the book
aims to provide a clear and concise overview of the end-to-end process
of digital solutions architecture, covering the methods, processes, and
deliverables that bring all these sub-domains together to deliver a cohesive
and effective target architecture. By taking a high-level approach, you will
gain a deeper understanding of how these different components work
together to create a successful digital solution.
While technical knowledge at a high level is assumed, the book does
not require a deep technical background. Instead, it provides a practical
and accessible guide for anyone involved in building digital solutions for
organizations, including new and experienced solutions architects, CIOs,
and other organizational stakeholders. To help you better understand the
solutions architecture process, the book offers numerous examples related
to the architecture of digital systems such as AI/ML, IoT, analytics, cloud
systems, and others. These examples illustrate key concepts and best
practices, making it easier for you to apply them to your own projects and
solutions. By reading this book, you can gain a better understanding of
the end-to-end solutions architecture process and how to create effective
solutions that meet the needs of modern digitalized organizations.

Introduction to Book Chapters

Chapter 1: This chapter begins by exploring the latest digital trends
and technologies and how they are shaping the landscape of modern
organizations. It takes a closer look at successful digital projects
and solutions, including real-world examples of how organizations

xxvii
Introduction

have leveraged digital technologies to achieve their business goals.

Additionally, it examines the complexity of digital solutions and the
challenges they pose, such as security, scalability, and usability. Finally,
the chapter discusses the need for solutions architecture and how it can
help organizations address these challenges and design effective digital
solutions that meet their business requirements.
Chapter 2: This chapter provides you with an understanding of
the solutions architecture domain, including its process, activities, and
integration with the project lifecycle and the organization's enterprise
architecture (EA) process. The purpose of this chapter is to shed light on
how solutions architecture fits into the overall project plan, how it aids
in achieving project objectives, and how it interacts with other project
activities.
Chapter 3: This chapter delves into the significance of business
alignment, its advantages, and how solutions architecture can assist in its
attainment. I also examine the essential considerations and best practices
for solutions architects to design and implement digital solutions that
fulfill the business requirements and align with the broader organizational
objectives.
Chapter 4: This chapter focuses on creating the technology
architecture for digital solutions. It covers several essential steps, including
conducting a current state infrastructure and technology assessment,
selecting technology stacks, conducting POCs and technical evaluations
of tools and services, ensuring solutions alignment with the enterprise
architecture framework, developing the solution's target technology
architecture, assessing its risks, and documenting the project deliverables
related to technology architecture. Each of these steps is crucial for
designing effective technology architecture that aligns with the business
requirements and the broader technology strategy of the organization.
Chapter 5: This chapter provides an overview of architectural
frameworks for designing digital solutions. It discusses the importance
of selecting an architectural framework, outlining the benefits of

xxviii
 Introduction

promoting consistency, best practices, and effective communication.

The chapter explores several industry digital architectural frameworks
that organizations can use. It also examines the process of deciding
on a custom architectural framework that fits the specific needs and
requirements of the organization.
Chapter 6: In conclusion, this chapter provides a brief summary for
CIOs and CTOs, highlighting the critical role of solutions architecture
in delivering high-performing digital solutions that align with the
organization's business goals and objectives. It is vital for technology
executives to appreciate the value of this domain and how solutions
architects can assist in achieving their organization's digital transformation
objectives. Additionally, the chapter reviews some of the essential skills
and knowledge required to become a successful solutions architect.

Reference
1. www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/mckinsey-
digital/our-insights/new-yearsresolutions-
for-tech-in-2023

xxix
CHAPTER 1

Understanding Digital
Solutions
This chapter delves into the world of digitalization, exploring the
transformative power of emerging technologies and their impact on
traditional business models. The demand for digital solutions arises from
the recognition that organizations need to embrace agile, customer-­
centric approaches to stay competitive. Technologies like artificial
intelligence, cloud computing, and the Internet of Things (IoT) hold the
promise of unlocking unparalleled efficiency, innovation, and enhanced
customer experiences. By harnessing these technologies, organizations
strive to streamline processes, gain a competitive advantage, and deliver
unprecedented value to their customers.
However, it is essential to acknowledge the complexity inherent
in digital solutions. Integrating diverse systems, managing vast
amounts of data, and ensuring seamless connectivity across platforms
presents significant challenges. This intricate web of technologies
and interdependencies calls for a strategic and holistic approach to
successfully address complexity and drive digital transformation.
Throughout this chapter, we will explore digitalization in detail,
emphasizing the complexities of digital solutions. By understanding the
transformative power of digitalization and the need for tailored solutions,
we can truly appreciate the indispensable role of solutions architecture in
guiding organizations towards successful digital transformation.

© Wasim Rajput 2023 1

W. Rajput, Solutions Architecture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9657-8_1
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

Digitalization and Digital Transformation

Digitalization is revolutionizing the way businesses operate and interact
with their customers. It refers to the process of transforming traditional
business processes and workflows by incorporating digital technologies.
This transformation presents organizations with new opportunities
to create innovative products and services, increase revenue streams,
enhance operational efficiencies, and improve customer experiences,
among other benefits.
There is no doubt that digitalization has already had a significant
disruptive impact on most organizations and sectors. As we look across
industries, we can see that organizations are not only automating their
business processes by adopting certain digital technologies, but they are
also reimagining new business models and strategies to implement their
visions. This digital transformation is not just a process of technology
implementation, but a fundamental shift in the way organizations operate,
interact with customers, and create value. To stay competitive, organizations
must embrace digitalization and be willing to adapt their strategies to meet
the demands of the constantly evolving digital landscape.
For example, when a utility company develops a new business process
enabled by a digital solution that leverages IoT technologies, connects to the
cloud, and integrates analytics to gain deeper insights into usage patterns,
billing trends, and more, it has effectively digitalized its business process.
Through this digital transformation, the company can improve its operational
efficiency, enhance customer experiences, and generate new revenue streams
by offering innovative products and services. Digitalization, therefore, is not
just about adopting new technologies, but also about optimizing business
processes to create value and gain a competitive edge in the market.
Moreover, we are also seeing new organizations emerging daily,
which are built on cutting-edge digital technologies. These digital
natives are completely founded on digital platforms and ecosystems and
are disrupting traditional business models across industries. Amazon

2
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

is a prime example of a company that was born on the web and has
revolutionized the retail industry. Since then, we have seen numerous
other digital native organizations, such as Meta, Zoom, Uber, Airbnb, and
Twitter, that have transformed the way we work, communicate, and live.
These organizations have a unique advantage over traditional companies,
as they are built on agile, data-driven processes that enable them to
quickly respond to changing market conditions and customer needs, as
well as new digital technologies that facilitate innovation and growth.

The New Digital Trends and Technologies

The changing market conditions are driving organizations to adopt digital
technologies effectively and become digitally-enabled. As the digital
landscape is constantly evolving, organizations need to stay on top of the
latest trends in order to remain competitive. The emergence of several new
digital technologies in recent years has transformed the way we live, work,
and communicate, and has enabled organizations to develop digital solutions
that streamline their operations, enhance customer experiences, create new
business models, offer new products and services, and drive innovation and
growth at all levels of the organization. The following are some of the popular
digital trends that are shaping the future of business and society.

• Cloud-native applications: As organizations continue

to migrate a large percentage of their applications
to the cloud, many are beginning to focus on
architecting and building cloud-native applications.
According to Gartner, by 2025, more than 95% of
application workloads will be deployed on cloud-­
native platforms [1]. This trend highlights the growing
importance of cloud-native architecture and the need
for organizations to embrace this approach to stay
competitive in the digital landscape.

3
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

• Industry 4.0: Manufacturing organizations are

embracing Industry 4.0 and smart factories, which are
build upon technologies such as artificial intelligence
(AI) and machine learning (ML), robotics, IoT, and
others. These technologies enable fully automated
and connected operations resulting in increased
productivity, agility, and operational efficiency.

• Hybrid cloud: To make the most of public and private

cloud implementations, organizations are actively
pursuing hybrid cloud solutions. Hybrid cloud
implementations enable organizations for numerous
use cases, which include bursting, where additional
traffic from an on-premises environment is routed
to the public cloud for more resources. Hybrid cloud
solutions are also used to set up disaster recovery sites,
migrate non-strategic workloads to the public cloud,
and other uses. According to 451 research, more than
60% of organizations have already adopted a hybrid
cloud architecture and this trend is continuing [2].

• Hyperautomation: As the name implies, this

technology goes beyond traditional automation by
not only removing repetitive and mundane tasks but
also automating complex tasks that involve analysis
and decision making. This approach leverages
advanced technologies like AI/ML and robotic
process automation to augment human capabilities,
improve efficiency, and streamline business processes.
Hyperautomation has the potential to transform how
organizations operate, enabling them to become more
agile, adaptable, and competitive in today’s digital
landscape.

4
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

• Edge computing: This technology is gaining popularity

due to its unique characteristics to offer reduced
latency, improved application performance, reduced
bandwidth costs, and real-time processing of data at
the edge. Edge computing represents a shift towards
a more distributed and decentralized approach
to computing, providing new opportunities for
innovation and efficiency across various industries.
The technology is being utilized in multiple use cases,
such as IIoT (Industrial IoT), autonomous vehicles,
smart cities, telemedicine, retail and supply chain
optimization, video surveillance and security, and
energy management.

• Artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI/ML):

These technologies are designed to mimic human
cognitive abilities, such as reasoning, perception, and
decision-making, and to implement them in intelligent
algorithms and software. The goal is to create systems
that can perform tasks that would typically require
human intelligence, such as recognizing patterns,
interpreting data, and making predictions. While AI is
still a long way from replicating the full range of human
capabilities, it is already showing promise in a variety of
fields. For example, Netflix uses these technologies to
provide personalized content recommendations to its
users, while businesses are using AI-powered chatbots
such as ChatGPT to improve customer service and
reduce costs.

5
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

• Generative AI: Generative AI, a subset of artificial

intelligence, significantly contributes to digital
transformation by automating content creation,
improving user experiences, and optimizing processes.
By generating tailored content, fostering innovation,
and supporting data-driven decisions, it helps
businesses maintain competitiveness and scalability.
Integrating with cloud and digital solutions, generative
AI promotes innovation through applications such as
customized marketing materials, streamlined design
processes in industries like fashion and automotive,
and enhanced demand forecasting. Utilizing the
cloud infrastructure enables organizations to scale AI
implementations, minimize costs, and harness AI-­
generated insights, fostering success in a digital world.

• Superapps: Superapps are a new type of mobile

application that offer users access to a variety of
services through a single interface, rather than
requiring separate apps for each service. Some
superapps also integrate user data across all services to
provide a more seamless and personalized experience.
For example, Grab [3] is a superapp that is available
in Southeast Asian countries and provides a range
of services such as ride-hailing, food delivery, and
financial services, all within a single app. While
superapps are more prevalent outside of the US, the
trend is gaining traction in the US as well.

• Metaverse: The “metaverse” is a term used to describe

computer and web-enabled virtual worlds that allow
users to interact socially, commercially, and for other
purposes. Enabled by the power of the Internet and web

6
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

technologies, the metaverse provides individuals and

organizations with extended virtual spaces on the web
to interact and work. Although still a new technology,
organizations are exploring its potential use for a range
of applications, such as online gaming, education and
training, collaboration, and social networking.

• Adaptive AI: Adaptive AI refers to AI systems that

can modify their behavior based on changes in their
environment or user interactions. These systems are
designed to learn and adapt to new data or situations,
allowing them to improve their performance and
accuracy over time. Adaptive AI is often used in
applications where the data or context is dynamic and
constantly changing. For example, in natural language
processing, adaptive AI can learn from new user
inputs and adjust its language models accordingly. In
computer vision, adaptive AI can learn to recognize
new objects or features that were not present in the
original training data.

• ChatGPT: ChatGPT is a Large Language Model (LLM)

trained by OpenAI [4], based on the GPT (Generative
Pre-trained Transformers), which is a type of neural
network architecture based on the Transformer
architecture, used in the GPT series of language models
developed by OpenAI for natural language processing
tasks, and is designed to predict the next word in a
given sentence or paragraph. It is a powerful tool for
natural language processing, capable of generating
human-like responses to written prompts. ChatGPT
can be used to build digital solutions in a variety of
fields, such as chatbots, customer service, content

7
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

creation, and language translation. Its ability to

understand and respond to natural language makes it a
valuable tool for improving user experience, increasing
efficiency, and reducing the workload of human
operators. With the help of ChatGPT, developers
can create advanced digital solutions that provide
personalized and engaging experiences to their users.

• Robotics: These technologies involve the development

and use of machines that can perform a range of
tasks autonomously or with human guidance. These
machines can be designed to work in different
environments, such as factories, homes, hospitals,
and outer space. Robotics technologies are typically
based on a combination of hardware and software
components, including sensors, actuators, motors,
and controllers. They can be programmed to
perform specific tasks or learn from experience using
techniques such as AI/ML. Robotics technologies are
used in a variety of fields, including manufacturing,
healthcare, transportation, and entertainment,
and have the potential to improve efficiency,
safety, and quality of life. However, they also raise
important ethical and social questions related to job
displacement, privacy, and control over technology.

E xamples: Successful Digital Projects

and Solutions
The digitalization journey, although underway for several years, will take
more time to reach full transformation. For instance, McKinsey predicts
that it may take until 2045 for organizations to achieve full and proper

8
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

digital adoption in their processes and workplaces [5]. However, by that

time, the competitive landscape will have changed, and many companies
that lag behind in digital adoption may no longer survive in the market.
Meanwhile, the competition for survival remains fierce as
organizations utilize these technologies to develop diverse digital solutions
that enhance their business capabilities. Those who are agile and capable
of utilizing digital technologies to build intelligent digital solutions
that elevate their business capabilities are better positioned to thrive in
today’s fast-paced and highly competitive business environment. Such
organizations can quickly adapt to changing market conditions, meet
customer demands, and drive innovation, which ultimately leads to their
success.
Let’s take a look at some success stories of how organizations have
been leveraging the aforementioned technologies to their advantage.

• Siemens has been at the forefront of the Industry

4.0 revolution, which involves the integration of
digital technologies such as IoT, AI, and robotics
into manufacturing processes. By leveraging these
technologies, Siemens has been able to increase
productivity, reduce costs, and improve quality. For
example, Siemens’ use of digital twins (virtual replicas
of physical products and processes) has enabled the
company to optimize its manufacturing processes and
reduce time to market [6].

• Royal Dutch Shell has successfully implemented AI

across its operations, with 280 AI projects in various
stages. The technology is being used to prevent
malfunctions, find new sources of oil and gas, and steer
drill bits through shale deposits, among other things.
Shell’s use of AI has helped to lower costs, improve
efficiency and safety, and reduce downtime. Shell has

9
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

also used a software platform to build and operate AI

and IoT applications at scale. One of Shell’s main AI
projects focuses on predictive maintenance, spotting
when valves, compressors, and other extraction or
production equipment is likely to malfunction. Another
large AI project is aimed at helping the company find
new sources of oil and gas by analyzing data from
seismic surveys [7].

• PepsiCo, with the help of Microsoft Project Bonsai

and Neal Analytics, has developed a next-generation
AI solution that monitors and adjusts its extruders,
the equipment that produces Cheetos. The system
monitors the attributes of the Cheetos using a
computer vision system. This system continually
captures data about qualities such as density and
length of the Cheetos as they move through the
manufacturing process. The data is then fed into the
Project Bonsai AI solution, which analyzes the data
and makes adjustments to bring the product within
the desired specifications. The use of computer vision
technology and AI helps to reduce the time it takes to
correct inconsistencies and allows operators to focus
on parts of the manufacturing process that require
human expertise [8].

These digital solutions are just a few examples of successful

innovations that organizations have implemented to enhance their digital
capabilities and pursue digitalization. By leveraging digital technologies,
these organizations are transforming themselves for the future.

10
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

Complexity of Digital Solutions

Despite the success of many digital transformation projects, organizations
still face significant challenges. Experts from the industry constantly report
cases of failed digital transformation initiatives, where organizations have
struggled to achieve their digitalization goals or experienced significant
delays in doing so. One of the primary reasons for these failures or
substandard deliveries is the complexity and scale of digital solutions. This
complexity then also leads to budgetary, scheduling, technical, and other
challenges that hinder the success of the transformation initiative.
In this section, I will first review some of the areas that contribute
to the complexity of digital solutions. Later, I will propose a complexity
framework that can help organizations classify digital solutions based on
their complexity before starting a project. This can aid in better planning
and execution of the project.

Complexity Factors
Let’s now review some of the factors that are contributing to the rising
complexity of building digital solutions.

Impact to Business Processes

Digital solutions can bring various benefits to organizations, but their
implementation can also have a significant impact on different aspects of
business processes and operations. This impact can include changes to
workflows, tools, collaboration approaches, and even the organizational
structure. To successfully implement digital solutions, organizations
must plan and execute them carefully to minimize disruptions and
ensure successful adoption. This requires preparing for challenges such
as employee resistance to change, technical issues, and the need for
additional training.

11
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

It is crucial for organizations to have a comprehensive understanding

of how digital solutions may affect their operations and to develop a
clear plan to address potential challenges. This includes taking a holistic
approach to digital transformation and identifying and addressing impacts
on various business processes. By acknowledging the interconnected
nature of these processes, leaders can create comprehensive plans that
consider the organization’s culture, structure, and workforce adaptability,
ensuring smooth transitions and minimizing potential disruptions.
For example, the implementation of an IoT system in a manufacturing
company can significantly impact the business processes. The IoT system
can optimize processes, enhance decision making, and identify trends
by collecting data from IoT devices. This can lead to improvements in
efficiency, cost savings, product quality, and overall competitiveness.
However, the implementation of the IoT system requires employee
training, change management, and significant investment in hardware
and software infrastructure. Moreover, there may be challenges related
to data security, privacy, and interoperability due to the use of different
protocols and standards by different devices and systems. Therefore,
careful planning and execution of the implementation of the IoT system
are crucial, considering the technological aspects and the organizational
and human factors involved. Adequate communication and collaboration
among different departments and stakeholders, as well as a clear
understanding of the goals and benefits of the IoT system, are also
essential to its success and its impact on the business processes.

Technical Complexities
Implementing digital solutions, such as AI/ML, IoT, and Blockchain,
involves a wide range of technical complexities that must be addressed
in the overall delivery process to ensure their success and reliability.
Compatibility, scalability, performance, security, integration,

12
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

maintenance, and support are just a few examples of the complex

technical requirements involved in implementing digital solutions.
Each of these complexities presents unique challenges that require a
deep understanding of the underlying technology and a commitment to
ongoing monitoring and improvement.
For example, when implementing AI/ML solutions, one of the key
complexities is scalability. As AI/ML models are trained on large datasets,
they must be able to handle growing amounts of data to maintain accuracy
and efficiency. This requires the ability to scale up hardware resources,
such as GPUs, CPUs, and cloud infrastructure, to process large amounts of
data. A natural language processing AI solution, for example, requires a lot
of computational power to process larger text data sets.
Another example of technical complexity is compatibility when
implementing IoT solutions. Such solutions often involve a variety of
devices, sensors, and gateways that must work together seamlessly.
Ensuring compatibility can be challenging due to the wide range of
devices and protocols involved. For instance, an IoT solution that involves
sensors collecting environmental data may need to be compatible with
various sensor types and communication protocols to ensure smooth data
collection and transmission.
Performance is another critical complexity that must be addressed
when implementing digital solutions. IoT solutions, for instance, must be
able to process and transmit data in real time to ensure timely decision-­
making. This requires optimizing the network infrastructure and ensuring
that data processing and transmission are efficient.
In conclusion, digital solutions are not without their complexities and
organizations need to ensure that their solutions architecture and delivery
processes address those technical complexities.

13
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

Evolving New Digital Technologies

Another challenge with implementing digital solutions is that the digital
landscape is constantly evolving, and new technologies are emerging at
a rapid pace. To remain competitive, organizations need to be agile and
skilled in quickly deploying these new solutions.
For example, the introduction of generative AI tools, such as GPT
(Generative Pre-trained Transformer), has opened up new possibilities for
natural language processing, machine translation, and content creation.
This has led to organizations rapidly deploying new solutions that leverage
these tools to create more engaging content, automate customer support,
and improve business processes.
However, deploying new solutions that leverage emerging technologies
like GPT requires a deep understanding of the underlying technology
and the ability to quickly integrate these tools into existing systems and
business processes. Organizations not only must have skilled professionals
who can develop and deploy solutions that leverage these tools effectively
but they need to ensure that their architecture and delivery processes can
address these business problems.
Moreover, as new technologies emerge, organizations and their
solutions architects need to be mindful of potential risks and ethical
considerations. For example, the use of AI/ML technologies raises
concerns around privacy, bias, and fairness. Organizations must be
mindful of these concerns and develop solutions that are ethical,
transparent, and secure.

Integration Complexities of Digital Solutions

Integrating systems and technologies is a major contributing factor
to the complexity of digital solutions. Companies need to invest
in robust integration processes and solutions to ensure that these
systems function cohesively, and that data is collected and transmitted

14
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

seamlessly. With the proliferation of digital solutions, integration has

become an essential component of digital transformation, requiring a
deep understanding of the underlying technologies and a commitment
to ongoing learning and development.
For example, when integrating multiple cloud services, each
cloud service may have different APIs, data structures, and integration
mechanisms, which can create interoperability issues when attempting
to integrate them. This can lead to delays in the deployment of digital
solutions and can impact their effectiveness. Consider the case where a
company is using multiple cloud services for their customer relationship
management, accounting, and marketing activities. Integrating these
services can be challenging due to the differences in APIs and data
structures. In this case, solutions architects need to devise robust
integration solutions that can harmonize the different APIs and data
structures that can help ensure that the services function cohesively.
The distributed nature of digital solutions can also make it challenging
to ensure that they function cohesively. Building digital solutions often
involves integrating multiple systems that are distributed across different
locations, such as data centers, remote offices, or cloud-based servers.
This can create latency issues and make it challenging to ensure data
consistency across all systems. For example, if a company is using an IoT
solution to monitor equipment in remote locations, integrating the data
from these remote sensors into a central system can be challenging due
to the distributed nature of the solution. In this case, solutions architects
need to devise effective integration solutions, which can help ensure
that the data is collected and transmitted seamlessly, ensuring that the
company can make timely and accurate decisions based on the data.
Moreover, integrating systems and technologies can be complex due
to the varying levels of technical expertise required for each integration.
For example, integrating a blockchain solution with an existing ERP system
may require specialized knowledge of both technologies to ensure that

15
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

they function cohesively. In this case, solutions architect need to lead a

team of skilled professionals with expertise in both blockchain and ERP
systems that can help ensure a smooth integration.

Multiple Vendors
Building digital solutions often requires working with multiple vendors,
which can be complex and time-consuming. This requires integrating
various software, hardware, and services from different vendors, where
each vendor may have their own proprietary technologies, protocols, and
interfaces, which can make integration a challenging and time-consuming
task. Moreover, managing multiple vendors and their deliverables can
create coordination and communication challenges. These issues can lead
to delays, additional costs, and project management difficulties.
For example, a company that is implementing an IoT solution may
have to work with several vendors for the sensors, gateways, cloud
platforms, and networking components. Each vendor may have a different
approach to data transmission, processing, and storage, which may require
customization and integration to make them work seamlessly. In such
a scenario, managing the integration of the different components and
ensuring that they work together effectively can be a significant challenge.
Furthermore, working with multiple vendors requires more vendor
selection, and managing multiple vendors and their deliverables can
create coordination and communication challenges. These issues can
lead to delays, additional costs, and project management difficulties. For
instance, if a company is implementing a blockchain-based solution, it
may have to work with vendors that provide blockchain infrastructure,
smart contract development, and application development. Each vendor
may have different timelines, deliverables, and communication protocols,
which can create coordination challenges.
Moreover, working with multiple vendors can also create vendor lock-­
in, where a company becomes dependent on a vendor for a particular
solution. This can limit the company’s ability to switch vendors or

16
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

customize the solution to fit its unique needs. For example, a company
may use a cloud-based solution for its customer relationship management,
and it may be challenging to switch to a different vendor due to data
migration and integration challenges.
In conclusion, effective solutions architecture processes are
essential for organizations to navigate such technical complexities
associated with implementing digital solutions from multiple vendors. By
investing in these processes, organizations can ensure successful digital
transformations and gain a competitive edge in the market.
The above challenges are just some of the complexities associated
with implementing digital solutions. Other dimensions that contribute
to complexity include security risks and vulnerabilities, regulatory
compliance requirements, legacy systems and infrastructure limitations,
and more. In the subsequent chapters, you will explore these challenges in
detail as I cover the overall solutions architecture process.

Complexity Framework
As noted earlier, the success rate of digital projects tends to decrease
with their increasing complexity. Therefore, it is essential to assess the
complexity of digital projects before initiating them. This assessment can
aid in informed decision-making, enabling stakeholders to effectively
allocate resources, budget, and time when selecting appropriate
technologies and architectures. It allows for accurate risk assessment
and efficient project management, facilitating the organization of teams
based on project complexity. The complexity classification can also assist
in optimizing maintenance and support, tailoring training programs for
users and technical teams, guiding vendor selection and management,
and planning for scalability. Therefore, comprehending system complexity
is instrumental in navigating the intricate dynamics of digital solution
design, implementation, and ongoing management and maintenance.

17
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

For instance, a project of low complexity may have minimal integration

requirements with existing systems and cause little to no disruption in
current business processes. The technical architecture of such projects
is usually straightforward, involving a limited number of components
and simpler data structures. This simplicity often means that the project
can be managed effectively with basic tools and technologies, and may
not require the oversight of a senior solutions architect. Alternatively, the
architect’s role in these projects could be primarily focused on addressing
technical issues rather than extensive strategic planning. Conversely,
a high complexity project would demand more extensive resources, a
larger team with specialized skills, advanced technologies, and a robust
infrastructure to handle its demands. Such projects may involve complex
integrations, significant alterations to business processes, and typically
require the strategic oversight of a senior solutions architect. This contrast
underscores the importance of pre-project complexity assessment in
effectively managing digital solutions.
This intricate interplay of technology and business dynamics can
create a wide range of scenarios, each with its own unique set of challenges
and opportunities. In response to this, we can categorize digital solutions
into three broad levels of complexity: low, medium, and high. See
Figure 1-1. This figure illustrates two key points. Firstly, it demonstrates
that a project’s complexity is dictated by a combination of both business
and technological factors, along with the dynamics of their interaction.
Secondly, it highlights that the rigor of the solutions architecture process
scales up with increasing complexity. This insight can assist organizations
in planning and allocating resources, setting realistic timelines, and
implementing appropriate architectural strategies for successful project
execution. By assessing the complexity of a digital project, organizations
can help stakeholders anticipate the demands of a project, align resources
appropriately, and set realistic expectations for delivery and impact.

18
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

Figure 1-1.  Project complexity and solutions architecture rigor

The criteria for classifying digital solutions as low, medium, or high

complexity may vary from one organization to another due to their
unique contexts and requirements. Factors such as the organization’s
size, the nature of their business, the industry they operate in, and the
technological proficiency of their teams can significantly influence their
definitions of complexity. For instance, a smaller organization might
consider a project that a larger enterprise deems “low complexity” as
“high complexity” due to resource constraints. Similarly, organizations
with advanced technological infrastructure might view certain tasks as
less complex than those with less sophisticated systems. Additionally,
an organization’s risk tolerance and strategic goals can also shape their
interpretation of project complexity. Thus, each organization should
tailor the complexity classification framework to align with its specific
circumstances and objectives.
The following template provides a set of criteria that can be utilized to
construct a complexity classification framework for digital solutions. This
framework, divided into low, medium, and high complexity levels, takes
into account both business and technological aspects. Each complexity level

19
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

encompasses unique characteristics that distinguish it from others, providing

a clear benchmark for assessing the intricacy of a proposed digital solution.
Again, each organization can tailor this to fit its specific environment.

LOW COMPLEXITY PROJECTS

• Business
• Low impact on business processes
• Few users impacted
• Minimal changes to workflow
• Low cost of implementation and maintenance
• Low business risk in case of system failure

• Technology
• Simple integration
• Simple overall architecture
• Low data volume and processing needs
• Few components or modules
• Minimal need for system redundancy or high
availability
• Basic security requirements
• Simple or no need for data migration

MEDIUM COMPLEXITY PROJECTS

• Business
• Moderate impact on business processes
• More users impacted

20
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

• Changes to workflow requiring training or

reorganization

• Moderate cost of implementation and maintenance

• Moderate business risk in case of system failure

• Technology

• Moderate integration complexity

• Multi-tier architecture

• Moderate data volume and processing needs

• More components or modules

• Some need for system redundancy or high

availability

• Increased security requirements

• Need for data migration

HIGH COMPLEXITY PROJECTS

• Business
• High impact on business processes (business
transformation)

• Many users impacted

• Significant changes to workflow requiring extensive

training or reorganization

• High cost of implementation and maintenance

• High business risk in case of system failure

21
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

• Technology

• Complex integration

• Distributed systems or microservices architecture

• High data volume and processing needs

• Many components or modules

• High need for system redundancy or high

availability

• Extensive security requirements

• Complex data migration needs

To conclude, it is crucial to assess the complexity of digital solutions

before embarking on the journey of their design and implementation.
Understanding the intricacies of a digital project allows for informed
decision-making, resource allocation, and effective project management.
By categorizing projects into levels of complexity, organizations can
optimize maintenance, support, training, vendor selection, and scalability
planning. For instance, low complexity projects entail minimal integration
requirements and limited disruption to business processes, while high
complexity projects demand extensive resources, specialized skills,
and complex integrations. By evaluating complexity, stakeholders can
anticipate project demands, align resources effectively, and set realistic
expectations for successful project execution.

The Need for Solutions Architecture

As the complexity of digital solutions continues to rise, it brings forth
challenges such as increased development costs, longer development
cycles, and higher risks of project failure. In response, the demand for an
end-to-end and structured approach to solutions architecture becomes

22
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

even more critical. Adopting such an approach empowers organizations to

effectively address a wide range of challenges associated with designing,
building, and deploying digital solutions.
A solutions architecture approach enables organizations to ensure
alignment with business objectives, make informed choices regarding
technologies and vendors, effectively manage complexity, and ensure
scalability and adaptability. By embracing this approach, organizations
gain a comprehensive and methodical process for designing and
developing solutions that conquer the intricacies of the digital landscape.
The benefits of adopting solutions architecture can be manifold. The
following are some of the reasons that shed light on the necessity of the
solutions architecture discipline within organizations.

• Reducing technology investment risk: With the rapid

emergence of new technologies and accompanying
technical trends, organizations need to build solutions
with speed while minimizing risk. One way to achieve
this is by implementing a well-defined solutions
architecture process within the organization. Such
a process can help to reduce the risk of building
solutions that do not meet the organization’s needs and
objectives by ensuring alignment with business goals
and managing complexity. Additionally, a solutions
architecture process can help to improve scalability,
reliability, and maintainability of the solutions, further
reducing the risk of future issues and costs associated
with maintenance and upgrades.

• Inter-organizational alignment: Solutions

architecture as a discipline is essential for organizations
to efficiently synchronize stakeholders, processes,
technologies, and deliverables, ultimately delivering
prompt results. Solutions architecture entails designing

23
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

and implementing solutions that fulfill business

requirements, align with technological strategies, and
comply with industry standards and best practices.
For instance, in the context of digital transformation,
a well-defined solutions architecture process can
ensure seamless integration of cloud technologies, data
analytics, and AI-driven tools to optimize customer
experiences, streamline internal processes, and drive
innovation, while maintaining adherence to data
privacy regulations and security protocols.

• Optimizing digital technology selection: A solutions

architecture process can help organizations choose the
specific digital technologies that best suit a particular
digital or cloud solution. With so many digital
technologies available, organizations often face a range
of choices when selecting the most appropriate tools
for a given problem. While some technologies may
be interchangeable, there are often subtle differences
that can impact the success of a project. By adopting
a solutions architecture process, organizations can
ensure that they make informed decisions regarding
the selection of digital technologies. This involves
carefully considering the specific business problem
that needs to be solved and evaluating the available
options to identify the tools that are best suited to the
task at hand. By doing so, organizations can avoid
costly mistakes and ensure that they deliver effective
solutions that meet their business needs.

24
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

• Aligning business and technology goals: Formulating a

solutions architecture can help organizations align their
business and technology requirements by bridging the
gap between the business community’s understanding
of the problem and the technological dimensions. A
solutions architecture process means that organizations
can ensure that both business and technology
stakeholders are on the same page before the system
is designed, built, and implemented. This can help to
prevent misunderstandings and misalignments that
can lead to costly project failures. By working together
to develop a solutions architecture that takes into
account both business and technology considerations,
organizations can ensure that their technology initiatives
are aligned with their overall business goals and
objectives, leading to successful project outcomes.

• Unified vision of outcomes: The solutions architecture

process can be instrumental in helping both the
business and technical communities envision the
ultimate business outcomes of a project before it gets
underway. By developing a solutions architecture,
organizations can create a clear and comprehensive
roadmap for the project, outlining the specific business
and technology goals, requirements, and desired
outcomes. This can help stakeholders to understand
the scope and potential impact of the project and can
ensure that everyone is working towards the same
end goal.

25
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

• Facilitating change management: Organizations

need to adapt quickly to changing business and
technological environments to remain competitive.
A solutions architecture process can help to facilitate
change management by providing a clear framework
for assessing the impact of changes on existing systems
and processes. It can also ensure that new solutions
are designed with scalability and flexibility in mind,
enabling organizations to adapt and evolve quickly.
For example, consider an organization that wants to
migrate its data from on-premise servers to cloud-­
based storage. A well-defined solutions architecture
process would assess the impact of this change on
existing systems and processes, including network
infrastructure, security protocols, and data access
policies. The process would ensure that the new
solution is designed with scalability and flexibility in
mind, allowing the organization to adapt and evolve as
its data storage needs change.

• Promoting Collaboration: A well-defined solutions

architecture process can help to promote collaboration
between different teams and stakeholders within
an organization. This is particularly important in
the context of digital solutions, which often involve
multiple systems, vendors, and technologies. By
promoting collaboration and communication, a
solutions architecture process can help to ensure
that everyone involved in the development and
implementation of digital solutions is aligned and
working towards common goals. For example, imagine
an organization that is implementing a new customer

26
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

relationship management (CRM) system that involves

multiple teams and vendors. A solutions architecture
process would promote collaboration between
these teams by providing a clear framework for
communication and coordination. The process would
ensure that everyone involved in the development
and implementation of the CRM system is aligned and
working towards common goals, such as improving
customer experiences and increasing revenue. By
promoting collaboration, the solutions architecture
process would help to ensure that the CRM system is
designed and implemented efficiently and effectively.

To address these challenges in an overall organizational process, the

next chapter defines the solutions architecture process and its constituent
activities within the context of the overall digital solutions project lifecycle.
The subsequent chapters delve into each of these activities and practices
in more detail, with a focus on maximizing the chances of success.
By understanding and implementing these activities and practices,
organizations can improve the overall quality and effectiveness of their
solutions architecture and better manage risk and complexity throughout
the development process.

Summary
Digitalization has had a significant impact on organizations across various
industries. While the adoption of digital technologies has automated
business processes, organizations are also imagining new business models
and strategies to adapt to the constantly evolving digital landscape. To
remain competitive, organizations must embrace digitalization and
be willing to build and implement new digital solutions that enable
digitalization.

27
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

However, many organizations face challenges in their digital

transformation initiatives. The complexity and scale of digital solutions
often lead to budgetary, scheduling, technical and other challenges that
hinder the success of various transformation initiatives. To overcome these
obstacles, a structured approach to digital solution design, architecture,
and development known as solutions architecture is crucial. Solutions
architecture helps organizations address challenges related to designing,
building, and deploying digital solutions, ensuring alignment with
business objectives, selecting appropriate technologies and vendors,
managing complexity, and ensuring scalability and adaptability.
Embracing solutions architecture, therefore, can support organizations in
achieving their digital transformation goals. The remaining chapters of this
book will shed further light on this.

References
1. Gartner. (November 10, 2021). “Gartner Says Cloud
Will Be the Centerpiece of New Digital Experiences.
Gartner Newsroom.” www.gartner.com/en/
newsroom/press-releases/2021-11-10-gartner-
says-cloud-will-be-the-centerpiece-of-new-
digital-experiences

2. Yellowbrick. (n.d.). “Strategic Advantages of Hybrid

Cloud Data Warehousing.” Yellowbrick Resources.
https://yellowbrick.com/resources/media/
strategic-advantages-of-hybrid-cloud-data-
warehousing/

3. Grab. (n.d.). Grab. Retrieved March 1, 2023, from

www.grab.com/sg/

28
 Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

4. OpenAI. (n.d.). OpenAI. Retrieved March 1, 2023,

from ­https://openai.com/

5. McKinsey & Company. (2019). “Twenty-five

years of digitization: Ten insights into how to
play it right.” Retrieved from www.mckinsey.
com/~/media/mckinsey/business%20functions/
mckinsey%20digital/our%20insights/twenty-
five%20years%20of%20digitization%20ten%20
insights%20into%20how%20to%20play%20it%20
right/mgi-briefing-note-twenty-five-years-
of-digitization-may-2019.ashx

6. Siemens AG. (n.d.). Industry 4.0. Retrieved March

2, 2023, from https://new.siemens.com/vn/en/
company/about/businesses/digital-industries/
industry-40.html

7. Wall Street Journal. (2019). “Shell’s Companywide

AI Effort Shows Early Returns.” Retrieved from www.
wsj.com/articles/shells-companywide-ai-
effort-shows-early-returns-11574764204
8. Microsoft. (n.d.). “PepsiCo & Cheetos are using
AI to transform their product development.”
Retrieved March 2, 2023, from https://
customers.microsoft.com/en-us/story/858753-
PepsiCheetos

9. Russel, S. J., & Norvig, P. (2010). Artificial

intelligence: a modern approach. Pearson Education.

29
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Solutions

10. Jordan, M. I., & Mitchell, T. M. (2015). “Machine

learning: Trends, perspectives, and prospects,”
Science, 349(6245), 255-260.

11. Wang, W., Yu, W., Zhang, J., Yang, X., & Zhang,
Y. (2021). “Superapp users’ loyalty and stickiness:
Evidence from WeChat.” Electronic Commerce
Research, 21(2), 261-279.

30
CHAPTER 2

The Digital Solutions

Architecture Process
and Activities
The objective of this chapter is to provide insight into the solutions
architecture domain, which includes its process, activities, and integration
within the project lifecycle and the organization’s enterprise architecture
(EA) process. The purpose of this is to help you understand how solutions
architecture fits into the project’s overall plan, how it contributes to
achieving project objectives, and how it integrates with other project
activities. Additionally, solutions architecture is essential for ensuring that
digital solutions align with the organization’s broader strategic goals and
architectural principles.

What Is Solutions Architecture?

In this section, I delve into a more detailed explanation of solutions
architecture. Often, the term “solutions architecture” is primarily
associated with a tangible deliverable including a set of technical
documents, such as architecture diagrams. However, this perspective is
rather narrow and doesn’t encompass the full breadth of what solutions
architecture entails.

© Wasim Rajput 2023 31

W. Rajput, Solutions Architecture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9657-8_2
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

Solutions architecture is not just a set of deliverables. It is also a

comprehensive process that involves strategic planning, problem solving,
and collaboration, along with the creation of technical deliverables.
Essentially, it’s a discipline that encompasses both a detailed process and
a series of technical deliverables. Now, let’s examine both these aspects in
greater depth.
On one hand, the process aspect involves a sequence of steps carried
out by a solutions architect. This begins with understanding the business
problem or goal, followed by requirements gathering, analysis, and
solution design. Then, the proposed solution is validated, and finally, the
detailed solution design is documented. This process requires the architect
to have a deep understanding of both the technical and business domains
and to effectively communicate and collaborate with various stakeholders.
On the other hand, the deliverables from solutions architecture
typically include various technical artifacts, like system diagrams, data
models, and technical specifications. These documents provide a detailed
view of the proposed solution, its components, their interactions, and how
they work together to solve the business problem or achieve the business
goal. They serve as a guide for the implementation team, while also acting
as a reference for future improvements or changes.
There are several definitions for solutions architect in the industry.
Let’s review some of them. According to The Open Group, solutions
architecture is a discipline that “typically applies to a single project or
project release, assisting in the translation of requirements into a solution
vision, high-level business and/or IT system specifications, and a portfolio
of implementation tasks” [1]. On the other hand, Gartner defines it as “an
architectural description of a specific solution” that “combines guidance
from different enterprise architecture viewpoints (business, information,
and technical), as well as from the enterprise solution architecture
(ESA)” [2].

32
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

In the following discussion, I will delve into both the process and
deliverable dimensions that encompass the concept of solutions
architecture. First, let’s cover the overall process aspects of solutions
architecture.

• Solutions architecture plays a critical role in aligning

the technical solution with the organization’s
business goals and strategies. It ensures that the
system not only meets the immediate technical
requirements but also supports the organization’s
strategic objectives. By understanding the business
context and requirements, the solutions architect can
design a system that delivers the desired business
outcomes, such as improving operational efficiency,
enhancing customer experience, or enabling new
business models. This alignment between the technical
solution and business goals is a key factor in the
success of any digital transformation initiative.

For instance, consider a healthcare organization

aiming to improve patient experiences and
streamline operations. The strategic objectives might
include reducing wait times, enhancing patient
engagement, and improving data management. The
solutions architect, in this context, would design a
digital solution, such as a comprehensive patient
management system, that aligns with these goals. The
system could include features like online appointment
booking to decrease wait times, a patient portal for
enhanced engagement, and a robust data management
system for efficient handling of patient records. By
aligning the technical solution with the organization’s
business goals, the solutions architect ensures the

33
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

system not only meets immediate technical needs

but also furthers the strategic objectives, ultimately
contributing to the success of the organization’s digital
transformation initiative.
• A solutions architecture defines the principles and
guidelines for the system’s design and evolution. It
provides a set of design principles that drives decisions
about the system, helping to ensure consistency
and coherence across different parts of the solution.
These principles also guide the system’s evolution
and adaptation to changes in the organization’s
business requirements, technology environment,
and other factors. By adhering to these principles, the
development team can create a solution that is robust,
flexible, and capable of meeting future needs.

For example, in the context of developing an

e-commerce platform, the principles include
modularity, which ensures system stability and ease
of updates; scalability, which prepares the platform
to handle increasing customer demands; security,
which protects sensitive data and transactions;
interoperability, which facilitates integration with
external systems; and user-centric design, which
prioritizes a positive customer experience. As the
platform evolves—perhaps due to business expansion
or the emergence of new technologies—these
principles maintain system robustness, flexibility,
and alignment with objectives. For instance, if global
expansion occurs, the principles of scalability and
interoperability would guide the platform’s adaptation
to handle new currencies, languages, and integrations
with different payment or shipping providers.
34
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• Solutions architecture facilitates decision-making

during the system’s design and implementation. It
provides a framework that helps stakeholders make
informed decisions about technology choices, design
options, tradeoffs, and other key aspects of the system.
This reduces ambiguity and uncertainty, leading to
better decision-making and a more successful project
outcome.

For instance, consider the development of a mobile

banking application. The solutions architecture for
this project would provide a structured approach to
decision-making regarding key aspects of the system.
It would outline potential technology choices, such
as whether to develop the app natively for iOS and
Android or to use a cross-platform solution. It would
provide insights into design options, like user interface
elements or the flow of transactions within the app.
The solutions architecture might also help stakeholders
understand necessary trade-offs, such as balancing
advanced security measures with user convenience.
This detailed framework minimizes uncertainty and
facilitates informed decision-making, which can
enhance the overall success of the project, leading to a
mobile banking app that effectively meets user needs
and business objectives.

• Solutions architecture considers and contributes to

the system’s scalability, resilience, security, and
other non-functional requirements. By considering
these factors during the design phase, the solutions
architect can ensure that the system can handle
increasing volumes of data or users, recover from

35
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

failures or disruptions, and protect against security

threats. These are critical aspects that ensure the
system’s long-term viability and success in a dynamic
and challenging business environment.

Consider an AI-powered customer service chatbot

being developed for a large e-commerce platform.
The solutions architecture would play a crucial role
in addressing the system’s scalability, resilience,
and security. For scalability, the architecture might
incorporate cloud-based machine learning models that
can handle increasing volumes of user interactions,
especially during peak shopping periods. For resilience,
the architecture might include failover mechanisms
and redundancy to ensure the chatbot system remains
functional even if one component fails or if there’s
a disruption in the service. Regarding security, the
solutions architect might employ encryption for
data at rest and in transit, as well as anonymization
techniques to protect user data, given that the chatbot
will be handling sensitive customer information. By
integrating these non-functional requirements into
the system’s architecture from the beginning, the
solutions architect ensures the long-term viability and
success of the AI chatbot in a dynamic and challenging
e-commerce environment.

Next, let’s explore the deliverables dimension of solutions architecture.

• A solutions architecture deliverable refers to a

technical diagram, which serves as a visual
representation of the technical design of a solution,
providing a common language for the entire team to

36
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

reference throughout the project. This fosters a shared

understanding of the system’s design, functionality,
and requirements among all stakeholders. Additionally,
the diagram facilitates effective communication and
collaboration between different teams, including
developers, testers, and project managers, ensuring
alignment and shared goals. Overall, the solutions
architecture diagram serves as a crucial reference
document during the design and implementation
phases, promoting a smooth and efficient progression
of the project.

For example, consider the development of a cloud-­

based inventory management system for a retail
company. The solutions architecture diagram would
visually depict the system’s components, such as the
user interface, database, data flows, and integration
with external systems. It would provide a clear overview
of the system’s structure and interactions, enabling
developers to understand how different parts of the
system connect and ensuring testers comprehend
the expected functionality. Project managers can also
refer to the diagram to track progress and ensure the
project remains aligned with the intended design.
By having a centralized visual representation, the
solutions architecture diagram facilitates effective
communication and collaboration among the
development, testing, and management teams,
ensuring a successful implementation of the cloud-­
based inventory management system.

37
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• A solutions architecture deliverable encompasses

the comprehensive set of technical elements
and building blocks involved in the design and
development of a digital system. This encompasses
applications, databases, network elements, and
various hardware and software components that
collectively constitute the overall technical solution.
By having a well-defined architecture description that
illustrates these components, a clear understanding
of the system’s structure and functionality is achieved,
facilitating effective communication and collaboration
among stakeholders. This clarity in architecture also
allows for easy adaptability and modification of the
system as requirements evolve, resulting in time
and effort savings in the long term while ensuring
alignment with the needs of all stakeholders.

For example, consider the development of an

e-learning platform. The solutions architecture
would entail identifying and defining the applications
required for user interactions, such as the learning
management system, content delivery systems, and
assessment tools. Additionally, the architecture
would encompass databases to store user data,
content repositories, and analytics databases.
Network elements like servers, load balancers, and
firewalls would be considered, along with other
hardware and software components needed for the
platform’s operation. By having a clear architecture
description, all stakeholders involved in the project,
including instructional designers, developers, and
administrators, can understand the system’s structure

38
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

and collaborate effectively to ensure the platform’s

successful implementation and ongoing evolution to
meet the needs of learners and educators.

• A solutions architecture deliverable serves to visually

depict the interfaces and relationships between
different hardware and software building blocks
within a digital system. It showcases how these
components interact, the flow of data between
them, and their integration with external systems or
platforms. The architecture also brings attention to
the dependencies, constraints, and limitations that
influence the overall design and implementation of the
solution. This comprehensive overview plays a critical
role in mitigating risks and preventing expensive errors
during the implementation phase.

For example, consider the development of a smart

home automation system. The solutions architecture
deliverable would illustrate how the various components,
such as sensors, actuators, controllers, and the central
smart hub, interact with each other. It would showcase
how data flows between these components to enable
automated functions like lighting control, temperature
adjustment, and security monitoring. The architecture
would also outline any dependencies on external
systems, such as integration with a voice assistant
platform or mobile app. By visualizing these relationships
and dependencies, the solutions architecture helps
identify potential bottlenecks, compatibility issues, and
constraints, ensuring a smoother implementation and
minimizing the risk of errors or malfunctions in the
smart home automation system.

39
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• The solutions architecture deliverable also serves to

depict the intended behavior and functionality of the
system. It encompasses how the system will respond
to different application scenarios and how it will
perform under varying workloads and usage patterns.
By offering a holistic perspective of the system’s
behavior and structure, the solutions architecture plays
a vital role in ensuring that the system aligns with the
organization’s requirements for function The solutions
architecture also serves to illustrate the desired
behavior and functionality of a supply chain system. It
encompasses how the system will respond to various
supply chain scenarios, such as demand fluctuations,
inventory management, order fulfillment, and logistics
coordination. By providing a comprehensive view
of the system’s behavior and structure, the solutions
architecture ensures that the system meets the
organization’s requirements for functionality, security,
performance, and other critical factors.

For example, consider the development of a cloud-­

based supply chain system for a retail company. The
solutions architecture would outline how the system
handles different scenarios, including order processing,
inventory tracking, supplier management, and
distribution logistics. It would showcase the expected
behavior and functionality of the system under varying
workloads, such as managing peak shopping seasons or
sudden spikes in demand. The architecture would also
encompass features like real-time visibility of inventory
levels, automated replenishment processes, and secure
data exchange with suppliers and logistics partners. By

40
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

having a comprehensive view of the system’s behavior

and construction, the solutions architecture ensures
that the cloud-based supply chain system meets
the organization’s requirements for efficient, agile,
and cost-effective supply chain operations, security,
performance, and other essential factors.

In conclusion, we can say that solutions architecture is both a process

as well as a collection of deliverables that play a vital role in bridging an
organization’s strategic objectives with the practical realization of those
objectives. As a process, it encompasses various activities from requirement
gathering to system testing, ensuring effective design and implementation.
The deliverables, in the form of blueprints and architecture diagrams,
provide concrete outputs depicting different elements of the system
and their interconnections. These blueprints guide the project through
development, implementation, and maintenance stages, offering critical
insights into the technical and operational components. Also, by aligning
the system with business goals and existing technological infrastructure,
solutions architecture ensures a robust, scalable solution that seamlessly
integrates with the organization’s objectives.

 olutions Architecture Activities vs.

S
the Project Lifecycle
Let’s now review the project lifecycle of a typical digital solution, which
outlines the various organizational and project activities required to
deliver the desired digital solution. Typically, digital solutions are delivered
as part of an organizational project or program. Projects and programs
serve as the means to drive change within organizations, providing a
structured approach to initiating, planning, executing, and closing out
specific initiatives aimed at achieving defined objectives or outcomes.

41
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

Successfully completing projects and programs can help organizations

reach their strategic goals, enhance their competitive position, and
improve overall performance. While there are distinctions between
projects and programs, for the purpose of this book, I will use the terms
interchangeably.
A project or program manager is usually responsible for overseeing
the entire program, from its inception to its implementation. Their role
involves allocating resources and managing project activities to ensure
the digital solution is delivered to the organization’s customers within the
approved budget, using established project management methodologies.
On the other hand, the solutions architect primarily focuses on
creating the target technical architecture of the solution and ensuring its
alignment with the organization’s overall EA and business objectives. In
this chapter, I will first introduce the activities related to a typical digital
project lifecycle. Afterward, I will shift the focus to the activities specific to
solutions architecture that occur within the broader project lifecycle.

Typical Project Lifecycle Activities

A typical project lifecycle for a digital solution involves several stages and
activities, from its inception to completion. At a high level, it typically
includes the phases of initiation, requirements and analysis, design,
build, testing, deployment, and operations/maintenance. The following
are the typical phases and sub-activities related to the high-level steps
mentioned earlier. While each project modifies these steps depending on
circumstances, these are the most common steps.

1. Initiation/problem definition

a. Start with a business problem

b. Define the initial problem statement

c. Identify and define the program scope

42
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

d. Finalize a program charter along with delineating the overall

value to the program

e. Identify program stakeholders

f. Conduct business and technical feasibility studies

g. Finalize funding resources

h. Create an initial program roadmap and plan

i. Identify the overarching digital strategy that will drive the

design and delivery of the digital solution (Input to the
solutions architecture process)

j. Define the overall program roadmap for various key

deliverables and milestones

2. Requirements and analysis

a. Gather functional requirements

b. Gather/derive non-functional requirements

c. Validate requirements

3. Design and target technical architecture

a. Define an application, data, and network strategy for
the program

b. Develop a high-level design or target architecture of the

solution

c. Develop a detailed or low-level design

d. Conduct POCs/assess technical feasibility

4. Build/development

a. Software development

b. System implementation activities

43
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

5. Testing (includes sub-phases such as test planning,

test case development, test data preparation, test
execution, defect tracking, user acceptance testing,
and regression testing)

6. Deployment/implementation (involves
pre-deployment planning, build and release
management, deployment execution, verification
and validation, and post-deployment support)

7. Operations and maintenance (involves issue

identification and reporting, issue analysis
and prioritization, issue resolution, change
management, and system monitoring and
optimization)

Are “Design” and “Architecture” the Same?

Although the above shows the steps of design and architecture in one
phase, there is a distinction between them. This distinction is a common
topic of discussion in the industry [3]. Many people tend to use these
terms interchangeably, but this is incorrect. Architecture typically refers
to the high-level structure and organization of a system. It defines the
major components of a system, their relationships, and how they interact
with each other. It sets the strategic direction and the principles that guide
system evolution over time. Architecture is concerned with making sure
the system meets the technical and business requirements while aligning
with the organization’s strategic goals.
Design, on the other hand, focuses more on the specific details
of system components and their interfaces. It is the phase where
architects and engineers translate the high-level architectural principles
into detailed, practical specifications for system components. These
components can include software modules, databases, user interfaces, and

44
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

network configurations, among others. Design includes making decisions

on the best practices, methodologies, and technologies to use in building
the system. It is concerned with the “how” of the system, such as how it
will function, how it will be implemented, how it will handle specific tasks
and problems. This is where the real-world constraints such as cost, time,
existing infrastructure, and resources come into play.
To recap and clarify, here are some key differences between
architecture and design:

• Architecture, being broader in scope, deals with high-­

level considerations, while design is more specific and
granular. Crafting an architecture requires adopting
a high-level, comprehensive view of the overall
system, encapsulating all business requirements and
corresponding functions. In contrast, design delves into
the details of each subsystem or component.

• Architecture often centers on the system’s overall

structure and strategic design. It may incorporate
an awareness of a range of technologies, but isn’t
always tied to a specific one, offering a level of
technology-agnosticism. However, specific contexts
or requirements, like using cloud technologies, might
necessitate more particular architectural decisions.
For instance, if AWS is the intended platform, the
architecture may need to take into account AWS
services, capabilities, and best practices. Conversely,
the design phase requires an in-depth understanding
of the chosen technologies, such as knowing how
to optimally leverage AWS services, understanding
the platform’s specific quirks, and utilizing its data
management options to effectively create a solution.

45
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• An architecture, in itself, does not provide sufficient

detail to commence system construction. Extensive
design work is needed to traverse various phases and
delve into specifics before tangible development and
implementation can get underway.

• In industry terminology, architecture is sometimes

referred to as “high-level design” and the more detailed
design is referred to as “low-level design.”

Example: Architecture vs. Design

Let’s further clarify the above by considering the example of a large cloud-­
based e-commerce system that includes features like user management,
product catalog, shopping cart, payment processing, and order
management.

Architecture
• System organization: The architecture would define
the high-level structure of the system, which might
include a front-end application for users, backend
services for managing users, products, shopping cart,
and orders, and separate services or microservices for
payment processing.

• Technology stack: The architecture would also specify

the technology stack, such as using AWS as the cloud
provider, a serverless architecture with AWS Lambda
for the backend services, React for the front-end
application, and DynamoDB for the database.

46
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• Data management: The architecture would define how

data is stored, processed, and accessed in the system,
such as using a NoSQL database like DynamoDB
for scalable data storage and AWS S3 for storing
product images.

• Security: The architecture would define the overall

security approach, such as using Amazon Cognito for
user authentication and authorization, encrypting
sensitive data, and ensuring all communications are
done over HTTPS.

• Scalability and performance: The architecture would

consider how the system can scale to handle increased
load, such as using AWS Auto Scaling to adjust the
number of running instances based on demand.

Design
Let’s now consider design types of issues.

• User interface: The design would specify the details of

the user interface, such as how products are displayed
on the screen, how users navigate the product catalog,
and how they add items to the shopping cart and
complete their purchase.

• APIs: The design would define the specifics of the

APIs provided by the backend services, such as the
endpoints, request/response formats, and error
handling.

• Data models: The design would define the detailed

data models, such as what attributes a product or a user
has and how they are stored in the database.

47
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• Business logic: The design would specify how the

various pieces of business logic are implemented, such
as how the total price of the shopping cart is calculated
or how inventory is updated when a purchase is made.

• Integration: The design would detail how the system

integrates with external systems, such as how it calls
the payment gateway API to process payments.

In essence, architecture provides the high-level blueprint and strategic

decisions about the system, while design fills in the specifics of how each
part of the system will work and how it will be implemented. Both are
critical for building a successful, scalable, and secure system.
In summary, although architecture and design are often used
interchangeably, they are two distinct activities. Architecture provides the
foundation for the design work to begin, and the design phase is where the
actual system components are detailed and then developed later in the
development phase.

Typical Solutions Architecture Activities

As previously highlighted, solution architecture activities operate within
the broader context of the overall project lifecycle. They represent a
specific subset of the total project lifecycle. Although these tasks might not
always be directly identified as “solution architecture specific,” solution
architects, in partnership with project managers, steer these tasks to
realize the desired technical architecture of the project. Given the crucial
role these tasks play in molding the technical direction and outcome of the
project, we can justifiably classify them as “solution architecture specific.”
These tasks and activities include gathering and finalizing business
requirements, aligning the proposed solution with business objectives,
devising the technical architecture, defining a delivery process specific
to digital solutions, and establishing the architectural standards and

48
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

framework for the project. The sections in Table 2-1 depict the typical tasks
involved in the solution architecture process within the wider context of
the project lifecycle.

Table 2-1.  Typical Tasks in The Solution Architecture Process

Project Phases Solutions Architecture Activities

Initiation/problem • Understand the business strategy

definition • Understand the business architecture
•  Current state assessment (business/technology)
Requirements and • Identify business use cases
analysis • Gather functional requirements
•  Derive/gather non-functional requirements
Architecture and •  Conduct POCs
design •  Finalize solution’s technology stack
•  Select a technical architectural framework
• Align with EA
• Create a high-level design/target technology
architecture
• Assess technical risk
• Participate in the low-level design
Build/development • Ensure deliverables are in line with the target
technical architecture
Testing

Deployment/
implementation

Operations and • Operational activities

maintenance

49
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

For the remainder of this book, I will categorize the activities carried
out in the first two phases of the project lifecycle (Initiation/requirements
and Analysis) as “Fostering digital and business alignment.” They are
covered in Chapter 3. The activities in this area are crucial in properly
capturing business and related requirements, which form the foundation
for building the technical architecture of the digital solution and delivering
the final product. Topics discussed in this chapter include understanding
the business strategy and architecture, identifying business use cases, and
gathering functional and non-functional requirements.
Activities listed under the project phase “Architecture and design”
are categorized as “Creating the target digital technology architecture”
and are covered in Chapter 4. It encompasses topics such as conducting
proof of concepts, finalizing the solution’s technology stack, aligning with
EA, creating a high-level design or target technology architecture, and
assessing technical risk. These activities form the basis for building and
implementing the digital solution and delivering a successful outcome.
However, the aforementioned should not imply that a solutions
architect’s role is confined only to certain phases of the project lifecycle.
The solutions architect also significantly contributes to the low-level
design of the project, testing phases, and even plays a part in operational
tasks. Let’s delve into these roles briefly.

T he Solutions Architect’s Responsibilities

in Low-Level Design
The extent of the solutions architect’s involvement in low-level design
may vary depending on the size and complexity of the project and also
based on the organization’s requirements. In some cases, especially the
low- to medium-complexity projects, a solutions architect may get heavily
involved in the detailed design specifications for each component and
subsystem of the solution. In other more complex projects, however,
the solutions architect may delegate these tasks to other members of

50
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

the design and development team. It is important to note that while

solutions architects are responsible for guiding the development team in
the implementation of the solution, they are not typically involved in the
day-to-day low-level design or programming tasks. Instead, they work with
the development team to provide guidance and ensure that the overall
architecture of the solution is sound.
In cases where organizations define the role of a solutions architect
at a much more technical level, the solutions architect works with
developers to provide detailed design specifications for each component
and subsystem in the solution. This includes defining interfaces between
components, designing algorithms, selecting specific technologies and
tools, and providing detailed technical specifications that guide the
development team in their implementation efforts. In such cases, the
solutions architect must ensure that the low-level design is consistent with
the high-level design and meets all the requirements of the solution.
I should emphasize that while solutions architects may be involved
in low-level design activities and programming tasks, these tasks are
not typically part of their primary responsibilities. This is especially true
in projects that are characterized by high complexity. These projects
necessitate that solutions architects invest a significant portion of their
time in strategic activities. This is because complex projects often involve
numerous interconnected components, diverse technologies, and deal
with intricate business processes. Consequently, the role of the solutions
architect expands beyond just technical considerations. As you will
observe in subsequent chapters, they need to devise a comprehensive
strategy that accounts for both present requirements and future scalability.
They must thoroughly understand the business domain, identify potential
risks, ensure alignment with business goals, and plan for potential changes
in the business or technology landscape. Moreover, these projects could
require advanced technological capabilities such as distributed systems or
microservices, high data processing needs, and robust security measures.
These aspects add additional layers of complexity and necessitate

51
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

strategic planning to ensure the system is scalable, secure, maintainable,

and capable of meeting the business’s needs. If a solutions architect is
spending too much time on low-level design and programming types of
activities, this can compromise their overall responsibility of integrating
the different components of the solution. Therefore, in digital projects of
high complexity, solutions architects often find themselves acting as a
bridge between the technical teams and business stakeholders, facilitating
communication and ensuring that the final solution aligns with both
business objectives and technical constraints.

Development and Testing Phases

Solutions architects bear a multitude of responsibilities spanning across
the development and testing phases of the project lifecycle. During
the development phase, they play a pivotal role in ensuring that the
development team adheres to established technical standards and
thoroughly meets both functional and non-functional requirements. They
also act as crucial problem solvers, facilitating the resolution of any escalated
technical issues, thereby bridging the gap between intricate technical
aspects and project success. Moreover, they ensure that these technical
issues are resolved according to best practices and industry standards.
Similarly, throughout the testing phase, the solutions architect
collaborates with the testing team to ensure that the application undergoes
rigorous testing and meets the quality and performance standards
established during the design phase. They also assist in identifying and
resolving any technical issues that might surface during testing.
In essence, solutions architects bear responsibilities in both the
development and testing activities, primarily at a higher level. Their role is
to ensure that the digital solution is architected, designed, developed, and
tested to meet the requirements, standards, and expectations outlined in
the project. This involves active participation across all project phases and
a commitment to ensuring that the final product is of the highest quality.

52
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

Operational Role of a Solutions Architect

Although solutions architects typically don’t have an active role in
the operational aspects of the digital solutions, they do have some
responsibilities in ensuring that the delivered system run smoothly and
effectively. Operational roles typically involve day-to-day management
and maintenance of the implemented system, including monitoring,
troubleshooting, and ensuring that the system operates efficiently and
effectively. These roles are often performed by operations teams, IT
administrators, or other technical staff who have a more hands-on role in
the maintenance and management of the system.
Once the system has been implemented, the solutions architect’s
role usually shifts to one of oversight and guidance, ensuring that the
implemented solution aligns with the original design and that it continues
to meet the needs of the business. They may also provide guidance and
recommendations on any future changes or enhancements that may be
required.
Some of the responsibilities that solutions architects have in an
operational setting may include the following:

• They monitor the system for a specified period of time

to ensure that it performs adequately and that their
design for the system satisfies business and technical
requirements.

• They may note observations as lessons learned and use

those insights towards architecting future solutions and
systems.

• In cases where operational requirements change or

special attention is needed for scalability, security,
disaster recovery, or other areas, they may be called
upon to provide guidance and recommendations.

53
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

Throughout this journey, the solutions architect plays a key role in

ensuring that the overall solutions architecture remains aligned with
the business requirements and objectives. They may also be involved
in ongoing monitoring and performance analysis, identifying areas for
improvement, and making recommendations to optimize the system’s
performance and efficiency.

Key Solutions Architecture Deliverables

Throughout the solutions architecture process, the solutions architect
produces several deliverables and contributes to many others. These
deliverables are discussed in subsequent chapters. However, I should
note that the primary deliverable of the solutions architecture process
and activities is the solution’s target technology architecture. It’s also
commonly referred to as the “solution design” document or blueprint
that outlines the technical solution for a given business problem or
opportunity. This document typically includes details and specifications
of the hardware, software, network, and other technical components
required to implement the solution. It also outlines the integration points
between different components, the data flow, and the system’s overall
architecture.
The target architecture/solution design document serves as a guide
for the development and implementation team and ensures that the
solution meets the business requirements and operates as intended. The
solutions architect ensures that the project’s technical artifacts and other
deliverables align with this target architecture, thereby contributing to the
successful delivery of the solution.

54
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

 olutions Architecture vs.

S
Enterprise Architecture
In this section, I will discuss the solutions architecture domain within
the context of enterprise architecture (EA). As mentioned, the solutions
architecture of the project must align with the enterprise architecture to
ensure that the digital solution is compatible with the overall business
and digital/technology strategy of the organization. To begin, here’s an
overview of the enterprise architecture domain before delving into the
distinctions between the two roles.

The Enterprise Architecture Process

An organization can be viewed in terms of its business processes, the
applications it uses to run its operations, the technologies it employs, and
the data it generates and utilizes. Thus, the EA process involves creating
a comprehensive view of the current and future state of the enterprise
concerning its business processes, applications, overall technology
landscape, and the underlying data required to support the organization’s
business strategy [4].
For instance, Sales and Finance are typical “business processes” of an
organization, while CRM and e-commerce are examples of “applications”
that support these processes. The software, hardware, and networking
technologies used to facilitate these business processes constitute the
“technology” dimension of the EA. Finally, customer data and order data
are part of the data domain of the EA.
Consolidating information related to various dimensions in one
place facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the interrelationships
between these elements for an organization and its architects. This
consolidation is where the value of EA becomes evident. For example,
knowing which applications within an organization support its sales

55
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

business processes can guide decision-making during the transformation

of these processes. A comprehensive view of the enterprise also enables
the organization to thoroughly understand its current architecture before
making decisions about developing a new target architecture. This
new architecture may include modifications to business processes, the
introduction of new applications, and other changes.
Also, given that an EA may encompass a vast amount of information
concerning an organization’s business processes, applications,
technologies, and data, each of these elements can involve a significant
amount of complexity. As a result, these four elements are considered sub-­
architectures in their own right. Therefore, enterprise architecture consists
of the business architecture, information architecture, applications
architecture, and technology architecture.
Let’s review each of the four dimensions in further detail.
The business architecture describes how an organization functions,
and it includes information on the organization’s strategy, governance,
organization, and key business processes. This domain offers a
comprehensive understanding of an organization’s business by providing
an overview of its business strategies, overall capabilities, business
processes, products and services, assets, customers and stakeholders,
and the underlying business rules that bind the organization together as a
cohesive entity. Some of the topics related to business architecture include
the following:

• The key business processes and functions within the

organization

• The interaction and interrelation of these business

processes

• The strategic goals and objectives of the organization

• The alignment of business functions with the

organization’s overall strategy

56
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• The current business capabilities and the capabilities

needed for future growth

• The ways technology can support and enhance

business functions and processes

The application architecture within enterprise architecture outlines

the strategy for managing the software applications in an organization.
This domain provides a comprehensive view of the applications utilized
by the organization, along with associated details such as the structure of
the applications, technologies employed, development methodologies,
integration strategies, various layers of applications and systems, and
more. Discussions related to application architecture include the
following:

• The structure of the new system or application,

including its presentation, business, data, and
other layers

• Various technologies utilized in building the

application, such as monolithic, microservices-based,
or cloud-native

• Technologies and methodologies for integrating the

application components, including APIs, middleware,
or message queues

• Scalability and performance strategies to handle

increasing demand and ensure high availability

• Security measures at the data, application, and network

levels to protect the application

• Supporting the organization’s business processes and

information flow within the application

57
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• Managing changes, updates, patches, and new feature

rollouts over time
• Post-deployment plans for application maintenance
and support
• Alignment of application architecture with the broader
enterprise architecture
• Data handling, storage, retrieval, and management
strategies within the application

The technology architecture within enterprise architecture delineates

the hardware, software technologies, and IT infrastructure of the business.
This domain encompasses all the technology or infrastructure components
of the organization, including network and hardware elements. It spans
across areas related to the organization’s network architecture, data center
architecture, and hosting architecture, along with various infrastructure
services, such as compute services and storage services.
The following topics and questions relate to this domain:
• Assessment of the current state of the organization’s IT
infrastructure, encompassing hardware, software, and
network components
• The alignment of the existing technology infrastructure
with the organization’s business needs and objectives
• Plans for scaling the IT infrastructure to accommodate
future growth and increased demand
• Integration strategies for incorporating new
technologies into the existing infrastructure
• Measures in place to ensure the security and resilience
of the IT infrastructure
• Ensuring data integrity, security, and privacy within the
technology architecture

58
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• Facilitation of data flow and information exchange

across the organization through the technology
architecture

• Strategy for managing and maintaining the IT

infrastructure, including updates, upgrades, and
problem resolution

The information architecture domain within enterprise architecture

focuses on the structure and organization of information across the
organization. It provides a comprehensive view of all the data and
information within the organization by illustrating all data sources,
storage methods, and various other aspects related to how that data is
interconnected and managed. Information architecture offers a detailed
view of both internal and external information within the organization, the
various types of information, and how that information is stored, including
in databases, data warehouses, data lakes, and files. Additionally, it
outlines the diverse ways in which the information is processed and
managed within the organization, taking into account elements such as
information security, information quality, and other relevant aspects.
When discussing information architecture, the following topics are
typically considered to be of high importance:
• Assessment of the current structure and organization of
data and information within the organization
• Identification of data sources and understanding how
data is collected, processed, and stored
• Evaluation of how the current state of information
architecture aligns with the organization’s business
objectives and strategies
• Examination of protocols and technologies
implemented for data security, privacy, and
compliance with relevant regulations

59
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• Ensuring data quality, accuracy, and integrity within

the organization

• Ensuring information accessibility and usability across

different business functions

• The flow of information between different business

functions

• Strategies for managing and maintaining databases,

data warehouses, data lakes, and other data
storage systems

• Handling data integration across various systems and

platforms within the organization

T he Difference Between Enterprise Architecture

and Solutions Architecture
At the outset, although the activities that a solutions architect performs
may seem similar to those carried out by the EA team, the main difference
lies in the overall scope and level of detail. As discussed earlier, EA
illustrates the current and target state of an enterprise, reflecting the
overall business and technology capabilities of the organization. On the
other hand, while solutions architecture also covers all four dimensions
of EA, it has a more limited scope of coverage in each domain as it mainly
focuses on the solution itself. Therefore, it is considered a subset of the
overall EA. When developing a solutions architecture, the SA typically
references the EA of the enterprise to obtain guidance on the technology
strategy, standards, and best practices for implementing digital solutions,
ensuring alignment with the organization’s overall technology vision and
goals. Figure 2-1 illustrates this difference.

60
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

Figure 2-1.  Scope of enterprise architecture vs. solutions architecture

E xample: Difference Between Enterprise Architecture

and Solutions Architecture
For example, suppose an organization decides to develop an IoT digital
platform to support its IoT-based applications. In that case, the solutions
architect would typically refer to the enterprise technology architecture
to check if there is any previous guidance available on building such
solutions in the enterprise. This guidance may provide the solutions

61
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

architect with ideas on the organization’s preferred technologies for IoT,

standards that should be followed, best practices related to integrating IoT
solutions with the rest of the enterprise, and so on.
To be more specific, let’s consider the types of questions that a
solutions architect may pose to the EA team. Here are some examples of
questions a Solutions Architect (SA) may ask the EA team, related to each
of the four domains:

Business Architecture
• How does the development of this IoT platform
align with our broader business strategy and goals as
outlined in our business architecture?
• Are there specific business performance metrics that
the IoT platform should help to improve?

Information Architecture
• How should the IoT platform handle data privacy
and security given our current enterprise information
architecture guidelines?
• What specific data standards and formats should the
IoT platform comply with to ensure seamless data
integration?

Technical Architecture
• Are there any specific protocols or technologies
prescribed by our technical architecture for IoT
communication?
• What are the specific scalability and performance
requirements outlined by our enterprise technical
architecture that the IoT platform needs to meet?

62
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

Application Architecture
• What are the integration points and interoperability
requirements with our existing application ecosystem?

• Are there any specific application patterns or

architectural styles (like microservices) recommended
by our enterprise application architecture for IoT
solutions?

The above shows the importance of the SA working and collaborating

closely with the EA team. Working closely with the EA team can provide
the solutions architect with a better understanding of the overall enterprise
environment, including the current state of the organization’s technology
landscape, its business processes, and its strategic goals. By having access
to this information, the solutions architect can more effectively design and
implement solutions that align with the organization’s overall direction
and goals.
In addition, close collaboration between the solutions architect and
the EA team can help ensure consistency and adherence to enterprise-­
wide standards, such as security and compliance requirements, that might
otherwise be overlooked if the solutions architect worked in isolation. By
leveraging the expertise of the EA team, solutions architects can benefit
from their knowledge of the organization’s technology and business
landscape and avoid any potential missteps or conflicts that could arise
from working in silos.
Overall, a strong partnership between solutions architects and
the EA team can lead to more efficient and effective solution design
and implementation, and ultimately help the organization achieve its
strategic goals.

63
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

T he Solutions Architect and the Other

Architects in Organizations
Let’s now focus on the role of a solutions architect and differentiate it from
other architects who may potentially work on a digital solution. Depending
on how an organization defines the role of a solutions architect, it’s
common to have multiple specialized “architect” roles on a project. The
typical approach is for a solutions architect to lead other architects, such
as an application architect or a database architect, among others. This is
because the solutions architect is responsible for integrating all domains.
By having specialized architects on the team, the project can benefit from
their expertise in their respective areas, which ultimately leads to a more
robust solution. For example, specialized architect roles may focus on
domains such as Big Data, Apache Kafka, AWS, Azure, and others [5].
In projects with a smaller scope, a solutions architect may end up
fulfilling various architectural roles, whereas larger projects may require
dedicated architects depending on the scope of each technical sub-­
domain. This, again, depends on how an organization defines the role of
a solutions architect, the actual project and its complexities, as well as the
organization’s internal policies [6].
Additionally, in projects where one type of activity is more dominant
than the others, it is common to see specialist architects acting in the
capacity of the solutions architect. For example, in projects where
the majority of technical activity is related to software design and
development, the software architect may also act as the solutions architect
for the project.
The following provides more information about the other architects
who are typically involved in projects.
Software architect: A software architect focuses on the software
aspects of distributed applications. They are responsible for the
architecture, design, development, testing, and deployment issues related

64
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

to software applications. While software architecture is mainly concerned

with the architecture of the software application, the solutions architecture
definition is broader in nature, encompassing software, hardware,
network, and other components required to create the overall solution.
Infrastructure architect: Their focus is on the infrastructure elements
of the digital/cloud solution. They are responsible for activities related
to designing, deploying, and maintaining instances, hardware, storage,
compute, network, and various other data center-related equipment.
Enterprise architect: Due to the nature of their role and function, the
EAs possess a high-level view of both the business and IT aspects of an
organization. This role is primarily located in the EA department of the
organization rather than being part of a digital solution project. Similar to
solutions architects, enterprise architects have a good understanding of
both business and technology domains.
Business architect: The focus of a business architect is typically on
the business and its processes. For instance, a business architect in the
financial industry may specialize in financial processes, while a business
architect in the healthcare industry would concentrate on the business
processes specific to healthcare.
Data/Information architect: A data architect primarily operates at the
enterprise level, overseeing the information flow throughout the enterprise
or solution. They offer a comprehensive view of data across applications
and systems and assess its value to the enterprise. Data architects work on
transforming operational data into insights, optimizing data security, and
maximizing the overall value of data. It’s important to note that this role
should not be confused with that of a database architect.
Database architect: A database architect specializes in database
technologies and is accountable for designing, implementing, and
maintaining solution-specific data models and databases. In most cases,
each digital or cloud solution employs a database architect to ensure the
database requirements of the system are fulfilled.

65
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

Application architect: An application architect concentrates on

the business applications of the organization and is accountable for
designing, developing, testing, and implementing them. Their main focus
is on researching and understanding the advantages and disadvantages
of application-related technologies and determining how to use them
effectively within the organization. Application architects who specialize in
application design are also known as software architects.
Network architect: The primary responsibility of a network architect
is to design and construct organizational networks, which encompasses a
broad range of tasks. However, when it comes to building cloud solutions,
the network architect’s role may not be as significant because the solution’s
specific scope assumes the presence and operation of various underlying
network capabilities. It’s important to note that network architecture is
a vast field that encompasses many aspects beyond just building cloud
solutions.
Security architect: Similar to network architects, security architects
have a broad scope within the organizational context. Their primary
responsibility for a cloud solution is to ensure it aligns with the overall
organizational security framework and doesn’t expose any data or
organizational assets to unauthorized access. The role of security
architecture in cloud solutions is crucial to maintaining the security and
integrity of organizational data and assets.
In conclusion, it’s important to note that the role of specialized
architects may vary during the lifecycle of a project, depending on its
scope. This variability makes the task of the solutions architect more
challenging because they must ensure that all activities of all architects in
each phase are coordinated with business stakeholders, and the outputs
of each of those activities are reconciled with other activities. The SA plays
a crucial role in ensuring that all architectural components of the solution
are integrated effectively and aligned with the business objectives of the
project.

66
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

In summary, the role of a digital solutions architect is broad and

encompasses all the above-discussed architectural roles. They collaborate
with the various specialized architects to ensure that a solution aligns with
the organization’s business requirements.

Tailoring the Solutions Architecture Process

As noted in earlier chapters, the solutions architecture process can vary
from one digital solution to another due to differences in the requirements,
goals, and constraints of each. For example, a digital solution that uses
a legacy technology stack may have different considerations around
scalability and performance compared to a modern system that uses
cloud-native technologies. Similarly, a system that is designed for a small
user base may have different security and privacy requirements compared
to a system that is designed for a large user base.
While the high-level steps of the solutions architecture process are
typically the same, the details and specific considerations could also vary
based on the system and technology stack being used. For example, the
evaluation of technology options and the selection of a technology stack
may be more complex for a system that requires high scalability and
performance compared to a system with simpler requirements. Similarly,
the design of the system’s security and privacy features may require
different approaches depending on the technology stack being used.
As architects transition from one project to another, they must be
aware of the specific context and requirements of each project and make
necessary adjustments to their approach, methodology, and techniques.
The level of modifications required will vary depending on factors such as
project size, complexity, and technology stack. Therefore, they must tailor
their approach to suit the overall scope of the project.

67
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

Architects must consider several factors when transitioning from

one project to another. The following are some examples of these factors,
which will be elaborated further in later parts of the book:

• Understanding the business context: Architects need

to understand the business context of each project,
including its goals, objectives, and constraints. This
helps them align their architecture vision and design
with the business needs of the project.

• Adapting the methodology: The methodology

used in one project may not be suitable for another
project due to differences in the size, complexity, and
team structure. Therefore, architects need to adapt
their methodology to fit the specific context of the
project. For example, they may need to adopt an agile
methodology for a project that requires fast iterations
and frequent feedback.

• Customizing the architecture approach: Architects

need to customize their architecture approach to fit
the specific requirements of each project. For example,
they may need to focus more on performance and
scalability in a project that handles large volumes of
data or traffic.

• Adapting to the technology stack: Different

technology stacks require different approaches to
architecture design. For example, a project using
a legacy technology stack may require a different
architecture design than a project using modern cloud-­
native technologies.

68
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

• Adjusting communication and collaboration: The

communication and collaboration practices that
worked in one project may not be suitable for another
project. Therefore, architects need to adjust their
communication and collaboration practices to fit the
specific context of each project. For example, they may
need to use different communication channels or tools
to collaborate with team members.

Example
Let’s illustrate this by an example. The steps involved in building an AI/ML
system may be different than building an IoT solution for a manufacturing
facility due to differences in the underlying technology, data sources, and
business goals. In building an AI/ML system, the key steps include identifying
the problem to be solved, preparing and cleaning the data, selecting and
training the appropriate machine learning models, and evaluating the
performance of the models. This involves a strong focus on data quality, feature
engineering, and model selection to ensure accurate predictions and insights.
In contrast, building an IoT solution for a manufacturing facility
involves identifying the key sensors and data sources, setting up the
necessary infrastructure and connectivity, and developing the appropriate
analytics and control algorithms. This involves a strong focus on real-time
data processing, edge computing, and network optimization to ensure
reliable and efficient data collection and analysis.
Additionally, the business goals of an AI/ML system and an IoT
solution for a manufacturing facility may be different. The primary goal of
an AI/ML system is to generate insights and predictions that can be used
to improve business outcomes such as customer satisfaction, revenue
growth, or operational efficiency. In contrast, the primary goal of an IoT
solution for a manufacturing facility is to optimize the production process,
reduce downtime, and improve safety and quality.

69
Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

Overall, while there may be some similarities in the steps involved in

building an AI/ML system and an IoT solution for a manufacturing facility,
there are also key differences in the technology, data sources, and business
goals that require a tailored approach for each solution. Architects,
therefore, need to be adaptable and flexible as they move from one
project to another. They need to be able to understand the specific context
and requirements of each project and make necessary changes to their
approach, methodology, and techniques to ensure that the architecture
design meets the needs of the project.

Summary
This chapter provided you with an overview of the solutions architecture
domain and its importance in ensuring that digital solutions align with
an organization’s broader strategic goals and architectural principles.
The chapter discussed the process, activities, and integration of solutions
architecture within the project lifecycle and the organization’s enterprise
architecture process. By understanding the role of solutions architecture
in a project, you now have insights into how it contributes to achieving
project objectives and how it integrates with other project activities.
The chapter also covered the distinction between solutions architecture
and enterprise architecture, the role of the solutions architect, and how
the solutions architecture process can be tailored to suit a project’s
specific needs.
Overall, the chapter aimed to provide you with a clear understanding
of the solutions architecture domain and its importance in achieving
successful digital solutions. By providing insights into the process,
activities, and integration of solutions architecture within the broader
context of a project and organization’s EA process, you can gain a better
understanding of how solutions architecture fits into the overall plan and
how it contributes to achieving project objectives.

70
 Chapter 2 The Digital Solutions Architecture Process and Activities

References
1. The Open Group. (2011). The Open Group
Architecture Framework (TOGAF) Version 9.1.
Chapter 3: Architecture Content Framework.
Retrieved March 2, 2023, from https://pubs.
opengroup.org/architecture/togaf91-doc/arch/
chap03.html#tag_03_65
2. Gartner. (n.d.). “Solution Architecture. IT Glossary.”
Retrieved March 2, 2023, from ­www.gartner.com/
en/information-technology/glossary/solution-
architecture
3. Stack Overflow. (n.d.). “Software design vs software
architecture.” Retrieved March 27, 2023, from
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/704855/
software-design-vs-software-architecture
4. Government Accountability Office. (2001).
“Information Technology Investment Management:
A Framework for Assessing and Improving Process
Maturity (Exposure Draft).” Retrieved March 27,
2023, from www.gao.gov/assets/a77237.html
5. Lam, M. (August 7, 2008). “What is a solutions
architect? A vital role for IT-business alignment.”
CIO. Retrieved March 6, 2023, from www.cio.com/
article/191394/what-is-a-solutions-architect-
a-vital-role-for-it-business-alignment.html
6. Briq, I. (March 17, 2019). “The Software Architecture
Roles.” Medium. Retrieved March 27, 2023, from
­https://medium.com/@briqi/the-software-
architecture-roles-3bfccc9e36d2

71
CHAPTER 3

Fostering Digital and 

Business Alignment
In this chapter, I will discuss the importance of business alignment, its
benefits, and how solutions architecture can help achieve it. I will also
explore the key considerations and best practices for solutions architects to
design and deliver digital solutions that meet the business needs and align
with the overall organizational goals.
Business alignment is the process of ensuring that an organization’s
various activities and processes are aligned with its business strategies,
goals, and objectives. It involves making sure that different aspects of the
organization work together to support and reinforce the overall operations
of the business.
While the concept of business alignment should apply to all aspects
of an organization and its businesses, historically it has been used
more in technology circles to ensure that an organization’s technology
investments and related initiatives are aligned with the highest level of
business strategies, goals, and objectives. Without proper alignment,
digital solutions may not meet organizational goals, resulting in wasted
time, resources, and money. A lack of business alignment can also lead to
poor user adoption, system performance, and ultimately, project failure.
Therefore, ensuring business alignment is essential for the success of any
digital solutions project.

© Wasim Rajput 2023 73

W. Rajput, Solutions Architecture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9657-8_3
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

E xample: Misalignment of Technology

and Business
Suppose an organization wants to implement an AI-based solution to
enhance its customer service. The company has a high volume of customer
inquiries and a limited number of support staff, leading to the decision
to invest in an AI chatbot. The hope is that this chatbot will reduce wait
times, operate around the clock, and efficiently resolve customer queries.
This chatbot is trained using previous customer service interactions and is
integrated into the company’s website and mobile app.
However, let’s imagine that post-deployment, the chatbot fails to meet
these expectations. The chatbot often misunderstands complex customer
queries and provides unrelated responses, leading to customer frustration.
Its problem-solving capabilities is limited to standard issues, and it
struggles with unique problems or complaints that require the nuanced
understanding of a human agent. Moreover, the chatbot is unable to offer
personalized responses or recommendations based on customer history or
preferences, a key aspect of customer satisfaction in the company’s service
ethos. The result is a significant drop in customer satisfaction scores.
This example represents a situation where a digital project
implementation doesn’t align with the business’s needs and objectives,
leading to adverse outcomes rather than the intended benefits.
A solutions architect, therefore, must take proactive steps to ensure
that the delivered solutions are aligned with the business’s strategies
and objectives. Among other things, this involves understanding the
business context in which solutions are being developed, understanding
the business priorities, translating them into technical requirements, and
designing solutions that address both the technical and business needs. By
doing so, the solutions architect ensures that the digital solutions delivered
to the organization are aligned with the organization’s overall business
goals, resulting in increased user adoption, improved system performance,
and successful project outcomes.

74
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

T he Solutions Architect’s Role

in Business Alignment
Aligning digital solutions with business strategies requires alignment
at all levels of the organization. From CIOs aligning their highest-level
technology strategies with an organization’s business executives and
programmers delivering specific functionality to the business users,
processes and practices should be in place to maximize alignment at all
levels of the organization.
As the senior technical person responsible for designing and delivering
digital solutions, the solutions architect plays a vital role in ensuring
alignment with the organization’s objectives and goals.
To ensure that alignment, solutions architects perform several
functions including:

• Acting as a liaison between the business and

technology teams, discussing broader project concerns
with business executives, and sometimes explaining
technical details as well. For example, this could
mean discussing the scope and goals of a new CRM
implementation with business executives and also
distilling complex technical aspects of the system into
comprehensible terms.

• Maintaining a strong relationship with the business

stakeholders throughout the duration of the project
and after its successful delivery. For example, after
the launch of a new e-commerce platform, a solutions
architect might continue to collaborate with the
marketing team, refining features based on user
feedback and market trends.

75
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• Constantly communicating technology-related issues

to the business team and keeping them informed about
the relevance of technology to the business problem.
Solutions architects explain technology in clear
business terms, making it understandable for business
users. Suppose during the development of a new
cloud-based data analytics platform, there are potential
delays due to unforeseen technical challenges. The
solutions architect would communicate this to the
business team, explaining the issue and its implications
in clear business terms.

• Ensuring that the solution’s architecture remains

aligned with the organization’s business strategy at all
levels, including building new technologies, defining
new processes, and building data repositories.

By taking on these roles, solutions architects can ensure that

technology investments and initiatives align with the organization’s
business strategies, goals, and objectives. I will elaborate on the specific set
of activities and processes required for alignment in subsequent sections
of this chapter. I will focus on diverse strategies and best practices that can
enhance this alignment to its maximum potential.

 sing Business Strategy to Drive

U
Solutions Architecture
One of the common reasons for the subpar performance of digital
transformation projects is the technical team’s incomplete understanding
of the overall business context. This lack of understanding can lead to a
misalignment between the technological solutions being implemented
and the actual needs of the business [1]. It can also prevent the solutions

76
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

architect from recommending better and more innovative solutions to the

business. By gaining a better understanding of the organization’s goals,
processes, and systems, as well as industry and market trends, solutions
architects can design and implement more effective digital solutions that
align with the overall strategy and objectives of the business.
Let’s illustrate this with a simple example. Suppose a software
development team is tasked with building a new customer relationship
management (CRM) system for a retail business. If they do not understand
the business strategy of the retail company, they may not design the
CRM system to meet the specific needs of the business. This can lead to
inefficiencies in the system, such as irrelevant or redundant features, that
could negatively impact the user experience and customer satisfaction.
For instance, if the retail company’s business strategy is focused on
providing a highly personalized shopping experience, the CRM system
should be designed to gather and analyze customer data to provide
tailored recommendations and offers. If the development team does not
understand this business strategy, they may create a generic CRM system
that does not account for the need for personalization. This can result in
lower customer engagement and decreased sales.
A solutions architect, therefore, should start the process of attaining
a better understanding of the business context by first gaining insight
into its strategy. A business strategy is a long-term plan and direction a
company or a LOB (Line of Business) follows to achieve its objectives and
goals. Besides highlighting an organization’s goals and objectives, the plan
also highlights the critical steps and programs needed to compete in the
market, provide value to customers, create new markets, and create a plan
to become profitable and sustain profits over an extended period of time.
The strategy also provides insights on the organization’s decisions related
to resource allocation, product and service development, target market
selection, customer acquisition, and risk management.

77
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

By understanding an organization’s business strategy, a solutions

architect can gather business requirements for the solution they
are working on in a more strategic way. This can also enable them
to recommend technical solutions that are more aligned with the
organization’s goals and offer more strategic benefits to the organization.
Understanding the business strategy and overall business architecture
(which will be explained later in this chapter) puts both the solutions
architect and the business stakeholders in lockstep towards achieving the
ultimate objectives of delivering the best products and services, providing
high customer value, and doing so at the lowest possible cost [2].

T he Intersection of Business Strategy

and Solutions Architecture: Essential
Dimensions and Components
Let’s now review how the various components of a business strategy
[3] can help solutions architects gain a better understanding of
the organization’s goals and objectives. Figure 3-1 illustrates this
recommended alignment.

78
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

Figure 3-1.  Alignment of a digital solution’s architecture with an

organization’s business strategy

• Vision statement: The vision statement outlines the

company’s vision for the future. This information can
help solutions architects understand the company’s
aspirations and can accordingly help them recommend
more strategic solutions to their business customers.
Consider a scenario where a business aims to reduce
its carbon emissions by 50% in the long term. Although
this objective may not be directly related to the solution
requirements that a solutions architect is working on,
being aware of it can enable the solutions architect
to recommend a more strategic analytics solution.
This solution can help the organization track its
carbon emissions and make data-driven decisions

79
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

that accelerate the achievement of its long-term

vision, instead of merely meeting the tactical solution
requirements that were initially requested. Similarly,
if a healthcare provider’s vision is to provide free
healthcare to its patients, the solutions architect can
recommend a telemedicine platform at a reduced cost,
which may help the healthcare provider with achieving
its vision at a better cost.
• Goals and objectives: Understanding the broader
business goals and objectives is crucial for a solutions
architect to align their solution with those goals.
For instance, if a company aims to increase revenue
within a specified timeframe, a solutions architect may
propose better online customer engagement solutions,
which can not only enhance customer engagement
but also accelerate revenue growth in a shorter period,
aligning with the business’s overall objectives.
• Value proposition: The value proposition outlines the
unique value that the company offers to its customers.
Understanding this value proposition can help solutions
architects design technological solutions that enhance
the company’s unique value proposition and support
the company’s competitive advantage. For instance, let’s
consider the healthcare provider example mentioned
earlier. Suppose its value proposition is centered around
offering personalized healthcare services. Knowing
this can enable a solutions architect to recommend
an improved business analytics and BI (Business
Intelligence) solution, which can help identify patterns
and specific conditions in patients. This can enable the
healthcare provider to offer personalized care options
and forecast situations for better patient care.
80
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• Pain points: When describing new goals and

objectives, a business strategy document can highlight
the organization’s earlier pain points that motivated
them to pursue a new direction. By understanding
these pain points, solutions architects can gain
valuable insights into the organization’s challenges
and envision solutions that not only address these pain
points but also prevent their recurrence. For example,
a retail company may attribute its sluggish sales to an
inefficient sales process. An analysis of the process and
its related systems may drive the solutions architect
to recommend a digital platform and supporting
processes that can address the various inefficiencies in
the old process.

• Competitive analysis: A competitive analysis provides

insights into the company’s competition and their
strengths and weaknesses. A solutions architect’s
deeper understanding of new technologies and
related trends can help them recommend better
solutions. For instance, by understanding the technical
underpinnings of ChatGPT, a cutting-edge software
that employs advanced natural language processing
(NLP) techniques, deep neural networks, language
modeling, and machine learning algorithms, solutions
architects can suggest utilizing similar technologies to
develop state of the art chatbots to interact with their
clients.

• Risk management plan: The risk management plan,

often developed in conjunction with an organization’s
business strategy, is designed to identify potential risks
that could negatively impact the company’s success.

81
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

It also includes relevant risk mitigation strategies to

reduce the likelihood or impact of those risks, as well as
contingency plans to address them should they occur.
Understanding this information can help solutions
architects design technology solutions that mitigate
those risks form a technical perspective. For example,
if the business’s risk management plan identifies
reputational risks as a major concern, the architect
may recommend an online solution that extracts data
from social media and include features to monitor and
manage the business’s online reputation.

In summary, understanding an organization’s business strategy can

provide solutions architects with a comprehensive view of the company’s
overall business environment. This, in turn, allows architects to devise more
effective solutions that align with the organization’s goals and objectives.

 ligning Solutions Architecture

A
with Business Architecture
In order to ensure maximum alignment with the business, solutions
architects must also have a thorough understanding of an organization’s
business architecture. While the business strategy of a company provides
solutions architects with an overview of the direction of an organization
or a LOB, an organization’s business architecture [4] can help solutions
architects understand the following:

• The organization’s products and services and how

they, along with their supporting business processes
and systems, will interact with the new digital solution

• The key business processes impacted by the digital

business solution being architected and designed

82
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• Data and information related to the organization’s

business processes

• Business rules related to the organization’s business

processes

• An organization’s key stakeholders related to the

various business processes

• Business performance metrics

• A visual representation of an organization's

capabilities

The following elaborates further on the above. It is also summarized in

Figure 3-2.

Figure 3-2.  Alignment of a digital solution’s architecture with an

organization’s business architecture

83
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

Products and Services
To ensure that digital solutions align with an organization’s business needs,
solutions architects should gain a broad understanding of the organization’s
products and services. Knowing the various products and services of the
organizations and how they are delivered and supported can especially help
solutions architects leverage existing organizational capabilities, especially
if their solution is a new product or service. It can also help solutions
architects with an understanding of the current operational support system
and production environment related to existing products and services.
Having a clear understanding of the existing products, services,
and the larger ecosystem surrounding them is also crucial for solutions
architects because that knowledge can assist the architects in learning
whether their solution requires integration with other products, services,
or systems within the same ecosystem.
For example, if other products and services are supported by an
organization’s strategic ERP systems, the solutions architect can ensure
that the solutions that they are developing also interface with those
systems. Also, by leveraging the overall support system for the products,
services, and resources that are used in the organization to support those
products and services, a solutions architect can share those resources and
support systems, enabling them to reduce costs related to the operational
support of the new products and services.
Furthermore, acquiring in-depth knowledge of an organization’s
products and services plus the creation process and support mechanisms
can assist the solutions architect in optimizing the support processes
related to their solutions. For instance, if other products and services incur
substantial operational costs, the solutions architect can collaborate with
the operations teams to automate the operational processes concerning
their solution. This would lead to enhanced operational efficiency and cost
savings for the organization.

84
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

In summary, by getting an overview of an organization’s products and

services, as well as the support and operational ecosystem, a solutions
architect can make informed decisions about whether their solution needs
to be integrated with that ecosystem or if alternate strategies are needed to
support their solutions or products and services when they are deployed in
production.

Business Processes
Business processes and value streams are another critical component of a
business architecture. These are a series of tasks, activities, and flows that
a business uses to deliver value to its customers. Learning this information
can help the solutions architect to better understand the business
requirements needed to serve an organization’s business processes or in
other cases to help it redesign those business processes. In fact, learning
the details of business processes that may get impacted due to the new
digital solution can help the technology team build innovative solutions to
mitigate the impact.
For example, consider the case of a retail company that wants to
implement a new e-commerce platform. As part of the work, the solutions
architect needs to understand the company’s business processes and value
streams to ensure that the new platform will meet its needs. The architect
may work with the company’s business analysts to map out the different
processes and activities involved in selling products online, including
managing inventory and order fulfillment, handling payments, and
customer service. By understanding these processes in detail, the architect
can identify areas where the new platform can improve efficiency, reduce
costs, or enhance the customer experience. They may suggest integrating
the platform with the company’s inventory management system to ensure
that products are always in stock, or incorporating chatbots or other AI
technologies to improve customer service. In this way, understanding

85
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

the business processes and value streams is essential for developing

effective solutions that meet the company’s needs and deliver value to its
customers.
An organization’s business processes are usually reflected in a
business process map. It typically consists of a series of process diagrams
or flowcharts that show the steps involved in each process, including data
flows, decision points, systems used, and other inputs and outputs. These
process diagrams may relate to key processes such as sales, marketing,
procurement, customer service and support, finance, operations, and
HR, as well as supporting processes such as procurement, inventory
management, and IT management. A solutions architect can request this
document from the business to help them with their understanding of an
organization’s business processes.

 ata and Information Related

D
to Business Processes
Data and information related to the various processes of the business
are also an essential aspect of the business architecture. This includes
understanding the different types of data that the business processes use,
such as master data, transactional data, data quality attributes, and various
data used for analytics. Master data is the core data that is essential to the
business’s operations, such as customer data, product data, and vendor
data. Transactional data is the data that is generated during the execution
of business processes, such as sales orders, invoices, and purchase orders.
Data quality attributes refer to the characteristics of data that determine
its accuracy, completeness, and consistency. In addition to these types of
data, a business may also use various data for analytics, such as customer
behavior data, market trend data, and financial data. Understanding
the different types of data used by the business processes can help
the solutions architect identify opportunities to improve data quality,
automate data processing, and enable more effective analytics.

86
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

Business Rules
Another critical piece of information that can be derived from a business
architecture are the specific business rules related to the organization’s
business processes. These business rules govern the behavior and
decision-making of various systems and stakeholders within the
organization. Examples of business rules may include approval rules
related to various processes and workflows, calculations performed in
various processes, escalation rules, data validation rules, and more. By
understanding these business rules, a solutions architect can design digital
solutions that align with the organization’s existing business practices and
support compliance with regulatory requirements. For example, if the
organization has a specific approval process for new product development,
the solutions architect can design a solution that automates the approval
process and integrates it with other systems. This can help ensure that new
products are developed in a timely and compliant manner.

An Organization’s Stakeholders

One critical piece of information that a solutions architect should compile
is that of the stakeholders who will be directly or indirectly associated with
the solution. Knowledge of an organization’s products and services, as
well as its business processes, can help solutions architects gain a deeper
understanding of key stakeholders. This understanding can broaden the
architect’s perspective when speaking to stakeholders for requirements
gathering and other purposes. To gain a better understanding of
stakeholders, a solutions architect should review the overall organizational
structure, including stakeholder roles, business locations, channels used,
and more. This information can help the solutions architect throughout
the process of envisioning and designing the right solutions, as well as in
ensuring that they cover all bases when gathering solution requirements.

87
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

Business Performance Metrics

In addition to requesting visual representations and maps of the
organization’s business processes and workflows, a solutions architect
should also request performance metrics that the business may be using
to measure the efficiency and effectiveness of their processes. These
performance metrics may include measures such as cycle time, cost per
unit, defect rate, customer satisfaction, and employee productivity. By
understanding these metrics, the solutions architect can gain a better
understanding of the business’s goals and objectives, as well as any pain
points or areas of inefficiency. This information can help the architect
identify areas where digital solutions can have the most significant
impact and prioritize development efforts accordingly. Moreover, by
understanding the performance metrics, the solutions architect can
design digital solutions that address specific business needs and goals.
For example, if the business’s primary goal is to improve cycle time, the
solutions architect may design a solution that automates manual processes
or eliminates bottlenecks.

Business Capabilities
An organization’s business capabilities are another essential component
of its business architecture. Understanding an organization’s current
capabilities can enable all stakeholders to make better decisions, prioritize
future investment decisions, assess risks related to new initiatives, support
an organization’s transformation efforts, and encourage collaboration
among stakeholders. Ultimately, it can help in the planning and building
of new capabilities for the business.
An organization’s business capabilities are usually reflected in a
business capability map. It is a hierarchical visual representation of an
organization’s capabilities that shows how they relate to each other, with
higher-level capabilities representing broader goals and objectives and

88
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

lower-level capabilities representing specific functions and activities [5].

Having a business capability map of a LOB (line of business) can be
extremely helpful for a solutions architect in several ways:

• Understanding business requirements: The

business capability map can offer a lucid context
for comprehending the business requirements and
priorities of the LOB. This understanding assists the
solutions architect in aligning their proposed solution
with these capabilities.

• Identifying opportunities for improvement: The

capability map can help identify opportunities for
improvement or innovation in the LOB. This can be
useful for the solutions architect in proposing new
solutions that can enhance the LOB’s capabilities and
competitiveness.

• Defining solution scope: The capability map provides

a clear picture of the LOB’s capabilities and how they
relate to each other. This helps the solutions architect
define the scope of their proposed solution and ensure
that it addresses all the necessary capabilities.
• Communicating with stakeholders: The capability
map provides a common language and framework
for communicating with stakeholders. This helps the
solutions architect explain their proposed solutions in
a way that is easily understandable and relevant to the
LOB’s business objectives.

In summary, having the business architecture of the organization

that the solutions architect is building the digital solution for provides
not only a framework to gather business requirements but also offers a
complete picture of the context, ecosystem, and environment in which

89
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

the digital solution will function. This helps the solutions architect in
devising more strategic, aligned, and intelligent solutions. As observed,
an organization’s business architecture is a comprehensive framework
that includes its products, services, key business processes, related data
and rules, and key stakeholders. It details how these elements interact
with new digital solutions, illustrating this interplay visually. It also
defines the performance metrics to track success and visually represents
the organization’s capabilities. This architecture, therefore, serves as the
foundation for aligning technology solutions with business goals.

T he Importance of Business Use Cases

in Solutions Architecture
Business use cases are used in the solutions architecture process to
identify and define specific business requirements and functionality.
Solutions architects can use business use cases to understand business
processes, user needs, and system requirements, and to develop a
comprehensive understanding of how different systems and technologies
will interact with each other. This helps solutions architects design and
implement effective and efficient solutions that meet business needs,
improve business processes, and create value for the organization.
A business use case describes how a particular system or technology is
used to achieve the overall objectives of a specific business process, value
stream, or the organization as a whole [6]. It outlines the actors and users
involved in the business process, the information used, the process flow,
and the inputs and outputs of the business use case. Essentially, a use case
provides detailed insights into the users of the solution, the significance of
the solution to the organization’s business processes, and how the solution
will interface with other systems to meet the user’s requirements.

90
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

Business use cases can also serve as a starting point for further
gathering of business requirements. When working with business
stakeholders to discuss the various aspects of a business use case,
solutions architects can get a comprehensive view of the business use
case and identify other business processes that interact with it. This
understanding can help solutions architects ensure that the integration
with all secondary processes is seamless and meets the needs of the
organization.
In addition to its use in the solutions architecture process, business
use cases can serve as a tool for communicating with stakeholders about
the intended functionality and benefits of the proposed solution. By
presenting a clear and detailed picture of the solution’s capabilities and
benefits, business use cases can help facilitate stakeholder buy-in and
support for the solution.

Business Use Cases vs. Business Processes

It is important to distinguish between a business use case and a business
process [7]. A business process refers to a broader perspective of a series of
activities performed by both systems and individuals to achieve a specific
business objective. It encompasses the end-to-end flow of operations
and involves multiple steps and stakeholders. For example, the process of
order fulfillment in organizations involves activities like order placement,
order processing, inventory management, shipping, delivery, and more.
It represents the overall structure and sequence of actions required to
accomplish a particular goal.
On the other hand, a business use case focuses on a specific scenario
or situation in which a particular system, technology, or approach is
applied to address a specific business need or problem. It highlights the
interaction between users, systems, and processes to achieve a desired
outcome. For instance, when it comes to inventory management,
automating inventory tracking or utilizing analytics to forecast demand are

91
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

examples of business use cases. Automating inventory tracking involves

implementing a system that continuously monitors stock levels and
provides real-time visibility, while utilizing analytics to forecast demand
helps optimize inventory levels and improve decision-making.
In summary, while a business process provides a comprehensive view
of the overall sequence of activities, a business use case highlights a specific
application or scenario that demonstrates how a particular approach or
technology can be employed to address a specific business requirement.

Business Use Cases vs. Business Requirements

Business use cases should also not be confused with detailed business
requirements. While use cases describe the functional requirements of a
system from the perspective of its users or stakeholders, detailed business
requirements provide a more granular view of the specific features
and functionality. It’s important to understand the difference between
these two concepts to ensure that the right information is captured and
communicated to the development team.
Let’s take the example of customer order placement on an online
shopping platform. The use case describes the steps a customer takes to place
an order for a product. It involves browsing the product catalog, adding items
to the shopping cart, providing shipping and payment information, confirming
the order, and receiving an order confirmation. This use case provides an
overview of the customer’s interaction with the system to complete a purchase.
To translate this use case into detailed business requirements, let’s
consider requirements for the payment options provided on the platform.
The system should support multiple methods to provide customers with
flexibility. Detailed business requirements would specify accepting credit
card payments, PayPal payments, and payments through a third-party
payment gateway. This ensures that customers can choose the payment
method that suits them best.

92
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

By defining these detailed business requirements, the development

team receives clear instructions on implementing the payment options
and order confirmation functionalities. This level of specificity ensures
that the system meets the business needs and provides a smooth and
satisfactory customer experience.

Business Use Case Examples

To ensure clarity, here are additional examples of business use cases:

• An organization may decide to build a BI and data

analytics platform for its marketing department.
The specific use cases in this case would be the
identification of target audiences and personalization
of marketing messages for better engagement and
conversion rates.

• A business may decide to use chatbots and AI-powered

tools to provide quick and personalized support to
customers, reducing response times and increasing
customer satisfaction. Getting customer feedback to
help improve an organization’s products or services
would be a potential use case for these technologies.

• An organization may decide to implement SaaS-­

based contract management software with advanced
analytics features. Tracking and managing legal
agreements, reducing risk, and ensuring compliance
would be the potential use cases for this example.

93
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• A healthcare provider can use IoT technologies to

monitor patients’ health remotely, collecting real-time
data on vital signs and other health indicators. The use
case would be to use the data for analysis by healthcare
professionals to detect potential health issues and
provide timely interventions.

Business Use Cases for New Technologies

Business use cases are also an important tool when considering the
potential use of new technologies for an organization’s business. For
example, an organization that wants to consider the use of 5G technology
in its manufacturing facilities due to its low latency and advanced IoT
features can identify the following use cases for potential implementation:

• Remote asset management: With 5G, manufacturers

can remotely monitor and manage assets in real time,
reducing downtime and maintenance costs.

• Augmented reality: 5G can enable the use of

augmented reality (AR) in manufacturing, allowing
workers to see and interact with digital information
overlaid onto their physical environment.

• Quality control and inspection automation: With

5G, manufacturers can automate quality control and
inspection processes, ensuring high product standards
and reducing errors.

• Remote equipment monitoring and maintenance:

Leveraging 5G, manufacturers can remotely monitor
and maintain equipment in real time, minimizing
downtime and maintenance costs.

94
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

Here are other examples of business use cases in the context of

applying new digital technologies:

• To optimize crop yield and reduce waste, IoT can be

used to monitor environmental factors such as soil
moisture, temperature, and humidity.
• The pharmaceutical industry is exploring the use
of quantum computing to simulate molecular
interactions, enabling scientists to identify new drug
candidates more quickly and accurately. This could
lead to the development of effective treatments for
incurable diseases.
• To develop more sophisticated AI/ML models,
quantum computing is being utilized to train
them faster.
• Organizations considering the use of 5G technologies
due to its low latency and advanced IoT features
could consider its use for a number of use cases. For
instance, remote asset management can be performed
by manufacturers to monitor and manage assets in
real time, reducing downtime and maintenance costs.
Additionally, 5G can be used in augmented reality in
manufacturing to allow workers to see and interact
with digital information overlaid onto their physical
environment.
• And many more
In conclusion, it is evident that understanding the distinction between
business processes and business use cases is crucial when collecting
business requirements at the appropriate level of detail. Failing to grasp
this distinction can lead to a haphazard or unclear approach, resulting in
the omission of vital details. This misalignment between the technology

95
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

solutions being developed and the overarching business objectives can have
detrimental effects on the effectiveness and efficiency of the final solution.
Therefore, a meticulous approach to collecting business requirements,
with a clear understanding of the difference between business processes
and business use cases, is essential for achieving successful technology
implementation and realizing the intended business benefits.

Gathering Solution Requirements

After agreeing on the implementation of a particular use case, the business
stakeholders and solutions architect can proceed to discuss the detailed
business requirements related to it. These requirements provide a more
detailed description of the specific features, functions, and behaviors
that are required to support each business use case. They describe the
specific inputs, outputs, and processing rules that must be implemented
to support the business process or use case; they are typically documented
in a structured format, such as a spreadsheet or database, to guide the
development of the system.
During the process of gathering requirements, the solutions architect
analyzes each requirement for feasibility and defines them in sufficient
detail to ensure understanding by all project stakeholders. Throughout
this process, the solutions architect also collaborates with the project
manager to ensure that the defined business requirements stay within the
defined project scope. This is important because, during the requirement
gathering process, business users and stakeholders may add more
requirements to the list, and the solutions architect’s role is to ensure that
the project scope remains under control.
When defining business requirements, it is important to identify
both the functional and non-functional requirements of the project.
Functional requirements describe the specific features, capabilities, and
behaviors that the system must perform to meet the business needs. These

96
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

requirements are typically related to specific business processes, use cases,

or user stories (high-level description of use cases). They define what the
system must do to satisfy the business requirements.
Non-functional requirements, on the other hand, describe the
characteristics of the system that are not related to its specific functionality,
but are important for its overall performance and usability. These
requirements may include performance, scalability, reliability, security,
usability, and other factors that are critical to the success of the project.
Let’s explore both in further detail.

Gathering Functional Requirements

Functional requirements are specifications that define the system’s or
digital solution’s functionality from a user perspective. They are described
in an easy-to-understand language by business users and may refer to
business process flows or other functions that the system must fulfill. For
instance, a functional requirement could be to develop machine learning
algorithms for optimizing marketing campaigns. Another example could
be to generate graphical representations of data and insights using
visualization tools like PowerBI.

Example: Functional Requirements of an AR Use Case

For example, let’s consider the business use case of offering “augmented
reality applications to users.” AR is a technology that enhances real-world
environments by overlaying digital information or virtual objects onto
them, creating an immersive and interactive experience. AR is typically
experienced through devices such as smartphones, tablets, or wearable
headsets that use a camera and sensors to detect the user’s environment
and position digital objects within it. Furniture stores, for example, can
enable their customers to see how their furniture would look in their home
before making a purchase.

97
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

If we break that use case further down, some of the functional

requirements for that use case could include the following:

• Customers should be able to access the AR application

through their mobile device.

• The AR application should be able to superimpose

images of furniture onto the camera view of the
customer’s home.

• The AR application should allow the customer to

interact with the furniture images, such as changing
their position or orientation.

• The application should integrate with external data and

content using APIs.

The Process of Gathering Functional Requirements

Here are some steps that solutions architects could take when gathering
functional requirements of digital solutions.

1. Identify all stakeholders: It is crucial to identify

all stakeholders involved in the implementation
of digital solutions. The scope of such solutions
can be extensive, and some stakeholders may
not be immediately apparent. This is particularly
relevant when new digital solutions need to
integrate with an organization’s existing legacy
systems. For example, the stakeholders involved in
implementing a new digital marketing campaign
could include the marketing team, IT department,
legal team, and third-party vendors. It is important
to involve all relevant stakeholders in the planning
and implementation stages to ensure successful
adoption and integration of the solution.

98
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

2. Conduct interviews: It is recommended to conduct

interviews with all stakeholders involved in the
implementation of digital solutions, depending
on the scope of the applications and systems. The
interviews should aim to gather information on
their requirements, concerns, and expectations for
the solution. By doing so, it helps to ensure that the
solution addresses the needs of all stakeholders
and that potential issues are addressed early in the
process. Additionally, the interviews can provide
insights into any potential roadblocks that may arise
during the implementation, which can be addressed
before they become major obstacles.

3. Create a functional requirements document:

Once the interviews are conducted, it is crucial to
create a comprehensive functional requirements
document that outlines all the necessary
functionalities of the digital solution. The document
should be created with inputs from all relevant
stakeholders to ensure that it accurately reflects
their requirements. The functional requirements
document should include details such as the
system’s objectives, scope, and constraints, as
well as a description of the system’s main features
and functions. It should also specify any technical
requirements, performance criteria, and user
interface specifications.

4. Share the functional requirements document

widely: Once the functional requirements
document is created, it should be shared widely
among all stakeholders to ensure that everyone is on

99
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

the same page. The document can also be used as

a basis for further discussions and to revalidate the
requirements throughout the development process.
Any changes made to the functional requirements
should be documented and communicated to all
stakeholders to ensure everyone is aware of the
changes.

5. Put the document under change control: The

functional requirements document is a critical
component of the project scope, and any changes
made to it can have a significant impact on the
project’s success. Therefore, it is important to
have a formal change control process in place
to manage any changes to the document. This
process should include a mechanism for submitting
change requests, evaluating the impact of the
changes on the project, obtaining approval from
relevant stakeholders, and updating the document
accordingly. Putting the functional requirements
document under change control helps to ensure
that any changes made to the project scope are
properly evaluated and approved. It also helps
to prevent scope creep, which can lead to delays,
budget overruns, and reduced project quality.

 equirements Gathering for Systems Involving New

R
Digital Technologies
The requirements gathering process can be especially challenging
when it involves the implementation of new technologies. Users and
stakeholders may not have a thorough understanding of the technical
intricacies, the potential value that these innovations could bring, or how

100
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

they could seamlessly integrate with the existing business processes. In

such circumstances, the role of solutions architects becomes vital. They
are required to bridge this knowledge gap and facilitate the successful
translation of business needs into technical requirements.
Let’s consider an example. Suppose a business is considering
leveraging artificial intelligence to improve its customer service through
chatbots. However, stakeholders may have a limited understanding of
AI’s potential, its functioning, or the effort required to integrate AI-based
chatbots into their existing customer service processes. They may not be
able to provide detailed requirements, such as the level of human-like
interaction desired, the specific queries the chatbot should handle, or
how the chatbot should interface with their existing customer relationship
management system.
Similarly, the advent of blockchain technology has brought about
vast potential for secure, transparent transactions and smart contracts.
However, stakeholders may struggle to provide comprehensive
requirements due to a lack of understanding of blockchain technology,
its potential applications, and the technical challenges associated with
its integration into current systems. For example, they may not realize
the need to consider aspects like consensus algorithms, smart contract
development, or the implications on data privacy regulations.
Solutions architects play a crucial role in this scenario. They should use
their technical expertise and understanding of the business environment
to guide stakeholders in articulating their requirements. Here are some
strategies they can adopt:

• Educate stakeholders: Architects should take

the initiative to educate stakeholders about the
capabilities, limitations, and potential applications of
the new technology in a language that they understand.
This education can take the form of presentations,
workshops, or hands-on demonstration sessions.

101
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• Showcase similar implementations: Demonstrating

case studies or examples of similar implementations
can help stakeholders visualize the potential of the new
technology and spur their thinking about their own
requirements.

• Use an iterative approach: Given the uncertainties

associated with new technology, it’s wise to adopt
an agile, iterative approach. Start with a basic
implementation, gather feedback, and refine the
requirements and the solution in subsequent iterations.

• Facilitate brainstorming sessions: Regular

brainstorming sessions involving various stakeholders
can help generate a wide range of requirements
and ideas.

• Prototype development: Building a quick prototype

of the proposed solution can help stakeholders better
understand the capabilities of the technology and
generate more specific requirements.

• Leverage the expertise of technology vendors: If the

technology is being provided by an external vendor,
leverage their expertise in understanding common use
cases, potential pitfalls, and integration challenges.

Through these methods, solutions architects can bridge the knowledge

gap, helping stakeholders articulate their requirements for implementing
new digital technologies and ensuring a smoother transition during the
integration process.

102
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

T raditional Challenges with the Functional

Requirements Process
Let’s now review some common challenges that solutions architects have
always faced and continue to deal with today. The process of gathering
requirements, a crucial aspect of their role, has been practiced for many
decades. Yet, many projects stumble or fail to meet business expectations
due to hurdles tied to this critical process. Therefore, solutions architects
must tread carefully when navigating this process. Here are some of the
common challenges that solutions architects usually encounter during the
requirement gathering phase.

• Incomplete or vague requirements: This is a

significant issue that architects often face. Poor
communication between stakeholders, a lack of
understanding of business needs, or requirements
that shift over time can all contribute to unclear
or incomplete requirements. For instance, if a
requirement only states “the system should be user-­
friendly,” without specifying what that entails, it leaves
too much room for interpretation, resulting in potential
misunderstanding and failed implementation.

• Scope creep: Solutions architects may run into the

issue of scope creep, which signifies the project
requirements extending beyond the originally agreed-­
upon scope. This expansion could lead to delays,
increased costs, and a compromised quality of the final
product. For example, a software development project
initially scoped for creating a simple website may
gradually morph into a complex e-commerce platform,
disrupting timelines and budget allocations.

103
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• Conflicting requirements: Disagreements can arise

when various stakeholders have different opinions
about the project’s objectives and scope. For example,
the marketing team may desire a feature-rich website to
attract customers, while the finance team might prefer
a simpler, more cost-effective solution. This dichotomy
can delay the project and create conflicts within the
organization.

• Changing requirements: It’s not uncommon for

requirements to evolve during the development
process, leading to extra costs, delays, and increased
risks. For instance, a project initially aimed at
creating an Android app might have to shift gears
towards developing an iOS version due to changing
market needs.
• Stakeholder management: Handling stakeholders can
be a daunting task, especially when a project involves
a large group of stakeholders with diverse interests,
objectives, and expectations. An example of this
challenge can be seen in an enterprise-wide software
implementation, where everyone from the CEO to
the frontline employees has a stake and different
expectations from the solution.
• Technical limitations: Constraints such as hardware
or software compatibility issues may also challenge
the requirements gathering process. An ambitious
AR project, for instance, may be hindered by the
limitations of the currently available hardware or
software frameworks.

104
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• Missing out on key stakeholders: Overlooking any

critical stakeholder can halt a project and cause severe
disruption. As such, it’s essential for the architect
to meticulously identify all relevant parties when
collecting requirements.
• Incorrect information received from stakeholders:
It’s fairly common for architects to receive erroneous
requirements from some stakeholders, resulting in
significant project rework. For instance, a stakeholder
might request a particular feature without fully
understanding the technical implications, leading to
a lot of back-and-forth and wastage of resources. To
mitigate this, architects should ensure that all collected
requirements are extensively shared and validated by
all involved parties. This rigorous process can unearth
any inconsistencies or conflicts in requirements
and help to address them before the development
phase begins.

Gathering Non-Functional Requirements

In addition to functional requirements, solutions architects should
also gather non-functional requirements during the requirements
gathering phase. Non-functional requirements refer to the technical and
performance requirements that a digital solution must meet. These non-­
functional requirements include scalability, performance of the integrated
system, reliability, security, business continuity, and so on. Each of the
non-functional parameters should be designed by analyzing the system
holistically and at each of the sub-components of the system.
The following are some of the typical non-functional requirements that
are addressed when architecting cloud and digital solutions:

105
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• Security: Digital solutions should have strong security

measures in place to protect against data breaches,
cyber attacks, and unauthorized access. Examples
of security non-functional requirements include
implementing multi-factor authentication, encryption
of data at rest and in transit, and regular security
testing.

• Scalability: Digital solutions must be scalable

to accommodate growth and changing demand.
Examples of scalability non-functional requirements
include designing for horizontal scaling, implementing
load balancers, and using cloud-based resources such
as auto-scaling groups.

• High availability: Digital solutions must be highly

available to users 24/7. Examples of availability
non-functional requirements include designing for
high availability, implementing disaster recovery
solutions, and minimizing downtime during
maintenance widows.

• Performance: Digital solutions must perform

optimally and meet user expectations. Examples of
non-functional requirements related to performance
include setting response time targets, optimizing
database queries, and implementing caching strategies.
As another example, the design of an AI chatbot should
ensure acceptable response times when responding to
user inquiries. The chatbot should also be scalable to
ensure that it can scale to handle many user inquiries
without impacting the performance of the system. The
chatbot should also be able to handle errors with ease
and also handle irrelevant questions.

106
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• Reliability: Digital solutions must be reliable and

free from errors or bugs. Examples of reliability non-­
functional requirements include implementing fault
tolerance, using automated testing, and establishing
processes for monitoring and logging.

• Usability: Digital solutions must be easy to use and

navigate for end users. Examples of usability non-­
functional requirements include following user
interface design best practices, conducting user testing,
and implementing accessibility standards.

By addressing these non-functional requirements when architecting

digital solutions, solutions architects can ensure that the solutions are
robust, scalable, and meet the needs of end users while adhering to
industry best practices and standards.

Gathering of Non-Functional Requirements

Non-functional requirements pertain to the expected behavior of
a system rather than specific features. This includes attributes like
security, usability, performance, reliability, scalability, and others. These
requirements can be sourced from end users and can also be inferred from
the technical infrastructure of the proposed solution.
End users can provide input on non-functional requirements based
on their experience, needs, and expectations. For example, they might
specify a need for a secure data handling system if they frequently deal
with sensitive information. They might also express a preference for a
user-friendly interface for easy navigation, or fast response times to ensure
efficient task completion. These user-specified requirements are critical as
they directly influence user satisfaction with the system.

107
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

In addition to user-specified requirements, solutions architects

should also consider the technical aspects of the proposed solution to
identify additional non-functional requirements. For example, if the
digital solution will be hosted on a cloud-based infrastructure, architects
might need to consider requirements around scalability and elasticity
to handle varying workloads. If the solution involves integration with
existing systems, there might be constraints around compatibility and
interoperability that need to be considered.
Essentially, non-functional requirements derived from the technical
solution ensure the system’s optimal performance within the given
architectural and infrastructural constraints, providing a robust,
sustainable, and efficient digital solution.
Let’s review an example to illustrate the various non-functional
requirements related to a digital solution.

E xample: Non-Functional Requirements

of an AR Application
For the AR application that was previously discussed, some examples of
non-functional requirements could include the following:
Performance
• The AR application should provide fast and responsive
performance to ensure a smooth and seamless user
experience. Specifically, the AR application should
load content within 2 seconds of a user command on a
standard internet connection of 10 Mbps.

• The AR application should be able to load and

display furniture images quickly and without delays.
Specifically, the AR application should maintain a
latency of less than 100 milliseconds during user
interactions.

108
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

Compliance

• The AR application should comply with all relevant

data privacy regulations and protect customer data.
Specifically, the AR application should comply with
GDPR (for European Union customers), CCPA (for
California, US customers), or other relevant regional
data protection regulations.

• The AR application should ensure any data collection is

done with the explicit consent of the user.

Scalability

• The AR application should be able to handle a

potentially large number of concurrent users without
compromising performance or user experience.
Specifically, the AR application should be designed
to support up to 1 million concurrent users without
degradation of performance.

• The AR application should be able to handle increasing

volumes of furniture images as the retailer’s product
catalog grows. Specifically, the AR application should
support a 50% increase in the volume of furniture
images without requiring architectural changes.

Reliability

• The AR application should be reliable and stable,

with a high uptime and minimal downtime or system
crashes. Specifically, the AR application should
maintain a minimum of 99.95% uptime over a rolling
12-month period.

• The AR application should be able to recover within 2

hours of detection from any system failures or errors.

109
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

Security

• The AR application should protect customer data,

such as their location and personal information, from
unauthorized access or hacking attempts. Specifically,
the AR application should use end-to-end encryption
for all data transmissions to prevent data interception
and misuse.

• The AR application should undergo regular (at least bi-­

annual) security audits and penetration tests to identify
and resolve any potential vulnerabilities.

To ensure that non-functional requirements are comprehensive and

complete, solutions architects should be specific, measurable, and in line
with the needs of both the end users and the business. It’s not enough to
say that the application must be “fast” or “reliable.” These attributes must
be defined in concrete terms, such as latency times, uptime percentages,
or data load capacities. Quantifiable objectives provide a clear target for
the development team and set explicit expectations for stakeholders.
Moreover, it is essential to consider all relevant facets of non-functional
requirements including performance, compliance, scalability, reliability,
and security. These areas encompass crucial aspects of user experience
and satisfaction, as well as legal and operational considerations. Regular
reviews and updates to these requirements will ensure the application
remains relevant and effective in its operational context, while also
responding adequately to emerging technologies, market trends, and
regulatory changes.

110
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

 est Practices for Achieving Business

B
and Technology Alignment
Although We’ve covered some key processes where solutions architects
can better align business and technology, there are additional best
practices that can further enhance this alignment. It’s essential to note
that while the industry has long emphasized the importance of business
and technology alignment, many organizations still grapple with this
issue, especially when delivering digital solutions. Digital solutions are
inherently more complex to design and implement than traditional IT
solutions [8], necessitating a higher level of collaboration and alignment
between business and technology teams. Failure to address this alignment
can lead to a host of issues such as misaligned expectations, poor project
outcomes, delays, and cost overruns.
The role of a solutions architect is critical in representing the
technology/IT side of the project and working with the LOBs to ensure
that their needs and requirements are met. However, the success of
their interactions depends on various factors that can vary from one
organization to another, such as the organizational structures, the role of
the business in driving technology decisions, their level of influence in the
process, and more.
These factors make it challenging to establish standard processes for
interactions between business and technology, and require a tailored
approach that takes into account the unique needs and circumstances
of each organization. Effective communication, collaboration, and a
shared understanding of goals and objectives are key to navigating these
interactions successfully and achieving alignment between business and
technology.
The following are some best practices related to solutions architecture
that organizations can adopt to address alignment challenges between
business and technology.

111
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

 cting As a Technical Mentor and Advisor

A
to the Business
Solutions architects should not just limit themselves to the task of
gathering requirements, but also act as a technical mentor and advisor to
the business stakeholders. They should be creative in their thinking and
recommend innovative solutions that can help expand the horizons of the
business.
As subject matter experts, solutions architects can bring a wealth of
technical knowledge and experience to the table and can help the business
stakeholders make informed decisions about technology-related matters.
They can also provide guidance on emerging technologies, industry trends,
and best practices, and help the business stakeholders stay ahead of the
curve. By taking a proactive and consultative approach, solutions architects
can establish themselves as trusted advisors to the business and help foster
a culture of innovation and collaboration between business and technology.
Let’s say that a retail company is looking to implement a new
e-commerce platform to improve online sales. The solutions architect
working with the business stakeholders can not only gather the technical
requirements for the platform, but can also act as a technical mentor and
advisor. For example, the solutions architect can recommend innovative
features such as personalized product recommendations, real-time
inventory tracking, and seamless integration with social media platforms.
They can also provide guidance on the best technologies and frameworks
to use for the platform, and help the business stakeholders understand the
trade-offs and benefits of different options.
By taking this approach, the solutions architect can help the business
stakeholders think more creatively about how they can use technology
to enhance their business and provide them with the technical expertise
needed to make informed decisions about the e-commerce platform. This
can ultimately lead to a more successful implementation of the platform
and a better overall experience for customers.

112
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

Establishing Higher-Level
Strategic-­Level Agreements
The success of the day-to-day and operational interactions between IT
and LOBs is greatly influenced by the strategic-level agreements (SLAs)
and alignment between the technology leaders, such as the CIO, CTO, and
other relevant managers, and the various LOB heads. Ideally, the senior
leadership should define the overall relationship between the business
units and the parameters of interaction to establish clear expectations and
boundaries [9].
Let’s say that a pharmaceutical company is developing a new drug to
treat a particular medical condition. The IT department plays a crucial role
in supporting the drug development process, such as managing the data
from clinical trials, maintaining the electronic lab notebooks, and ensuring
the security and privacy of the sensitive information.
However, the success of the IT department’s day-to-day and
operational interactions with the various LOBs, such as research and
development (R&D), clinical operations, and regulatory affairs, is greatly
influenced by the SLAs and alignment between the technology leaders and
the LOB heads.
For example, the CIO, CTO, and other relevant managers may work
with the R&D head to define the overall relationship between the IT
department and the R&D team, such as the frequency and format of data
updates, the data quality requirements, and the communication channels.
They may also collaborate with the regulatory affairs head to establish the
parameters of interaction, such as the data security and privacy policies,
the compliance with the regulatory guidelines, and the risk management
procedures.
By establishing clear expectations and boundaries, the IT department
can effectively support the drug development process while also ensuring
the integrity and security of the data. The IT department can work with

113
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

the LOBs to provide the necessary technology solutions and services that
meet their needs while also aligning with the overall goals of the drug
development project.
Once these SLAs are established, the task of a solutions architect
and the LOB representatives becomes much easier because they have a
defined framework to work within. However, the responsibility to make
these interactions and collaborations successful falls on the shoulders
of the senior solutions architects and other relevant managers on both
sides of the aisle. They must facilitate communication, collaboration, and
alignment between the IT and LOB teams to ensure that they work towards
common goals and objectives.
By fostering a collaborative environment and ensuring that both teams
understand and work towards the same objectives, the IT and LOB teams
can work more efficiently and effectively towards achieving business
outcomes. This collaboration is crucial to the success of any organization,
as it enables the IT team to provide technology solutions that are aligned
with the business needs and goals.

E ngaging Closely with the Business

Outcome Owners
While it’s essential to involve all necessary business stakeholders to ensure
that all requirements are captured and addressed, the solutions architect
should particularly prioritize working closely with the business outcome
owner. The business outcome owner is a stakeholder in a project who is
responsible for defining the project’s objectives and ensuring that they are
achieved. They typically hold a senior leadership or management position
in the organization and have the authority to make decisions regarding the
project’s scope, budget, and timelines. In most cases, they delegate this
responsibility to the product owner, who works closely with the solutions
architect and the technical team.

114
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

The solutions architect should clearly identify the business outcome

owner and ensure that they are involved throughout the project’s lifecycle.
This includes regular communication and collaboration to ensure that the
technical solution is meeting the business needs and that any changes to
the solution are aligned with the project’s goals.
By working closely with the business outcome owner, the solutions
architect can ensure that the project is focused on delivering the desired
outcomes and that the technical solution is designed and developed in
a way that supports these outcomes. This collaboration is crucial to the
success of the project, because it ensures that the solution meets the needs
of the business and delivers the expected benefits.

Improving Communication and Collaboration

Between Technical and Business Teams
It’s crucial for a solutions architect to understand the technical acumen
of the LOB representatives they are working with. In some cases, the
IT side may use technical jargon that’s too complex for the business
representatives, while on other occasions, the business side may struggle
to explain their needs to the IT team. It’s the responsibility of the solutions
architect to facilitate clear communication between the two parties
and ensure that everyone understands each other. This means finding
a common language that everyone can understand and avoiding overly
technical terms unless necessary.

Working Closely with the Product Owner

Assessing the level of interaction required in gathering requirements is
an important responsibility for solutions architects. In smaller projects
where requirements are straightforward and do not significantly impact

115
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

the technical architecture of the system, the product owner can collaborate
with the development team to document requirements and create user
stories without the involvement of a solutions architect.
However, in larger and more complex projects, involving a solutions
architect is necessary to ensure that the requirements align with the
overall technical architecture of the system and the enterprise architecture
of the organization. The solutions architect is responsible for designing
the technical solution and providing guidance on the overall system
architecture, including integrating different components and technologies.
Therefore, the product owner should work with the solutions architect
to define high-level requirements that align with the overall technical
vision for the project. Once the solutions architecture is defined, the
product owner can work with the development team to document granular
requirements and create user stories based on the solutions architecture.
This approach helps to ensure that the system is designed and developed
to meet business needs while also being scalable, maintainable, and
efficient.

Project Deliverables (Business Alignment)

When collaborating with the business, a solutions architect is responsible
for generating various deliverables to ensure the solution aligns with the
organization’s goals and addresses the identified needs. It’s important
to note that, ideally, the solutions architect will receive deliverables and
documents such as the business architecture map and the business
capability map as input from either the Enterprise Architecture department
or the business/LOB itself, which will depict the current business state.
These deliverables serve as valuable reference points for understanding
the organization’s existing capabilities, business processes, and strategic
objectives. Insights derived from these deliverables enable the solutions
architect to understand the business context, which subsequently enables

116
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

them to design solutions that align with the organization’s goals and
effectively address the identified business requirements.
As for the particular deliverables produced by the solutions architect,
they can vary based on the project’s scope. Nevertheless, the following list
showcases some common artifacts a solutions architect is likely to create
while working alongside business stakeholders:

• Business requirements analysis: A comprehensive

document capturing the business needs, functional
and non-functional requirements, constraints, and
assumptions for the proposed solution. This analysis
helps in understanding the scope and objectives of the
solution.

• Stakeholder identification and analysis: A list of key

stakeholders involved in the project, including their
roles, responsibilities, and expectations. This analysis
helps in managing stakeholder communication and
addressing their concerns throughout the project.

• Business process modeling: A representation of the

current and future state of the business processes
affected by the proposed solution. This may include
process diagrams, flowcharts, or use case scenarios that
help in understanding the impact of the solution on
existing workflows.

• Solution vision and scope: A high-level description

of the proposed solution’s objectives, benefits, and
key features. This document sets the direction for
the solution and helps in communicating its value to
stakeholders.

117
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

• Risk assessment: This documents the initial evaluation

of potential risks and issues that may arise during the
solution’s implementation, along with strategies for
mitigation and contingency planning. This assessment
helps in proactively addressing potential challenges
and ensuring a smoother project execution.

• Preliminary cost-benefit analysis: An estimation of

the costs associated with implementing the proposed
solution, as well as the expected benefits and return
on investment (ROI). This analysis helps in making
informed decisions about the feasibility and value of
the solution.

Summary
This chapter discussed the importance of business and technology
alignment and the challenges that organizations face in achieving it. It
highlighted the critical role of a solutions architect in bridging the gap
between business and technology by working closely with both sides to
ensure a successful outcome. The chapter emphasized that solutions
architects need to act not only as technical advisors but also as strategic
partners to the business. They should facilitate communication between
highly technical teams and business users, and provide guidance on
innovative solutions.
To achieve effective alignment between business and technology,
organizations need to adopt best practices, such as involving business
stakeholders early in the process, establishing clear ownership of business
outcomes, and aligning technology goals with overall business objectives.
The chapter emphasized that successful business and technology
alignment requires continual collaboration and interaction between the

118
 Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

solutions architect, business outcome owner, and technology leaders.

By implementing these best practices and leveraging the expertise of
solutions architects, organizations can successfully navigate the complex
interactions between business and technology and achieve their desired
outcomes.

References
1. Fujitsu Australia Limited. (2021). “Why do
so many digital transformation projects fail?”
Retrieved March 5, 2023, from www.fujitsu.
com/au/imagesgig5/211111_IA_
WhyDoSoManyDigitalTransformation
ProjectsFail.pdf

2. Harvard Business Review. (2001). Harvard Business

Review on Aligning Technology with Strategy.
Harvard Business Review Press. Retrieved March
27, 2023, from https://store.hbr.org/product/
harvard-business-review-on-aligning-
technology-with-strategy/10316
3. IMD Business School. (n.d.). “Business Strategy.”
IMD Reflections. Retrieved March 11, 2023, from
­www.imd.org/reflections/
business-strategy/

4. Business Architecture Community of Practice.

(n.d.). “Definition of Business Architecture.”
Retrieved March 7, 2023, from www.bacoe.org/
definition

119
Chapter 3 Fostering Digital and Business Alignment

5. Business Architecture Associates. (2019). “Business

Architecture Value Proposition.” Retrieved from
https://businessarchitectureassociates.com/
wp-content/uploads/2020/10/5deecd9698d1d5cef
8c9c313ea7b9316.pdf

6. University of Houston-Clear Lake. (n.d.). “Business

Use-Case Modeling.” Retrieved from https://
sceweb.uhcl.edu/helm/RationalUnifiedProcess/
process/modguide/md_bucm.htm

7. Do You Even ERP. (October 22, 2019). “Business

Process vs Use Case.” Retrieved from https://
doyouevenerp.com/business-process-vs-
use-case/

8. Interfacing Technologies. (February 17, 2021).

“Enterprise Architecture vs. Business Architecture.”
Retrieved from www.interfacing.com/enterprise-
architecture-vs-business-architecture/

9. Bughin, J., Catlin, T., Herring, P., & Kogan, J. (2018).

“Managing Tech Transformations: Ideas, Insights,
and Learnings from Leaders.” McKinsey &
Company. Retrieved March 27, 2023, from www.
mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/business%20
functions/mckinsey%20digital/our%20insights/
managing%20tech%20transformations/managing-
tech-transformations.pdf

120
CHAPTER 4

Creating the Target
Digital Technology
Architecture
One of the main responsibilities of a solutions architect after gathering
of business requirements is to create and maintain the target technical
architecture for a given solution. This includes creating a comprehensive
document that outlines the solution’s applications, network, databases,
and other infrastructure components. The target architecture document
should also specify the overall integration strategy for the solution as a
whole. This is a continuous process that requires ongoing attention and
refinement throughout the project’s lifecycle.
The target architecture document serves as a high-level architecture
for the project, guiding the technical design and development of the
technical team. In some projects, the high-level design and target
architecture phases are combined into a single effort, which can result
in the terms “high-level design” and “target architecture” being used
interchangeably. Regardless of the approach, the target architecture
document is a critical component of the project’s success and should be
continually reviewed and refined throughout the project lifecycle.

© Wasim Rajput 2023 121

W. Rajput, Solutions Architecture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9657-8_4
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Example: Technical Architecture

As an example, the technical architecture for a digital online
banking solution might include a multi-tiered structure with various
interconnected components. The front-end layer could be built using
a modern JavaScript framework like React or Vue.js for creating an
intuitive and responsive user interface. This could communicate with a
backend server layer, developed in a language such as Java or Python,
which handles business logic and ensures data security. The back end
could communicate with a database tier, managed by a system such as
PostgreSQL or MySQL, for secure data storage and retrieval. Additionally, a
microservices approach could be used, with individual services hosted on
a cloud platform like AWS or Azure, all securely communicating through
APIs. Identity and access management could be facilitated by OAuth or
JWT-based security (OAuth stands for Open Authorization, which is a
protocol that provides client applications a “secure delegated access”
over HTTP to server resources on behalf of a resource owner; JWT, or
JSON Web Token, is a compact, URL-safe means of representing claims
to be transferred between two parties, often used for authentication
and information exchange), ensuring secure user authentication and
authorization. Lastly, continuous integration/continuous delivery (CI/CD)
pipelines could be implemented for streamlined development, testing,
and deployment.
While the aforementioned scenario provides a high-level overview of
a potential technical solution, it’s obvious that a multitude of underlying
technical details need to be carefully defined and aligned. Crafting a robust
and efficient technical architecture is not a straightforward endeavor; it
requires navigating through a series of iterative and complex steps before
it can be finalized. This process may involve in-depth requirements
gathering, identifying and evaluating potential technologies and platforms,
comprehensive system design, and thorough testing procedures.
Furthermore, it requires diligent considerations around security,

122
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

scalability, maintainability, and cost-effectiveness. Lastly, decisions must

be influenced by the specific business needs, user expectations, and
regulatory constraints of the industry in which the solution will operate.
Thus, it’s clear that while high-level architectural outlines provide a
starting point, the intricacy and depth of the details required call for a
structured, systematic, and expert-led approach and process to fully define
the technical architecture.
The process of defining the target architecture typically involves several
key steps. The typical steps are delineated below and illustrated in Figure 4-1.
Please note that this assumes that the solutions architect has a good
grasp of the business requirements before embarking on these steps.

1. Conducting a current state analysis of the

organization’s technology architecture to
understand the existing systems and infrastructure

2. Identifying the technology stacks that will be

required for the new solution, considering factors
such as functionality, scalability, security, and cost

3. Conducting feasibility studies and proof-of-concept

(POC) tests for select areas of the project to test and
validate the proposed solution’s technical feasibility
4. Aligning the technical architecture with the
organization’s enterprise architecture (EA) to ensure
consistency and adherence to the organization’s
overall technology strategy and standards

5. Creating the preliminary target architecture of the

digital solution

6. Performing a risk analysis of the proposed architecture

7. Finalizing the target technology architecture of the

digital solution

123
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Figure 4-1.  Creating the solution’s target technology architecture

These steps not only help ensure that the target architecture is well-­
informed and well-aligned with the organization’s needs and goals but
that it also provides a solid foundation for the subsequent design and
development phases of the project. By conducting a thorough analysis
of the organization’s existing architecture, identifying the necessary
technology stacks required for the new solution, and validating the
technical feasibility of the proposed solution, the team can move forward
with confidence. This helps to minimize risks and reduce the likelihood of
costly design changes or implementation delays down the road.
The upcoming sections of this chapter will provide a more detailed
discussion of each of these steps.

 onduct a Current State Infrastructure

C
and Technology Assessment
One crucial step for a solutions architect before developing a target
technology architecture for their solution is to conduct a current
technology assessment of the overall environment related to the solution
[1]. Performing a technology assessment of the current infrastructure can
help the solutions architect gain insights into what’s already in place, the

124
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

related capabilities, and the additional capabilities that may be required

to build the solution. This assessment enables the architect to identify any
gaps or shortcomings in the existing infrastructure that may impact the
success of the project. By gaining a better understanding of the current
state of the technology environment, the solutions architect can develop
a target architecture that aligns with the organization’s overall technology
strategy and goals while addressing any limitations or gaps in the current
infrastructure.

T he Value of Performing Current

Technology Assessment
Let’s now cover specific scenarios where a current technology state
assessment can be helpful toward the design and implementation of the
new solution.

 ssessing Integration of the New Solution

A
with the Current Environment
When building a new solution, one of the major challenges is integrating
the new solution with the existing technology environment. This
integration can involve complex technical and operational considerations
that must be carefully managed to ensure a successful outcome. By
performing a current technology assessment, a solutions architect can
gain a deeper understanding of the integration challenges that may lie
ahead and the steps that may be required to complete the integration. This
assessment can help the architects identify any potential roadblocks and
develop a comprehensive integration strategy that minimizes risks and
maximizes the effectiveness of the overall solution.
Consider the introduction of an artificial intelligence solution
within a healthcare organization, designed to aid in the diagnosis and
treatment planning for patients. This AI system must integrate with

125
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

existing electronic health record (EHR) systems, laboratory information

systems (LIS), and imaging archives (like PACS). The challenge in this
case lies not just in the technical aspects of dealing with different data
formats and protocols, but also in the operational considerations such as
ensuring data privacy and security in line with healthcare regulations like
HIPAA. A current technology assessment could reveal challenges such as
incompatible data structures between the AI and the EHR, or the need for
robust anonymization procedures to protect patient data. These insights
would allow the solutions architect to design an integration strategy
that overcomes these obstacles, enabling the AI system to effectively aid
clinicians without compromising patient privacy or the integrity of other
systems.

Identifying Similar Implementations

in the Organization
In larger enterprises, it is not uncommon for a business and
solutions architect to be unaware of similar solutions or technology
implementations in other parts of the organization. To address this, the
solutions architect can perform a discovery exercise to identify whether
other teams are using similar technologies. By engaging with these
teams and learning from their experiences, the solutions architect can
benefit from the knowledge gained during their own development and
implementation of solutions. This can help reduce duplication of effort,
promote standardization, and ensure that the solutions architecture
aligns with the organization’s overall technology strategy. Moreover, by
leveraging the expertise of other teams, the solutions architect can identify
best practices and potential pitfalls that may impact the success of the
project.

126
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

 ssessing the Security and Regulatory Compliance

A
Status of the Current Environment
To ensure that the digital solution’s target architecture adequately
addresses the security and regulatory requirements of the new solution,
the solutions architect must first gauge the security and regulatory
compliance status of the existing overall environment. This assessment
can help identify any gaps or weaknesses in the existing infrastructure
that could impact the security or compliance posture of the new solution.
By understanding the security and compliance status of the current
environment, the solutions architect can develop the necessary controls
and measures in their solution to address any shortcomings or gaps [2].
This ensures that the overall solution meets the necessary security and
compliance standards and minimizes risks to the organization.
Let’s take the case of a solutions architect developing a mobile
banking application of a financial institution. During the assessment
of the organization’s existing technical infrastructure, the solutions
architect may discover several vulnerabilities, such as outdated software
and hardware, weak authentication mechanisms, and inadequate data
encryption protocols. These vulnerabilities could expose the mobile
banking application to security threats and regulatory violations. Based
on this assessment, the solutions architect could implement the necessary
controls and measures in the mobile banking application, such as two-­
factor authentication, robust encryption protocols, and secure data storage
mechanisms, to ensure the security and privacy of customer data. This
would ensure that the digital solution meets the necessary security and
compliance standards and minimizes risks to the financial institution and
its customers.

127
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Engaging with the Relevant Stakeholders

During the current technology assessment process, the solutions
architect can also connect with other stakeholders in the organization
and accordingly inform them of the plans for the new system or solution.
This sharing of knowledge about the future can help surface any concerns
earlier in the process, and prevent surprises later in the project. By
engaging with stakeholders early, the solutions architect can identify
potential roadblocks, obtain preliminary buy-in from stakeholders, and
ensure that the overall solution is in line with the overall thinking of the
organization’s key stakeholders. This approach fosters collaboration and
communication among different teams and departments, promoting a
more cohesive and integrated approach to technology development and
deployment.

Planning Integration with the Operational Environment

Performing a current technical state assessment can help the solutions
architect gain a better understanding of how their solution will fit into
the organization’s production environment. By analyzing the current
operational technology landscape and infrastructure, the architect
could identify any potential challenges or limitations that may affect the
implementation and operation of the new solution. This assessment
could then help the architect develop a plan that considers the existing
infrastructure, applications, and processes, ensuring that the new solution
integrates seamlessly with the production environment. By gaining a better
view of the production environment, the solutions architect can design a
solution that meets the specific needs of the organization and anticipate
potential issues, resulting in a more efficient and effective solution.
For instance, envision a company that wishes to transition to a
cloud-based data warehousing solution to enhance their data analysis
capabilities. A solutions architect performing a current technical state

128
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

assessment might discover that the existing on-premise servers run on

outdated hardware and the data is stored in multiple disparate systems
using different formats. Additionally, the company may lack established
processes for data migration or have limited experience with cloud
technologies. These findings indicate potential challenges such as the
complexity of data consolidation, the need for data cleansing, the necessity
for extensive staff training on cloud technologies, and the requirement
for new data migration strategies. Based on this understanding, the
architect could design a solution that not only includes the cloud-based
data warehousing system, but also a comprehensive data migration plan,
necessary staff training, and an ongoing data governance strategy. The
architect’s insight into the production environment, facilitated by the
current state assessment, enables the creation of a solution that integrates
smoothly with the existing infrastructure, accounts for its limitations, and
meets the specific needs of the organization.

 aining Familiarity with the Organization’s

G
Technical Standards
A current technology assessment can also help the solutions architect
become aware of any technology standards that may be in use within the
organization. This knowledge can help them make informed decisions
about the technologies and tools they select for their own digital solution.
By aligning with the organization’s technology standards, the solutions
architect can ensure that their solution is compatible with existing systems
and can minimize any potential conflicts or issues during implementation.
Additionally, following technology standards can promote consistency,
interoperability, and ease of maintenance across different systems and
applications, which can improve overall system performance and reduce
the cost of ownership over time. I will cover this point more later in this
chapter under the topic of enterprise architecture (EA).

129
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

The above points illustrate some of the ways that performing

technology assessments can be beneficial. By engaging with stakeholders
early in the process, the solutions architect can prevent surprises and
promote collaboration and design a solution that is better aligned with
the current production environment. Organizational leaders should also
encourage this practice to solicit more feedback on the current technology
infrastructure, which can help them continuously optimize it.

Defining the Scope
of the Technology Assessment
One crucial step at the outset of a technology assessment is for the
solutions architect to define its scope, essentially delineating the extent
of its coverage. This is because it can significantly impact the depth and
relevance of the assessment, ensuring it is focused on the most relevant
aspects of the organization’s technological landscape. It is imperative
to limit the scope in such a way that while sufficient depth of analysis is
achieved, the investment of time and resources is proportionate to the
assessment’s relevance and utility.
The current technology assessment is typically conducted as part of an
enterprise architecture exercise, where a complete technology assessment
is performed for the entire organization before creating a target technology
state. If the organization has a well-established EA function, the solutions
architect can leverage these findings, saving time for all involved. However,
enterprise-wide assessments can take a long time, and the EA department
may not conduct them frequently enough, leading to outdated documents
as new systems are continually being implemented.
Therefore, the solutions architect needs to assess whether they can
rely on previous assessment findings or whether they should perform
their own current technology assessment. Additionally, they should define
the assessment scope to ensure that it provides useful information on the

130
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

organization’s technology landscape and infrastructure while also being

efficient with time. This approach ensures that the assessment strikes
a balance between capturing the most relevant information and not
spending more time than necessary.
The scope of a technology assessment thus can vary, ranging from
a quick evaluation to a more detailed and thorough analysis. The
solutions architect needs to decide the scope of the assessment based
on the project’s scope, complexity, business requirements, and affected
stakeholders. For example, if the new system has higher stakes, they need
to allocate more time to assess the current landscape thoroughly.

E xample: Technology Assessment

for an IoT-­Based System
Let’s take the example of an IoT solution to understand what areas could
be covered as part of a current technology assessment. IoT solutions
typically involve a lot of devices and infrastructure components being
used in many locations. For example, an IoT solution implemented within
a manufacturing facility connecting to the central cloud could include a
network of sensors and devices installed throughout the facility, such as
temperature and humidity sensors, machine sensors, and RFID readers.
These devices would communicate with a local gateway, which in turn
would connect to the cloud for data processing and analysis. The cloud
infrastructure would also include various services, such as data storage,
analytics, and machine learning, which help extract meaningful insights
from the data collected by the devices. Additionally, there may be a need
for custom software applications or integrations with existing business
systems to enable process automation and other features.
Although there are various dimensions that could be included in
such a technology assessment, it could encompass some or all of the
following areas:

131
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Network assessment: This involves analyzing the

network architecture, such as network topology,
bandwidth, and latency, to ensure that it can handle
the data generated by the IoT devices. For example,
the assessment should include the impact on local and
enterprise networks due to the increased amount of
traffic that will be generated over local networks as well
as on the enterprise backbone. This can potentially
strain the existing network resources. Making this part of
the assessment can also help the organization’s network
architects plan for the deployment of the new solution.

• Data storage requirements: IoT devices and sensors

can generate a substantial amount of data, which
makes it essential to assess the organization’s current
storage architecture and resources. The assessment
should ensure that the data generated by the IoT
devices can be stored throughout the distributed
architecture, including storage on the local edge
cloud, central cloud, and other network locations
where data may need to be accessed for analysis and
decision-making.

• Data management: As IoT solutions rely heavily

on data collection, storage, and analysis, it is crucial
to perform a comprehensive data management
assessment to understand how data is collected,
stored, analyzed, and used within the organization.
Specifically, the solutions architect’s assessment should
focus on how the new IoT system will generate data
from IoT devices and how this data will need to be
stored and processed across the overall information
infrastructure of the organization.

132
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• IT infrastructure: An understanding of the current

IT infrastructure is essential to determine how
the IoT solution will integrate with the existing
technology environment. This includes evaluating
the current hardware, such as servers, switches, and
routers, to ensure that they are capable of supporting
the new IoT devices. The assessment should also
evaluate the current software, such as the operating
systems, database management systems, and any
manufacturing execution systems (MES), to ensure
compatibility with the new IoT solution.

• IT security: Assessing the current IT security

environment is crucial to identify potential risks and
vulnerabilities associated with rolling out an IoT-­
based system. For example, communication channels
between IoT devices and servers may be susceptible
to interception and eavesdropping, leading to data
breaches. Moreover, IoT devices can be hijacked and
used to launch DDoS (distributed denial-of-service)
attacks, overwhelming servers and causing downtime.
Depending on the IoT solution and how it integrates
with the organization’s technology architecture,
there may be several security concerns. Therefore,
conducting a detailed security assessment can
help illuminate the organization’s current security
policies, procedures, and technology infrastructure.
The assessment can also identify any security gaps
that need to be addressed before rolling out the IoT
application to ensure that the system is secure and
compliant with regulatory standards.

133
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• IoT communications protocols: The solutions

architect will need to ensure that the communications
protocols used by IoT devices will be able to integrate
with the current technology environment. These
protocols define the rules and standards for how
IoT devices communicate with each other and with
other systems, such as cloud platforms and enterprise
applications.

• Power considerations: The solutions architect will

need to assess the power requirements of IoT devices
at various locations and need to ensure that the current
infrastructure can provide that extra power needed to
operate that infrastructure.

The above are only some of the aspects that should be covered
when performing a comprehensive technology assessment before the
design and implementation of an IoT-based solution in a manufacturing
facility. Other areas to consider include disaster recovery and availability,
scalability, and performance of the existing infrastructure. Again, the
specific scope of the assessment will depend on various factors such as
the business requirements related to the new digital solution, the scope
of the application, technologies used, and the organization’s technology
environment. The solutions architect should use their professional
judgment to determine the appropriate scope for their assessment.

Selection of Technology Stacks

A technology stack refers to the various technologies needed to architect,
design, develop, deploy, and maintain the system. Before finalizing the
target technology architecture, it is essential to identify and select the
technology stacks that will be used in the design and implementation of

134
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

the digital solution. This can include programming languages, software

frameworks like microservices and containers, network technologies,
databases, front-end and backend tools, and application integration
technologies. The solutions architect is responsible for working with the
full technical team to identify all the technology stacks required to build
the solution [3].
Previous system implementations typically had simpler technology
stacks, such as the LAMP stack comprising of Linux, Apache, MySQL,
and PHP. However, with the proliferation of cloud-based technologies
and services, the technology stacks related to delivering solutions are
becoming increasingly complex. As a result, the solutions architect plays
a critical role in ensuring the selection of the right mix of technologies
(technology stack) that meet both the tactical and strategic needs of the
organization. One example of a more recent technology stack is referred
to as the MEAN stack. This technology stack consists of MongoDB NoSQL
database, Express.js web framework, AngularJS front-end framework, and
Node.js backend runtime environment. It is used for building dynamic
web applications.
Given the criticality of the technology stack used in delivering digital
solutions, the solutions architect must collaborate with other entities
within the organization to ensure that the decision is reviewed by all
relevant stakeholders. When selecting a technology stack, the solutions
architect must address both the tactical and strategic needs of the solution.
The tactical needs involve ensuring that the technologies can meet the
requirements of the business problem that the solutions architect is
attempting to solve. In this context, the selected technology stack should
satisfy both the functional and non-functional requirements of the system.
The strategic needs, on the other hand, involve ensuring that the selected
technology stack can also support the future business applications based
on the longer-term business architecture and strategy of the organization.

135
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

For example, if the system requires real-time data processing or a

high degree of interactivity, a technology stack that includes in-memory
databases would be better than traditional disk-based databases. Similarly,
if the system needs to handle a large volume of user requests, a technology
stack that includes load balancing and caching tools may be more
appropriate than one that doesn’t.

Examples of Technology Stacks

Today’s solutions typically require a technology stack that comprises
both front-end and back-end components. Examples of technology
stacks include

• UI (e.g., JavaScript)/Browser technologies (Bing, Safari,

Chrome, etc.)

• Programming languages (Python, Java, etc.)

• Application development frameworks

(e.g., Ruby on Rails, .NET, Spring)

• Software development kits (SDKs)

• Application runtime environments (Node.js)

• Networks

• Web servers

• Operating systems (Linux, Windows)

• Databases (relational databases, graph databases,

key-­value stores, etc.)

• Application integration technologies

(APIs, message queues)

• Compute types (VMs, bare metal, containers, etc.)

136
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Storage types (block storage, file storage)

• Business intelligence tools

• And more

Moreover, each type of digital solution will have its own stack.
For example, an IoT application stack will require software for device
hardware, device operating system, device software, communications,
cloud core services, and business and analytics applications. Similarly, an
AI/ML application stack will require software for building data pipelines,
ML pipelines, workflow management, tools for data storage, data
cleansing, ML algorithms, model training, monitoring, and more.
The AWS data technology stack, on the other hand, is made up of a
range of AWS services and technologies that can be used to build data
solutions. This stack may include technologies such as Amazon EC2, a
web service that provides secure, resizable compute capacity in the cloud;
AWS Identity and Access Management (IAM), a web service that helps
you securely control access to AWS resources; AWS Lambda, a service that
lets you run code without provisioning or managing servers; and Amazon
S3, an object storage service that offers industry-leading scalability, data
availability, security, and performance.
In addition, this stack may also include Amazon DynamoDB, a key-­
value and document database that delivers single-digit millisecond
performance at any scale; Amazon Redshift, a fully managed, petabyte-­
scale data warehouse service in the cloud; AWS CloudFormation, a
service that provides a common language for organizations to describe
and provision all the infrastructure resources in their cloud environment;
and Amazon CloudWatch, a monitoring and observability service built
for DevOps engineers, developers, site reliability engineers (SREs), and IT
managers.

137
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Similarly, a business intelligence and analytics application stack may

include technologies such as Tableau, a powerful data visualization tool;
IBM Cognos, a business intelligence and performance management
software suite; MicroStrategy, a worldwide provider of enterprise
analytics and mobility software; and other relevant software tools for data
visualization, reporting, and analytics. And so on.
As you observe the variety of technology stacks and the inherent
complexity in assembling them, it becomes evident that the solutions
architect must employ a methodical approach in identifying and selecting
the appropriate technologies prior to implementing any digital solution.

 onsiderations When Selecting a Specific

C
Technology Stack
The following are some of the key considerations when selecting
technology stacks for the organization:

• Future proofing: The solutions architect is responsible

for ensuring that the chosen technology stack is
aligned with future technology trends and supports the
strategic needs of the organization. Selecting the right
technology stack is crucial if an organization expects
its applications to scale over time or intends to use the
technology stack in other solutions and applications.
To mitigate the risks associated with technology
stack selection, organizations can partner with cloud
providers such as AWS and Azure, which are at the
forefront of advanced technologies. Collaborating with
these providers can help organizations stay up to date
with the latest advancements and ensure that their
services are built on reliable and thoroughly tested
technologies.

138
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Decision to go with the technology stack of one or

more cloud providers: When considering digital
solutions, organizations should evaluate whether to
work with a single cloud provider or multiple cloud
providers. While working with a single cloud provider
can simplify integration of different parts of a digital
solution and reduce challenges for the architect when
working with technology stacks from one provider, it
can also lead to vendor lock-in. Therefore, deciding
whether to use a single provider or multiple providers
is a decision that requires careful consideration from
both a business and technology standpoint.

• Considerations for speed and agility: The technology

stack should enable accelerated technical design and
development. For example, the selected technology
stack should facilitate rapid application development
and support quick iterations to meet evolving business
and technology requirements. Additionally, the
technology stack should allow for seamless integration
with existing systems and tools. Selecting a technology
stack that lacks integration capabilities may result in
a costly and time-consuming effort to connect the
new digital solutions with current business systems.
Therefore, the available technical skills and expertise
within the organization can be one of the factors
that influence the decision to select a particular
technology stack.

• Vendor support: To ensure the success of a digital

solution, the solutions architect must verify that the
selected technology stack has adequate support from
the various technology vendors. For example, the

139
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

solutions architect should ensure that none of the

components of the technology stack are outdated
or unsupported by the vendors. Additionally, when
considering open-source technology stacks, the
solutions architect should exercise caution as the
level of support can vary significantly. As a result,
the solutions architect should carefully consider the
level of support available for each component of the
technology stack and evaluate whether any potential
risks associated with a lack of support are acceptable.

• Maintenance and support: In addition to verifying

vendor support, the organization should ensure that
the selected technology stack has an active community
of developers and other technical resources who can
provide the necessary ongoing support. A lack of
skilled staff can lead to system downtime or delays in
deploying upgrades and patches to address defects and
other issues. Therefore, selecting a technology stack
with an active community of developers and readily
available technical resources can help ensure that the
organization can address any issues that arise promptly
and effectively.

• Cost: When selecting a technology stack, the solutions

architect must also ensure that any cost implications
are taken into account. For example, choosing a
technology stack for the entire organization may
require purchasing multiple licenses for specific tools
and technologies. Additionally, some technology stacks
may require specific infrastructure or hosting solutions,
which can increase the overall cost of development
and maintenance. For instance, selecting a technology

140
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

stack that requires a particular type of server or cloud

provider may result in higher hosting costs. Therefore,
the solutions architect must carefully evaluate the costs
associated with each potential technology stack and
determine whether they are justifiable based on the
benefits and value they provide to the organization.

The points mentioned above are merely a subset of considerations

when selecting the technology stack for a given digital solution. Depending
on the specific technical environment of the organization and the
standards set by the EA department, there may be additional factors to
consider. The solutions architect, therefore, should diligently compile this
criteria, ensuring the relevance to the organization, prior to identifying and
selecting the most suitable technology stack.

 onducting POCs and Technical Evaluation

C
of Tools and Services
Conducting Proof of Concepts (POCs) or prototyping is a critical activity
in the solutions architecture process [4]. It is a useful way for the solutions
architect to validate technologies and other components of a solution
before finalizing the target technology architecture. The solutions architect
utilizes POCs in the technical evaluation of tools and services that will be
used throughout the project. In this capacity, the architect participates
in all POCs and project trials, as well as in the development of a solution
prototype. The ultimate objective of a POC is to provide the solutions
architect, technical team members, and business stakeholders with
increased confidence in delivering robust, reliable, secure, and high-­
performing digital solutions.

141
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

When conducting a POC, there are several considerations that a

solutions architect should keep in mind. These include the following:

• Choose a specific POC scenario: Due to time and

budget constraints, it may not be possible to conduct
POCs for all scenarios. Therefore, the solutions
architect should collaborate with all relevant
stakeholders to determine which specific scenarios will
be prioritized. The specific scenarios for a POC may
include evaluating specific cloud services, testing the
performance and scalability features of a particular
technology, identifying migration challenges, validating
technology capabilities, understanding the potential
impact of a technology on an organization’s operations
and processes, and validating the scope of automation,
among others.

• Define the scope of the POC: The next step is to

further refine the scope of the POC and obtain
agreement on it from all concerned stakeholders.
It’s important to note that while POCs are valuable
in delivering digital solutions and can reduce overall
implementation risk, they do require an investment of
time and resources. If not controlled, this investment
can begin to chip away at the project budget and
distract the team from the main project goals,
especially if the same team members are expected to
work on both the POC and the project. Therefore, it’s
essential to be specific about the POC’s scope and to
agree with all stakeholders on the expected value of
the POC.

142
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Expanding the scope: During the POC, stakeholders

may decide to expand the scope of the project with
each successful iteration. In some cases, the POC’s
scope can expand to become the actual scope of the
project. As the POC progresses, stakeholders may
discover new requirements, features, or functionalities
that were not previously considered. These discoveries
may lead to the expansion of the POC’s scope, as
stakeholders may want to explore and validate these
new possibilities. This iterative approach can be
beneficial as it allows stakeholders to refine and
improve the concept gradually.

• Conduct the POC in a controlled environment:

It is important to conduct the POC in a controlled
environment with carefully selected data or processes
to ensure that the results are reliable and can be used
to make informed decisions about the viability of the
technology or concept. The controlled environment
helps to isolate the variables that could affect the
results and ensures that the technology or concept is
tested under consistent conditions.

Let’s consider an example to demonstrate the value of

conducting POCs in a controlled environment. Imagine
an organization that is considering implementing
an AI-based customer service chatbot on its website.
This initiative represents a substantial investment of
time, money, and resources, making it crucial for the
organization to assess the feasibility and effectiveness
of the chatbot through a POC. To conduct the POC, the
organization decides to deploy the chatbot on a single

143
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

page of the website, rather than the whole site, to gauge

the chatbot’s performance without disrupting the
existing customer service ecosystem.

For the POC, the organization carefully selects a diverse

range of common customer queries and complaints
for the chatbot to handle. It also simulates peak load
conditions to understand how the chatbot performs
under stress. This method enables the organization
to isolate critical variables, such as the complexity of
customer inquiries and load conditions, and measure
the chatbot’s effectiveness, reliability, and scalability
accurately. By conducting the POC in this controlled
environment, the organization ensures the results are
reliable and provide the information necessary to make
an informed decision about the full-scale deployment
of the chatbot technology.

• Define the success criteria: The solutions architect

should also clearly define the success criteria for the
POC and the specific decisions that are tied to the
POC. These should be shared with the stakeholders.
For example, when conducting an AI/ML application
POC, a solutions architect may define success
criteria related to testing the accuracy of the models
on a specific data set (measured by metrics such
as F1 score that measure’s an AI model’s accuracy,
precision, or recall), measuring the percentage of
correct predictions, measuring the difference between
predicted and actual values, measuring the latency and
response time of running the models, ability to handle
large volumes of data, and the cost effectiveness of the
overall process. This criteria should be agreed upon by
all stakeholders before the POC is conducted.
144
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

After the POC is completed and the success criteria are met, the
solutions architect should use the results to make informed architectural
decisions. These decisions can be related to various aspects of the solution,
such as technology selection, network topology, data storage, and data
processing. For example, if the POC was conducted to test the feasibility
of using a particular cloud service for a new solution, and the POC results
showed that the service was able to meet the business objectives and
success criteria, the solutions architect could decide to use that cloud
service in the final architecture. Similarly, if the POC results showed
that certain data processing or storage techniques were not feasible or
scalable for the final solution, the solutions architect could decide to look
for alternative solutions that better align with the business objectives and
success criteria.
In conclusion, conducting a POC is a crucial step toward finalizing the
target technology architecture of a digital solution. It provides a practical
verification of the proposed solution’s feasibility, effectiveness, and
scalability in a controlled environment. The insights and data garnered
through the POC allow organizations to make informed decisions and
mitigate potential risks, ensuring that the selected technology aligns with
the strategic objectives and technical environment of the organization.
Therefore, a meticulously designed and executed POC is an invaluable
component of a successful digital solution implementation.

Solutions Alignment
with Enterprise Architecture
Another crucial activity that the solutions architect engages in while
architecting a digital solution is to ensure that the target solutions
architecture of the project aligns with the target enterprise technology
architecture. To accomplish this, the solutions architect must have a solid
understanding of the fundamental principles of enterprise architecture

145
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

and recommended activities for solutions architects to ensure alignment.

It is important for the solutions architect to understand the overall EA
strategy, the organization’s goals and objectives, and the standards
and guidelines for technology selection and implementation [5]. This
understanding helps the solutions architect design solutions that are
in line with the organization’s EA strategy and technology standards,
resulting in a more efficient and effective solution. By aligning the
solutions architecture with the enterprise technology architecture, the
solutions architect can also ensure that the digital solution meets the
specific needs of the organization and can integrate seamlessly into the
existing technology infrastructure.
As explained in earlier chapters, an organization’s enterprise
architecture comprises four dimensions: business architecture, technology
architecture, information architecture, and application architecture (see
Figure 4-2). In essence, the solutions architecture framework mirrors
the overarching structure of the enterprise architecture. This reflects the
notion that each digital solution, within the broader enterprise ecosystem,
possesses its own distinct architectural elements. These encompass
business architecture, application architecture, information architecture,
and technology architecture tailored specifically to the solution. Thus,
every digital solution, while contributing to the larger enterprise
architecture, maintains its own unique set of architectural standards and
structures. This alignment between solutions and enterprise architecture
not only ensures consistency and interoperability across different solutions
but also enables each solution to fully meet its specific requirements while
contributing to the enterprise’s overarching strategic goals. Figure 4-3
illustrates this concept.

146
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Figure 4-2.  Dimensions of an organization’s enterprise architecture

Figure 4-3.  Alignment of various digital projects with an

organization’s EA

147
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

In the previous chapter, I discussed steps that the solutions architect

can take to align a digital solution with an organization’s business
architecture. In this section, I will focus more on aligning the solutions
technology architecture with the other three dimensions of the enterprise
architecture: technology, information, and application.

Technology Architecture
Technology architecture refers to the structured organization or design
of an enterprise’s IT infrastructure, which includes hardware, software,
networks, and other technology tools and services. It outlines how these
components interrelate and function together to support the enterprise’s
goals and strategies. The focus is on providing a scalable, reliable, and
efficient technology infrastructure that can effectively support the
applications and data that the business relies on.
When evaluating a digital solution’s technology architecture against
the enterprise architecture, a solutions architect should consider several
factors. First, the solutions architect should ensure that the digital
solution’s technology architecture aligns with the enterprise’s overall
technology strategy and goals. For example, the solutions architect should
evaluate whether the digital solution’s technology architecture supports
the enterprise’s cloud adoption strategy.
Second, the solutions architect should ensure that the solution’s
technology architecture aligns with the enterprise’s overall infrastructure
and network architecture. For example, the solutions architect should
evaluate whether the digital solution’s technology architecture can
integrate with the enterprise’s existing network infrastructure.
Third, the solutions architect should ensure that the technology
architecture aligns with the enterprise’s overall security and compliance
requirements. For example, the solutions architect should evaluate
whether the digital solution’s technology architecture provides robust
security features to protect enterprise data.

148
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Last but not least, the solutions architect should ensure that the
technology architecture aligns with the enterprise’s overall performance
and scalability requirements. For example, the solutions architect should
evaluate whether the digital solution’s technology architecture can scale to
support the expected growth in users and data.
In many cases, solutions architects work with enterprise architects
to ensure that new solutions align with enterprise architecture. However,
enterprise architects can also learn from solutions architects, particularly
when new technologies are introduced. In these situations, enterprise
architects can work closely with solutions architects to evaluate new
technologies and incorporate them into enterprise architecture. This
allows other solutions architects in the organization to benefit from the
same technologies if they are relevant to their respective solutions.

Data Architecture
Data architecture pertains to the models, policies, rules, and standards
that dictate how data is collected, stored, arranged, integrated, and used
within an organization. It includes the design of data storage systems (like
databases or data warehouses), data flows, and data governance. Its aim is
to ensure data accuracy, consistency, security, and accessibility to support
the organization’s information needs and data-driven decision-making
processes.

Data Architecture vs. Information Architecture

Earlier, I stated information architecture as one of the building blocks
of an organization’s enterprise architecture. Although the terms
“information architecture” and “data architecture” are sometimes used
synonymously, in the realm of EA, they serve different yet complementary
roles [6]. Data architecture pertains to the underlying structures, policies,
storage, and movement of raw data within an organization, focusing on

149
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

the design and organization of data storage systems, data flows, and data
governance. On the other hand, information architecture concentrates
on how processed data—information—is presented, organized, and
made accessible to users, emphasizing usability, findability, and the
understanding of data in a meaningful context. Both play integral roles in
shaping how an organization manages and utilizes its data effectively.
While the enterprise architecture community differentiates between
information architecture and data architecture, our focus in the context of
building digital solutions will predominantly be with data architecture. This
is mainly because data architecture involves the design and structuring of
data, whether it’s in transit or at rest, which is crucial for the creation of digital
solutions. It governs how data is collected, stored, transformed, and integrated
within the infrastructure, which directly influences the performance,
scalability, security, and reliability of the digital solutions built on top of it.
Given its foundational role in supporting the software layer, a robust data
architecture is essential to ensure that the digital solutions are sustainable,
adaptable, and efficient in meeting the evolving needs of the business.
When evaluating a digital solution’s information architecture against
the enterprise architecture, the solutions architect should consider several
factors. First, the solutions architect should ensure that the information
architecture aligns with the enterprise’s data governance policies,
standards, and practices. For example, if the enterprise has a specific
data classification policy, the solutions architect should ensure that the
digital solution’s information architecture complies with this policy. A
data classification policy is a set of guidelines and procedures that an
organization implements to classify its data into different categories based
on its level of sensitivity, importance, and regulatory requirements [7].
Second, the solutions architect should ensure that the digital solution’s
information architecture integrates seamlessly with other enterprise
systems and applications. For example, the solutions architect should
ensure that the digital solution’s information architecture can share data
with other enterprise applications without any issues.

150
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Third, the solutions architect should ensure that the information

architecture aligns with the enterprise’s data architecture, metadata
management practices, and scalability and performance requirements.
For example, the solutions architect should evaluate whether the digital
solution’s information architecture can scale to handle large volumes
of data.
Fourth, the solutions architect should ensure that the information
architecture complies with the enterprise’s data security policies and
standards. For example, the solutions architect should evaluate whether
the digital solution’s information architecture encrypts sensitive data as
required by the enterprise’s security policies.
Finally, the solutions architect should ensure that the information
architecture aligns with the enterprise’s data management and governance
practices. For example, the solutions architect should evaluate whether
the digital solution’s information architecture supports the enterprise’s
data retention and archiving policies. By considering these factors, the
solutions architect can ensure that the information architecture of the
digital solution aligns with the enterprise architecture and meets the needs
of the enterprise.

Application Architecture
Application architecture focuses on the high-level structure of software
applications and how they interact with each other to support business
processes. This includes the selection of software technologies, the design
of software components, and the definition of interfaces and data flows
between components. It ensures that the organization’s applications are
scalable, reliable, secure, and able to meet the needs of the organization.
When evaluating a digital solution’s application architecture with
the enterprise architecture, a solutions architect should consider
several factors. To begin, the solutions architect should first ensure that
the application architecture adheres to the enterprise’s application

151
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

architecture standards and guidelines. For example, if the enterprise’s

application architecture recommends the use of microservices
architecture, the solutions architect should ensure that the digital
solution’s application architecture follows the same pattern.
Next, the solutions architect should evaluate the application’s
integration capabilities to ensure that it can seamlessly integrate with
other enterprise applications. For example, if the enterprise uses a specific
middleware solution, the solutions architect should ensure that the digital
solution’s application architecture can integrate with the middleware.
The solutions architect should also consider the application’s scalability
and performance characteristics to ensure that it can handle the enterprise’s
current and future needs. For example, the solutions architect should evaluate
the application’s ability to handle increasing volumes of users and data.
The security of the application is another critical area that requires
evaluation. The solutions architect should evaluate the application’s
security features to ensure that it meets the enterprise’s security policies
and standards. For example, if the enterprise requires the use of multi-­
factor authentication, the solutions architect should ensure that the digital
solution’s application architecture supports this feature.
Finally, the solutions architect should consider the application’s
maintenance and support requirements to ensure that it aligns with the
enterprise’s IT support structure. For example, the solutions architect
should evaluate whether the enterprise has the necessary resources to
maintain and support the digital solution’s application architecture.

Summary
In summary, a comprehensive understanding of the enterprise
architecture is essential for the creation of digital solutions that align with
the business objectives and the technical strategy of an organization.
By keeping a keen eye on how the technology, data, and application
architectures align with the overarching EA, solutions architects can

152
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

design digital solutions that not only fit into the existing IT landscape
but also drive the business forward by leveraging the right technologies,
managing data efficiently, and building applications that cater to the
specific needs of the organization. This practice contributes to a more
efficient, secure, and scalable digital ecosystem, helping organizations
achieve their strategic goals while minimizing potential technical debt
(covered in the next chapter). Through this meticulous alignment process,
solutions architects also demonstrate the value of a well-executed EA,
underlining its importance in steering the organization’s digital journey.

 eveloping the Solution’s Target

D
Technology Architecture
The previous section shed light on the importance of aligning a digital
solution with an organization’s EA. This section, however, delves into the
creation of the actual technical architecture of the digital solution itself.
Composed of three main constituents—data architecture, application
architecture, and technology/infrastructure architecture—the technical
architecture forms the foundation of any digital solution. It lays out the
underlying technology infrastructure, designs the way data is managed and
utilized, and delineates the high-level structure of software applications
and their interactions. Crafting this technical architecture is an intricate but
crucial task, as it directly impacts the solution’s performance, scalability,
security, and overall ability to meet the business requirements effectively.
Additionally, it is important to note that security architecture is
an integral part of this technical architecture, enforcing protocols to
safeguard data and system integrity, thereby ensuring the resilience
and trustworthiness of the digital solution. I will, therefore, discuss that
dimension as well in the context of creating a digital solution’s target
technology architecture.
The following sections will cover each of these domains in detail.

153
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Technology and Infrastructure Architecture

Developing the solution’s target technology architecture involves creating
a comprehensive blueprint that outlines the desired end state of the
technology infrastructure supporting the digital solution. It outlines a
detailed architecture of infrastructure resources that will be required
for the digital solution. It addresses the various hardware and virtual
components needed to operate the digital solution along with defining
their connectivity, interfaces, configuration, and other aspects. The
target technology architecture should also incorporate best practices in
infrastructure automation, DevOps, and monitoring to ensure efficient
deployment, management, and continuous improvement of the digital
solution. When working on the technology infrastructure dimension of
digital solutions, several key aspects must be considered to ensure the
effectiveness and scalability of the system. Here are some key dimensions
with short examples for each in the context of digital solutions:

• Compute resources: Determine the type and scale

of compute resources needed to support the digital
solution’s processing requirements. For example, in
a digital video streaming platform, suitable virtual
machines or container-based solutions with adequate
processing power must be selected to handle video
transcoding and streaming tasks.

• Storage resources: Evaluate the storage capacity,

performance, and types required to handle the
digital solution’s data needs. For example, in a digital
document management system, a combination of fast
SSD (solid-state drive) storage for frequently accessed
files and cost-effective object storage for archiving
older documents may be selected.

154
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Networking: Design the network architecture to

ensure high availability, low latency, and secure
communication between the digital solution’s
components. For example, in a digital gaming platform,
a content delivery network (CDN) can be implemented
to reduce latency for players, and a secure virtual
private network (VPN) can be used for backend
management.

• Scalability and elasticity: Design the infrastructure

to scale horizontally or vertically based on the digital
solution’s changing demands. For example, in a digital
e-commerce application, auto-scaling groups in a
cloud environment can be used to handle traffic spikes
during seasonal sales or promotional events.

• High availability and fault tolerance: To ensure

high availability and fault tolerance, redundancy and
resilience must be incorporated into the infrastructure
to minimize downtime and maintain service
continuity. For instance, in the case of a digital finance
application, a multi-region or multi-zone deployment
with load balancing and failover mechanisms must be
implemented.

• Monitoring and management: Establish monitoring,

logging, and alerting solutions to track the health and
performance of the infrastructure and implement
management tools for efficient administration. For
example, in the case of a digital marketing automation
platform, this could involve using cloud-based
monitoring and logging services to track infrastructure
metrics and a centralized configuration management
system for updates and deployments.

155
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Cloud and hybrid infrastructure: Determine the

optimal mix of cloud-based, on-premises, and hybrid
infrastructure to meet the digital solution’s needs
in terms of cost, performance, and compliance. For
example, in the case of a digital manufacturing system,
one could use a hybrid infrastructure approach that
combines on-premises edge computing for real-time
processing with cloud-based resources for data storage
and analytics.

• Infrastructure automation and DevOps: Implement

automation and DevOps practices to streamline
infrastructure provisioning, deployment, and
management, improving efficiency and agility. For
example, in a digital customer support platform,
a solutions architect could use Infrastructure as
Code (IaC) tools to automate the provisioning and
configuration of virtual machines or containers, and
CI/CD pipelines for rapid deployment of application
updates.

• Integration with third-party services: Ensure

seamless integration with external services and APIs
that the digital solution may depend on for additional
functionality or data. For example, in the case of
a digital travel booking platform, this may involve
integrating with third-party APIs for flight data, hotel
information, and payment processing services.

In conclusion, the creation of a target technology/infrastructure

architecture for a digital solution requires the identification and
specification of infrastructure resources plus meticulous consideration
of critical factors like compute resources, storage, networking, high

156
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

availability, fault tolerance, monitoring, management, infrastructure

automation, and more. The embodiment of these factors within the
technical architecture directly impacts the performance, security,
scalability, and overall capability of the digital solution. Therefore, it’s
imperative to ensure they are methodically addressed and effectively
integrated, resulting in a digital solution that aligns with the organization’s
EA and fulfills the business requirements efficiently and effectively. The
aforementioned dimensions and related examples shed light on how these
aspects can be realized in the context of different digital solutions.

Creating the Application Architecture

As mentioned, application architecture refers to the various technologies,
architectural patterns, and styles used to design an application. Based
on the functional and non-functional requirements, as well as enterprise
architecture standards and guidelines, the solutions architect selects the
most suitable application architecture for the digital solution. Below are
some of the topics relevant to a cloud-native application architecture.
The specific application architecture ultimately chosen for any given
solution will depend on several factors that include the technology stacks
chosen, the characteristics of the digital solution being developed, the
business requirements, and even the project constraints such as timeline
and budget. Therefore, it’s essential to remember that the architectural
principles should be tailored and adapted to fit the unique context and
needs of each individual project.

• Identifying the different application domains:

A large digital solution may have several domains,
which an application architect must identify as part of
developing the application architecture. By identifying
the specific domains that the application will need
to support, the application architect can determine

157
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

which applications are needed to support a larger

solution and design an application architecture that
meets the needs of the organization. For instance,
if the application is designed to support a business
domain such as accounting, it may require applications
such as accounting software, financial reporting tools,
or business intelligence systems. Similarly, if the
application is designed to support a business domain
such as sales, it may require applications such as
customer relationship management (CRM) software,
sales tracking tools, or e-commerce platforms. By
identifying the specific domains and the applications
needed to support them, the architect can ensure
that the application architecture is properly designed
and integrated to achieve the desired functionality,
performance, and security of the application.

• Architectural styles: Applications can be designed

with varying styles, such as client-server, object-­
oriented, or microservices-based architecture. A
solutions architect works with the technical teams
to decide on the architectural styles used in the
solution design. These styles may apply to the overall
application or to smaller sections of the application
with different styles. For instance, a digital banking
solution might employ a microservices-based
architecture for the backend operations to facilitate
independent scaling and deployment of different
services, such as account management, funds transfer,
or loan processing. On the front end, a client-server
architecture might be implemented to separate
concerns between the user interface and data retrieval

158
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

mechanisms. This could involve the use of web

technologies such as JavaScript and HTML for client-­
side operations and a language like Python or Java
for server-side processes. Moreover, within a specific
microservice, object-oriented design principles might
be used to structure the code in a way that promotes
encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism,
enhancing modularity and code reusability. Therefore,
the choice of architectural styles reflects a mix-and-­
match approach, optimizing each section of the
application to meet specific functional requirements,
non-functional requirements, and technological
constraints.

• Architectural layers: For applications within the

digital solution, designs are required for various layers,
such as presentation services (e.g., UX), business
services (including business entities, logic, rules, etc.),
data, and internal services. For instance, in a digital
banking application, the architectural layers include
a user-friendly presentation layer, a business services
layer that encapsulates banking operations, a data layer
that handles storage and manipulation of data, and
an internal services layer providing support functions
such as authentication. When appropriately designed,
these layers contribute to a robust, efficient, and
secure digital solution that meets business needs while
enhancing user experience.

• Microservices architecture: This involves designing

applications as a collection of loosely coupled
services, which can be developed, deployed, and
scaled independently. For instance, consider an

159
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

e-commerce application, which could be divided

into several microservices such as user management,
inventory management, order processing, and
payment processing. Each of these services operates
independently of the others, yet they communicate
and collaborate to provide a complete e-commerce
experience. This design enables teams to develop and
update services independently, deploy them without
disrupting the entire application, and scale specific
services based on demand, resulting in increased
agility and improved resilience.

• Integration and application-level communications:

This covers the integration of various application
components with each other and external systems.
It encompasses the dependencies and integrations
within different components, along with APIs,
API gateways, service meshes, and message
queuing architectures employed for application
and service-level communications. For instance,
adopting a RESTful API-driven approach facilitates
communication between application components
and external systems, ensuring loose coupling and
promoting easier, independent component evolution.

• Application architecture parameters: At a lower

level, an application architecture needs to account
for various architectural issues, such as application
authentication and authorization methods,
caching technologies and mechanisms, exception
management, logging, data access, and handling of
concurrent transactions.

160
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Choosing the right cloud service model: This refers

to selecting between Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS),
Platform as a Service (PaaS), or Software as a Service
(SaaS) based on the application’s requirements and the
level of control and management that the organization
wants to retain.

• Designing for statelessness: This is about ensuring

that application components can handle requests
without relying on the previous state of the system.
This allows for better scalability and fault tolerance.
For instance, in a digital e-commerce platform,
stateless application design can ensure that individual
components, like product catalog or shopping cart, can
handle user requests without depending on previous
interactions. This promotes better scalability during
high-traffic periods and robust fault tolerance, as
failure in one component doesn’t disrupt the entire
system’s functionality.

• Leveraging managed services and serverless

technologies: An organization can utilize managed
services like databases, messaging systems, and
machine learning to offload operational tasks to the
cloud provider. For example, one could consider
serverless technologies like AWS Lambda or Azure
Functions for event-driven, on-demand computation.

• Optimizing for scalability and performance: One can

design the application to handle varying loads and scale
horizontally by adding or removing instances as needed.
This also includes consideration for the use of caching,
content delivery networks, and other techniques to
improve performance and reduce latency.

161
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Designing for cost optimization: Keeping cloud

costs in check by selecting the right resources, using
autoscaling, and following best practices for cost
management is an important consideration when
developing an application architecture.

These are some of the key areas that need to be taken into account
while designing an application architecture for a given digital system.
Again, although these areas are crucial, the actual domains to be
addressed may vary depending on the scope of the digital solution.

Creating A Data Architecture

Data architecture encompasses the models, policies, rules, and
standards that govern how data is collected, stored, processed, and used
within an organization or system. It plays a crucial role in the design
of digital solutions by ensuring data integrity, consistency, security,
and accessibility, ultimately enabling businesses to make data-driven
decisions, optimize operations, and provide enhanced user experiences.
A well-designed data architecture supports scalability, performance,
and adaptability to evolving requirements, allowing digital solutions to
accommodate growth and respond to changing business needs while
maintaining data quality and compliance with relevant regulations.
Similar to other areas of the architecture, finalizing an application’s
data architecture requires careful planning and consideration of several
factors. Here are the high-level dimensions that data architects should
address, especially in the context of digital solutions:

• Data sources and integration: This involves

identification and understanding of the various
data sources, both internal and external, that the
digital solution will rely on. The architect should
design mechanisms to integrate these data sources,

162
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

ensuring the seamless flow of data between systems

and addressing issues like data format, consistency,
and latency. For example, in a digital health platform,
integrating data from electronic health records
(EHRs), wearable devices, and third-party health
services requires a robust data ingestion pipeline that
can handle various data formats and maintain data
consistency.

• Data modeling and storage: This refers to designing

data models that accurately represent the application’s
data entities, attributes, and relationships. One should
select the appropriate storage technology based on
the application’s requirements, such as relational
databases, NoSQL databases, data warehouses, or
object storage. The architect should also consider
factors like data consistency, scalability, and querying
capabilities. For example, for a digital banking
application, designing relational data models and
schemas to represent customers, accounts, and
transactions, and storing them in a high-performance
relational database such as PostgreSQL or MySQL is
crucial for data integrity and efficient querying.

• Data processing and analytics: This refers to the

design of processes and systems for data processing,
transformation, and analysis. This may involve batch
processing, real-time data processing, or a combination
of both. One should also plan for integration with
data analytics, machine learning, and reporting
tools to support data-driven decision-making. For
example, when working on a digital marketing
solution, implementing real-time data processing

163
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

and data analytics pipelines using technologies like

Apache Kafka and Apache Flink enable capabilities
such as the immediate analysis of customer behavior,
enabling personalized marketing campaigns and
recommendations.

• Data security and privacy: This refers to

implementing data security measures to protect
sensitive information and ensure compliance with
data protection regulations and privacy laws. This may
involve encryption, access controls, data masking,
and proper data handling, storage, and retention
policies. For example, for a digital identity management
system, implementing strong data encryption at
rest and in transit, role-based access controls, and
anonymization techniques is essential to protect users’
sensitive personal information and to comply with data
protection regulations.

• Data governance and quality: This refers to

establishing data governance policies and practices
to maintain data quality, consistency, and accuracy.
This also involves implementing data validation rules,
deduplication methods, and cleansing processes
to improve data quality. For example, in the case
of a digital supply chain management platform,
establishing data validation rules, deduplication
processes, and a data catalog helps maintain data
quality and accuracy, ensuring that stakeholders can
trust the insights derived from the system.

164
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Performance and scalability: This involves optimizing

the data architecture to handle varying workloads,
ensuring low-latency data access, and scale as needed.
It also involves employing techniques like caching,
data partitioning, and sharding to distribute data
and improve performance. For example, for a digital
streaming service, optimizing the data architecture
using caching, data partitioning, and sharding ensures
low-latency access to content metadata and user
information, providing a seamless user experience
even during peak usage periods.

• Data backup and disaster recovery: This is about

developing a comprehensive data backup and disaster
recovery strategy to minimize data loss and ensure
business continuity. This includes creating redundant
data copies, utilizing backup storage solutions, and
defining recovery point objectives (RPO) and recovery
time objectives (RTO) based on the application’s
criticality and tolerance for data loss. For example,
in a digital e-commerce platform, implementing a
comprehensive backup strategy with regular data
snapshots, geo-redundant storage, and well-defined
RPOs and RTOs ensures minimal data loss and rapid
recovery in case of system failures or data center
outages.

• Data interoperability and standardization: This

ensures data compatibility and interoperability
among different systems and applications by adopting
standardized data formats, protocols, and APIs. This
promotes seamless data exchange and integration
across various components of the digital solution. For

165
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

example, when designing a digital smart city solution,

adopting standardized data formats, protocols, and
APIs, such as JSON or XML, and using open data
exchange standards like Open311 or GTFS (General
Transit Feed Specification), ensures seamless data
exchange and integration across various city systems
and applications.

These are some of the key areas that need to be taken into account
while designing a data architecture for a digital system. Although these
areas are crucial, the actual domains to be addressed may vary depending
on the scope of the digital solution.

E xample: Data Architecture Consideration When

Working on AI/ML Systems
Let’s take an example of a data architecture for a digital solution involving
AI/ML. In such cases, data architects should take into account the
following aspects:

• Data preparation and preprocessing: Machine

learning models require high-quality, well-structured
data for training and validation. Data architects should
design processes for data cleaning, normalization, and
feature extraction to ensure that the data is suitable for
ML algorithms.

• Model training and deployment: Data architects

should consider the infrastructure requirements for
training and deploying ML models, such as specialized
hardware (e.g., GPUs or TPUs) and scalable cloud-­
based resources. They should also establish a pipeline
for continuous integration and deployment of ML
models, enabling rapid iteration and improvement.

166
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Model monitoring and management: Once deployed,

ML models need to be monitored for performance,
drift, and potential bias. Data architects should design
mechanisms for tracking model performance, updating
models when necessary, and maintaining transparency
and explainability in the AI systems.

• Real-time data processing and analytics: Solutions

that require real-time data processing and analytics
demand a data architecture that can handle high-­
velocity data streams and deliver insights with low
latency.

• Data streaming and ingestion: This refers to selecting

appropriate data streaming technologies, such as
Apache Kafka or AWS Kinesis, to handle the ingestion
of high-velocity data streams and designing a scalable
and fault-tolerant data ingestion pipeline that can
process and store incoming data efficiently.

• Integration with downstream systems: Real-­

time insights generated by the stream processing
system may need to be integrated with downstream
applications, databases, or visualization tools. Data
architects should ensure seamless integration and
communication between these components while
maintaining data consistency and integrity.

By addressing such dimensions, data architects can design effective

and scalable data architectures for digital solutions involving new digital
technologies, ensuring that the systems can handle evolving requirements
and deliver the desired outcomes.

167
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Creating the Security Architecture

Digital solutions are becoming increasingly ubiquitous in modern
business operations, and with this comes the need for robust security
architecture. The objective of security architecture is to identify and
address any security vulnerabilities in a digital solution, ensuring
that sensitive data is safeguarded and protected against cybersecurity
threats. Organizations must be aware of the latest cybersecurity threats
when implementing digital and cloud solutions and develop security
architecture to mitigate those risks [8].

Common Security Threats

Here are some of the common threats to consider and the actions that can
be taken from a security architecture perspective to protect against them.

• Phishing attacks: Phishing attacks are a form of

social engineering in which cybercriminals use emails
or other means to trick individuals into providing
sensitive information such as login credentials or
credit card numbers. To mitigate this risk, security
architecture should include strong authentication
mechanisms such as two-factor authentication and
employee training to help them recognize and avoid
phishing emails.

• Ransomware: Ransomware is a type of malware that

encrypts data on a computer or network, making it
inaccessible until a ransom is paid. To mitigate this
risk, security architecture should include regular data
backups, network segmentation to limit the spread
of ransomware, and security tools such as antivirus
software and intrusion detection systems.

168
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Insider threats: This pertains to the potential

danger presented by individuals such as employees,
contractors, or other authorized personnel who
have access to an organization’s data and systems.
In order to reduce this risk, it is important for the
security architecture to incorporate access controls
and monitoring tools that can detect and prevent
unauthorized access or the transfer of data outside of
the organization.

• Supply chain attacks: Supply chain attacks occur

when a cybercriminal targets a third-party vendor to
gain access to an organization’s systems and data. To
mitigate this risk, security architecture should include
regular assessments of third-party vendors and their
security controls.

• Cloud misconfiguration: Cloud misconfiguration

refers to the incorrect or incomplete implementation
of security controls in cloud-based systems, which can
leave them vulnerable to attack. To mitigate this risk,
security architecture should include regular security
assessments and auditing of cloud-based systems to
ensure that security controls are properly implemented
and configured.

In summary, to mitigate cybersecurity threats when implementing

digital and cloud solutions, security architecture should include a
combination of technical controls, employee training, and regular security
assessments and monitoring. It is also essential to stay up to date with the
latest cybersecurity threats and to adapt security architecture accordingly
to address new and emerging risks.

169
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Security Controls
To mitigate the potential security vulnerabilities in a digital solution,
several controls should be considered when developing security
architecture. The controls typically fall into the following areas:

• Authentication and authorization: Authentication

is the process of verifying the identity of a user
or a device, while authorization is the process of
granting or denying access to resources based on
the authenticated identity. In digital solutions,
authentication and authorization are critical
components of security architecture, and solutions
architects must ensure that appropriate measures are
in place to safeguard sensitive data and ensure that
only authorized personnel can access it. For example,
in an e-commerce system, users must be authenticated
before accessing their account and making purchases.

• Encryption and data protection: Encryption is

the process of converting plaintext into ciphertext,
which is unreadable without the correct decryption
key. Data protection involves securing data from
unauthorized access, use, disclosure, or destruction.
In digital solutions, encryption and data protection
are necessary to prevent data breaches and protect
sensitive information. For example, in an AI/ML
system, sensitive data must be encrypted to prevent
unauthorized access or manipulation.

• Network security: Network security involves protecting

the network infrastructure and its assets from
unauthorized access, use, disclosure, or destruction.
In digital solutions, network security is critical to

170
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

protect against cyber-attacks such as DoS attacks and

data breaches. For example, in an IoT system, network
security is necessary to protect against unauthorized
access and control of IoT devices.

• Security monitoring and incident management:

Security monitoring involves the continuous
monitoring of systems, networks, and applications to
identify potential security threats or incidents. Incident
management involves responding to security incidents
and taking appropriate actions to mitigate the impact
of the incident. In digital solutions, security monitoring
and incident management are necessary to detect and
respond to security incidents in a timely and effective
manner. For example, in a blockchain system, security
monitoring and incident management are critical
to detect and respond to potential attacks on the
blockchain network.

• Compliance and risk management: Compliance

involves ensuring that a digital solution complies
with applicable laws, regulations, and standards. Risk
management involves identifying, assessing, and
mitigating risks associated with the digital solution. In
digital solutions, compliance and risk management
are necessary to ensure that the solution is secure and
that the organization is not exposed to legal or financial
risks. For example, in an IIoT system, compliance
and risk management are necessary to ensure that
the system complies with industry standards and
regulations and that the organization is not exposed to
financial or legal risks.

171
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

Given the above scenarios, it is obvious that in today’s digital age,

security architecture is more important than ever before. A comprehensive
security architecture approach, therefore, can help organizations stay
ahead of the ever-evolving cybersecurity landscape, providing them with
the necessary safeguards to protect their digital solutions and overall
enterprise.

T arget Technology Architecture

Risk Assessment
Once the preliminary target architecture for a digital solution is prepared,
the solutions architect should conduct a detailed risk assessment related
to the architecture before finalizing it. While digital and cloud-based
solutions offer numerous growth opportunities, they also pose challenges
and risks that need to be addressed to ensure the overall stability of
operations and the business. Addressing these risks may require additional
investment and time, which the solutions architect must factor into
the overall delivery plan. Without proper risk management, the overall
architecture of the solution and its delivery plan may not be complete,
which can have a direct or indirect impact on the project’s success [9].

Examples: Technology Risk Assessment

The importance of a technology risk assessment can be highlighted using
an example. Let’s consider an organization that plans to use a multi-­
region architecture to facilitate its global expansion and high availability.
While the AWS cloud provides a multi-region infrastructure that allows
businesses to deploy applications across multiple geographic regions,
a solutions architect may discover that the basic architecture may not
be suitable for the organization’s use cases and can lead to several
implementation risks. For instance, some of the challenges associated with

172
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

multi-region architectures include data replication, uniform configuration

management, latency issues, and cross-region networking. Addressing
these issues may require the use of additional AWS services, such as AWS
Global Accelerator and AWS Transit Gateway, and implementation of
other best practices recommended by Amazon for securing multi-region
architectures. However, such an approach may add to the overall cost
of the project and increase testing and deployment time. Therefore, the
solutions architect should conduct a detailed risk assessment related to
the architecture before finalizing it, and factor in the additional investment
and time required to mitigate the associated risks.
Similarly, a solutions architect working on the design and
implementation of a computer vision project may identify the following
risks, which could impact the successful completion of the overall project:

• An organization may not have the data quality that may

be needed to train a computer vision project. A system
trained on bad quality data will obviously produce bad
results and impact its overall accuracy.

• The system may be difficult to scale or may be costly for

the organization due to the large volume of data that
could be produced.
• The maintenance of the project may be difficult due
to lack of skills and staff that could threaten the longer
term sustainability of the project.

• The complexity of the project involving multiple

algorithms, models, and large volumes of data may
have a number of inherent design and implementation
risks, each of which must be managed to ensure
successful completion of the project.

173
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

In summary, a solutions architect should make sure to conduct a

detailed risk assessment of the solutions architecture before finalizing
it. Without proper risk assessment, the architecture of the solution and
its related delivery plan may not be complete. This could lead to delays
in the project, additional costs, and may even result in project failure.
Conducting a detailed risk assessment helps the solutions architect to
identify and mitigate potential risks before the project proceeds to design
and implementation.

Project Deliverables
(Technology Architecture)
In the process of creating the solutions architecture for a digital solution,
a solutions architect may create a variety of deliverables. Some of the
typical ones are listed below. These deliverables can often be integrated or
merged to form part of the same document, based on project requirements
or organizational standards. The range and depth of each deliverable
depend significantly on the project’s scope, thus varying from one project
to another. The organization’s internal policies and methods can also
influence the nature and form of these deliverables. Nevertheless, a few
key deliverables are typically produced by a solutions architect while
engaging with business stakeholders. Some of the typical deliverables
include the following:

• Solutions architecture design: This is a

comprehensive blueprint of the proposed
solution, detailing the elements of the solution,
their interrelationships, and the technology stack
underpinning it all. This design provides an
overarching view of the solution’s structure and serves
as a reference throughout the project’s life cycle.

174
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Technology stack: This critical deliverable details the

entire technology stack to be used in the solution. It
includes every technology, programming language,
framework, and tool that will be utilized in the
development, deployment, and support of the solution.
It often serves as a technical inventory and guides the
developers’ and system administrators’ tasks.

• Integration strategy: This deliverable delineates

a strategic plan for seamlessly integrating various
solution components. It also covers integration
with pre-existing systems, third-party services, and
data sources. This strategy is crucial for ensuring
interoperability and coordination across different parts
of the solution.

• Scalability and performance plan: This deliverable

provides a thorough analysis of the solution’s scalability
and its performance under varying workloads. It
outlines strategies for load balancing, caching, resource
optimization, and other techniques to ensure the
system remains responsive and efficient even under
peak loads.

• Data architecture: This is a detailed exposition of

the system’s data elements, their interrelationships,
and their management protocols. It typically includes
data models, data flow diagrams, and other related
documentation that serve to guide the system’s data
handling practices.

175
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Infrastructure and deployment strategy: This detailed

plan outlines the physical and virtual resources needed
to support the system, such as servers, storage, and
networking infrastructure. It includes information
about the solution’s deployment, maintenance, scaling
strategies, and contingency measures to ensure the
system remains reliable and resilient.

• Technology maturity assessment: This crucial

deliverable helps explain the organization’s current
technical and business capabilities. It assesses these
capabilities against industry best practices and
identifies gaps that the new solution needs to address.
This allows the solutions architect to prioritize changes
and design a solution that aligns with the organization’s
strategic objectives while capitalizing on existing
technology investments.

• POC results: The POC results offer vital insights into

the solution’s feasibility, performance, and potential
hurdles. By detailing test scenarios, performance
metrics, identified risks, and lessons learned, this
deliverable enables informed decision-making
regarding technology adoption and implementation
strategies.

• Security and compliance strategy: This document

outlines the security controls, policies, and procedures
to be implemented in the solution to ensure
compliance with applicable laws, regulations, and
industry standards. It is crucial in maintaining the
solution’s integrity, confidentiality, and availability.

176
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

• Disaster recovery and business continuity plan: This

vital document outlines strategies and procedures
for recovering from system failures or disruptions,
ensuring business operations continue with minimal
disruption.

• Testing and validation strategy: This deliverable

establishes a methodology for verifying the solution’s
functionality, performance, and reliability. It includes
test scenarios, test cases, and acceptance criteria,
providing a clear roadmap for quality assurance.

• Monitoring and maintenance plan: This strategy lays

out a comprehensive plan for monitoring the solution’s
performance, diagnosing issues, and carrying out
regular maintenance tasks to ensure its long-term
stability and reliability.

In conclusion, these deliverables created by a solutions architect,

constitute the backbone of a well-designed digital solution. They
collectively ensure comprehensive understanding and efficient
management of various aspects of the solution, from the technology stack
and integration strategy to security protocols and maintenance plans.
Each deliverable’s depth and detail will depend on the project’s scope and
specific needs. However, they are all crucial to project success, and they
often merge to form a comprehensive document serving as the project’s
blueprint.

Summary
This chapter covered the topic of creating a digital solution’s target
architecture document, which identifies and defines all of a solution’s
critical components and establishes an integration strategy for the project

177
Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

as a whole. It serves as a high-level technical architecture for the project,

guiding the technical design and development of the technical team.
Maintaining the target architecture document is a continuous process
that requires ongoing attention and refinement throughout the project’s
lifecycle to ensure a project’s success.
The chapter also discussed various topics related to creating the
target architecture document, including conducting a current state
infrastructure and technology assessment, selecting technology stacks,
conducting POCs and technical evaluations of tools and services, aligning
with EA, developing the solution’s target technology architecture, creating
the application architecture, creating a data architecture, creating the
security architecture, and assessing risks with the proposed architecture.
The chapter also highlighted certain project deliverables that a solutions
architect may create in this phase of the project. By following these steps
and continually refining the target architecture document, the solutions
architect can ensure the successful development and implementation of
digital solutions.

References
1. Kern, J. (2021, March 16). “How Tech Assessment
Can Yield ROI.” Forrester. Retrieved from www.
forrester.com/blogs/how-tech-assessment-can-
yield-roi-kenna-security/

2. Microsoft. (n.d.). Regulatory compliance dashboard.

Azure Defender for Cloud. Retrieved from ­https://
learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/defender-
for-cloud/regulatory-compliance-dashboard

3. Heap. (n.d.). “What is a tech stack?” Heap. Retrieved

from www.heap.io/topics/what-is-a-tech-stack

178
 Chapter 4 Creating the Target Digital Technology Architecture

4. Day.IO. (January 11, 2022). “Proof of concept

definition and why is it important.” Day.IO Blog.
Retrieved from https://day.io/blog/proof-of-
concept-definition-and-why-is-it-important/

5. Ardoq. (July 5, 2021). “Enterprise architecture

vs. solution architecture: What’s the difference?”
Ardoq Blog. Retrieved from www.ardoq.com/
blog/enterprise-architecture-vs-solution-
architecture

6. BMC Software, Inc. (2018). “Data Architecture vs.

Information Architecture: What’s the Difference?”
Retrieved from www.bmc.com/blogs/data-
architecture-vs-information-architecture/

7. Wikipedia contributors. (February 28, 2022).

“Information architecture.” In Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20:57, March 27, 2023, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_
architecture

8. GitLab. (n.d.). “Security Architecture.” GitLab

Handbook. Retrieved from https://about.gitlab.
com/handbook/security/architecture

9. National Institute of Standards and Technology

(NIST). (2014). “Framework for Improving Critical
Infrastructure Cybersecurity.” NIST Cybersecurity
Framework. Retrieved from www.govinfo.gov/
content/pkg/GOVPUB-C13-00f462b8222d80a07fee
bd1f12ebfe4f/pdf/GOVPUB-C13-00f462b8222d
80a07feebd1f12ebfe4f.pdf

179
CHAPTER 5

Deciding on Digital
Architectural
Frameworks and Best
Practices
As organizations actively implement more new digital services on
the cloud, they have the choice of using cloud services from different
providers. AWS (Amazon Web Services), Azure (Microsoft Azure), and GCP
(Google Cloud Platform) are three of the leading cloud service providers,
each offering a range of competitive cloud services to organizations. Each
cloud provider offers its own set of services and features, pricing models,
and levels of security and compliance. Organizations select a cloud service
provider that best meets their specific needs and requirements. In some
cases, organizations may also use services from multiple providers to
design and implement their digital solutions.
The wide range of options available for implementing digital solutions
and their complexity can make the task of selecting the right services and
options difficult. Even when an organization chooses to use one cloud
provider, such as AWS, Azure, or GCP, there are still multiple options
available from each of those providers to design and build solutions.

© Wasim Rajput 2023 181

W. Rajput, Solutions Architecture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9657-8_5
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

Each cloud provider offers a wide range of digital and cloud services
and features that can be used to build custom solutions that meet the
organization’s specific needs and requirements. Here are some examples:

• Compute: Within a single cloud provider, there are

multiple options for compute services. For example,
AWS offers EC2 (Elastic Compute Cloud), Elastic
Beanstalk, Lambda (serverless computing), and
more. Each of these services has its own benefits and
limitations, and each can be used to build different
types of applications. Similarly, GCP offers compute
services such as Compute Engine for running VMs,
Kubernetes Engine for containerized applications, and
Cloud Functions for serverless computing.

• Storage: Similarly, within a single cloud provider, there

are multiple options for storage services. For example,
Azure offers several storage services, including Azure
Blob Storage for unstructured data, Azure Files for
SMB-based (Server Message Block) file shares, Azure
Queue Storage for messaging between components,
Azure Table Storage for NoSQL and large amounts of
data, and Azure Disk Storage for persistent VM storage.
GCP, on the other hand, offers Cloud Storage for object
storage, Persistent Disk for block storage, and Filestore
for file storage.

• Databases: Cloud providers offer multiple database

services to meet different types of requirements.
For example, AWS offers RDS (Relational Database
Service) for managing traditional relational databases,
DynamoDB for NoSQL databases, and Aurora for a
managed relational database that is highly scalable.

182
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

In contrast, GCP provides Cloud SQL and Cloud

Spanner for relational databases, Firestore and Firebase
Realtime Database for NoSQL databases, and Bigtable
for large operational databases.

• Networking: Cloud providers offer multiple networking

services to manage network infrastructure in the
cloud. For example, AWS offers VPC (Virtual Private
Cloud) for creating isolated network environments,
Direct Connect for establishing dedicated network
connections to the cloud, and Route 53 for managing
DNS (Domain Name System). Similarly, GCP provides
VPC (Virtual Private Cloud) for network isolation,
Cloud Interconnect for private connections to the
cloud, and Cloud DNS for managing DNS.

• Security: Cloud providers offer multiple security

services to help organizations secure their applications
and data in the cloud. For example, AWS offers IAM
(Identity and Access Management) for managing user
access and permissions, AWS WAF (Web Application
Firewall) for protecting web applications, and Shield
for DDoS (distributed denial-of-service) protection.
Meanwhile, GCP provides IAM (Identity and Access
Management) for managing user access, Security
Command Center for unified asset and security data
view, and Cloud Armor for DDoS protection and web
application firewall.

In summary, the extensive array and complexity of digital services

offered by cloud providers such as AWS, Azure, and GCP present
substantial challenges for organizations and solutions architects. The
task of understanding, selecting, and integrating the right combination of

183
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

services to create optimized solutions requires considerable expertise and

strategic foresight. As you will observe in the next section, it necessitates
the development and maintenance of robust, adaptable frameworks and
standards within organizations to guide technological decisions.

Why Choose an Architectural Framework?

As noted, cloud providers like AWS, Azure, and GCP offer a wide range
of services in today’s digital landscape. While these services provide
opportunities for organizations, they also come with challenges due
to the sheer number of options available. To navigate this complexity,
organizations must establish clear standards as a compass for selecting
digital solutions. These standards serve as guiding principles that
help align choices with strategic objectives and ensure consistency in
technological decisions.
Therefore, embracing a well-defined architectural framework
empowered by clear standards can allow organizations to expedite their
digital transformation journey and adapt to rapidly evolving market
demands [1]. With strategic choices driven by these standards, decision-­
makers can confidently navigate the complex landscape of digital
services, driving innovation and growth. Overall, establishing standards
and employing a well-defined architectural framework can enable
organizations to effectively leverage digital services, improving their
operational efficiency, scalability, security, agility, and implementation
speed in the dynamic digital landscape.
The following outlines some of the benefits of following an
architectural framework and related standards and best practices.

• Standardization: Standardizing on certain design

practices helps the development team make the right
decisions more rapidly. When teams are familiar
with best practices and guidelines, they can quickly

184
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

take action without spending time exploring different

options or resolving avoidable issues. Standardization
also ensures consistency across different projects,
leading to better outcomes and increased efficiency.

• Narrowing down the focus: Digital solutions

often require the integration of multiple tools and
technologies from various cloud providers, vendors,
and other sources. Each of these tools and services
typically comes with its own set of architectural
guidelines, which can be challenging to navigate.
A well-defined framework can help by providing
clear guidance and best practices for each tool and
technology, ensuring that the development team stays
aligned with the overall architectural vision and meets
the goals of the project.

• Ensuring adherence to industry best practices: By

leveraging existing architectural frameworks provided
by cloud and digital service providers, solutions
architects can ensure adherence to industry best
practices and trends. This not only helps in designing
and implementing efficient and effective solutions but
also aids in maintaining standardization of the design
and architecture of digital systems.

In conclusion, adopting an architectural framework for solutions

architecture is essential in today’s multifaceted digital landscape. It
provides organizations with a clear roadmap for making informed
decisions and understanding the complexities of cloud services. By
selecting the most suitable services aligned with strategic objectives,
organizations can effectively implement digital solutions and improve
operational efficiency, scalability, and security. The framework also

185
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

promotes standardization and consistency, ensuring adherence to

industry best practices. Embracing this comprehensive guide empowers
organizations to thrive in their digital transformation journey while
adapting to the ever-evolving technological landscape.

Industry Digital Architectural Frameworks

Fortunately, many cloud and digital service providers, such as AWS,
Azure, and GCP, as well as vendors of digital solutions offer architectural
frameworks, which make this task easier. The use of these frameworks
provides a set of best practices and guidelines to build efficient and
effective solutions while ensuring standardization of the design and
architecture of digital systems. By leveraging these frameworks, solutions
architects can assist their teams in designing and implementing digital
solutions while maintaining adherence to industry best practices
and trends.
Here are some of the most widely used cloud architecture frameworks
and architectures.

 mazon Web Services

A
Well-­Architected Framework
The Amazon Web Services Well-Architected framework is a set of best
practices and guidelines for building and running high-quality cloud
infrastructure [2]. The framework provides a consistent approach to
evaluating digital and cloud architectures and identifying areas for
improvement. It is based on five pillars: operational excellence, security,
reliability, performance efficiency, cost optimization, and sustainability.
By following the framework’s guidelines, organizations can improve the
quality of their digital and cloud infrastructure, optimize costs, and reduce

186
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

risk. The framework is continuously updated to incorporate new best

practices and industry standards, ensuring that organizations always have
access to the latest information and guidance for building and running
cloud infrastructure on AWS.

The Azure Well-Architected Framework

The Azure Well-Architected framework [3] is a set of best practices and
guidelines for building and running high-quality cloud infrastructure
on the Microsoft Azure cloud platform. The framework provides a
structured approach to evaluating architectures and identifying areas
for improvement based on five pillars: cost optimization, operational
excellence, performance efficiency, reliability, security, and sustainability.
By following the framework’s guidelines, organizations can improve the
quality of their cloud infrastructure, optimize costs, and reduce risk. The
framework is continuously updated to incorporate new best practices
and industry standards, ensuring that organizations always have access
to the latest information and guidance for building and running cloud
infrastructure on Azure.

Google Cloud Architecture

The Google Cloud Architecture framework [4] is a set of best practices and
guidelines for building and running high-quality cloud infrastructure on
the Google Cloud Platform. The framework provides a consistent approach
to evaluating architectures and identifying areas for improvement
based on several pillars: operational excellence; security, privacy, and
compliance; reliability; cost optimization; and performance optimization.
The framework emphasizes the use of managed services and serverless
computing to improve operational efficiency, as well as the use of
open-source technologies and interoperability with other platforms.

187
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

By following the framework’s guidelines, organizations can optimize their

cloud infrastructure for performance, security, and cost-effectiveness,
while leveraging the power and flexibility of the Google Cloud Platform.
The framework is continuously updated to incorporate new best practices
and industry standards, ensuring that organizations always have access
to the latest information and guidance for building and running cloud
infrastructure on Google Cloud.

 loud Native Computing Foundation Cloud

C
Native Landscape
The Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF) [5] is an open-source
software foundation that aims to promote the adoption of cloud-
native technologies and practices. The CNCF provides a neutral home
for open-source projects related to containerization, microservices,
and other cloud-native technologies. Its objective is to standardize
these technologies and practices, making it easier for organizations
to build and deploy cloud-native applications. By standardizing these
technologies, the CNCF helps ensure that applications built using cloud-
native tools can be easily deployed and run on a wide range of cloud
platforms, making it easier for organizations to adopt and integrate
new technologies. The CNCF also provides resources and support
for organizations to help them adopt cloud-native technologies and
practices, including training, certification, and community events.
By leveraging the CNCF’s resources and expertise, organizations can
accelerate their adoption of cloud-native technologies and build more
scalable, efficient, and resilient applications.

188
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

CISA Internet of Things Acquisition Guidance

The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency’s “Internet of
Things Acquisition Guidance” [6] provides recommendations and
best practices for federal agencies and other organizations to consider
when acquiring IoT devices and systems. The guidance covers various
aspects of the acquisition process, including planning, procurement, and
deployment, and it provides recommendations for managing security
risks throughout the lifecycle of an IoT system. The guidance is intended
to help organizations mitigate security risks associated with IoT devices
and systems, which can be vulnerable to cyberattacks and other security
threats if not properly secured.

OpenStack Architecture
OpenStack [7] is an open-source cloud computing platform that enables
users to build and manage their own cloud infrastructure. Its modular
and flexible architecture consists of several core components, including
Compute, Storage, Networking, Identity, and Dashboard, with optional
components available. Users of this technology are typically organizations
that require a customized cloud platform for their specific needs, such
as enterprises, government agencies, and service providers. OpenStack
allows users to have control over their cloud infrastructure and can provide
cost savings compared to using public cloud providers.

Kubernetes Architecture
Kubernetes, also known as K8s, is an open-source container
orchestration system used for automating the deployment, scaling,
and management of containerized applications [8]. It was originally
developed by Google and is now maintained by the Cloud Native

189
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

Computing Foundation. Kubernetes provides a platform-agnostic

way to deploy and manage containerized applications, enabling
organizations to manage and scale containerized workloads across
multiple cloud providers or on-premises data centers. Kubernetes
offers several key features, including automatic scaling, self-­healing,
service discovery, and load balancing, making it a powerful tool for
managing containerized applications in production environments. The
site provides comprehensive documentation, tutorials, and resources
for users and developers who want to learn about and use Kubernetes
for container orchestration. The website offers detailed explanations of
Kubernetes concepts and features, including architecture, API reference,
cluster management, storage, networking, and security. Additionally,
it provides installation guides and tools for various operating systems
and cloud platforms, as well as community-contributed resources, such
as blog posts, podcasts, and events. The website is a valuable resource
for anyone interested in learning about Kubernetes or using it in their
containerized application environments.

Tanzu
Tanzu [9] is a portfolio of products and services from VMware that
is designed to help organizations build, run, and manage modern
applications and workloads across multi-cloud environments. Tanzu
offers several tools and platforms that enable developers to build and
deploy cloud-native applications, while also providing IT teams with
tools for managing containers, Kubernetes, and other infrastructure
components. Some of the products in the Tanzu portfolio include Tanzu
Kubernetes Grid, which provides a multi-cloud Kubernetes runtime;
Tanzu Mission Control, which provides centralized management and
control for Kubernetes clusters across multiple clouds; and Tanzu

190
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

Application Service, which provides a platform for running and managing

applications in a cloud-native environment. Tanzu is aimed at simplifying
the complexity of modern application development and management,
allowing organizations to focus on delivering innovative applications and
services to their customers.
The aforementioned cloud computing and cloud-native architectures
and frameworks are some of the popular ones that offer guidelines and
tools that can help organizations design and operate digital and cloud-­
based systems that are scalable, secure, and cost-effective. It’s important to
carefully evaluate which framework best meets the organization’s specific
needs and digital solution requirements. Factors to consider include the
type of applications being developed, the cloud platform in use, and the
organization’s security and compliance requirements.

Example: AWS Well-Architected Framework

To gain a better understanding of an architectural framework, let’s delve
into the AWS Well-Architected framework, which is a popular architecture
framework used for designing and operating cloud applications. While
the scope of the framework is vast, and discussing each aspect in detail is
beyond the scope of this book, I will cover some of the essential specifics.
Detailed information on the framework can be downloaded from the AWS
website.

About the AWS Well-Architected Framework

The AWS Well-Architected framework is a collection of pillars, design
practices, and architectural best practices that cloud architects can use to
design and operate cloud applications. While the framework is designed
specifically for applications and systems built using AWS services, many

191
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

of its principles can be applied to other cloud platforms as well. The AWS
Well-Architected framework provides a valuable tool for cloud architects
looking to build and operate high-quality cloud applications.

T he Six Pillars of the AWS

Well-­Architected Framework
Amazon’s Well-Architected framework is built on six architectural pillars.

1. Operational excellence: This pillar focuses

on practices to run applications, monitor their
performance, and continually improve related
processes and procedures. Key topics include
automation of operations, incident management
and reporting, and continuous feedback-driven
operational improvement.

2. Performance efficiency: This pillar focuses on

practices related to ensuring optimal performance
of systems. Topics covered include selecting the
right resource types, capacity sizing, monitoring and
tweaking systems for performance, and configuring
and using the right dashboards for monitoring.

3. Cost optimization: This pillar focuses on topics

related to cost optimization by ensuring that
the appropriate number of resources is used
to avoid incurring additional costs. Topics
include monitoring costs, estimating costs,
resource cost and usage analysis, and rightsizing
recommendations.

192
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

4. Security: This pillar focuses on practices related

to the protection of information, systems, data,
and such. Key topics include protecting user
confidentiality and integrity, identity and access
management, infrastructure and data protection,
and protection of data at rest and in transit.

5. Reliability: This pillar focuses on practices related

to ensuring that systems are reliable and can recover
from failures. Key topics include fault tolerance,
recovery planning, and disaster recovery.

6. Sustainability: This pillar focuses on practices

related to the efficient use of resources and reducing
environmental impact. Key topics include power
usage effectiveness and server utilization.

By following these pillars, architects can ensure that their applications

are designed and operated in a way that is secure, reliable, efficient, and
cost-effective, while also being environmentally sustainable. The Well-­
Architected framework is a valuable tool for cloud architects looking to
build and operate high-quality cloud applications.

Design Principles
Each pillar of the AWS framework includes a number of design principles.
For example, the framework lists five key design principles under the
operational excellence pillar. They are as follows:

• Perform operations as code: In the cloud, it’s possible

to implement the same engineering approach used
for application code across the entire environment.
This involves defining the whole workload, including
applications and infrastructure as code, and updating

193
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

it accordingly. Operational procedures can be scripted

and their execution automated in response to specific
events. By treating operations as code, the potential for
human error is reduced and a consistent response to
events is ensured.

• Make frequent, small, reversible changes: This

design principle is about creating workloads that
allow for regular component updates, thus enabling
the integration of required changes. Implementing
small, reversible changes facilitates the identification
and resolution of any issues that may arise in the
environment, while striving to minimize negative
impact on customers and the overall environment.

• Refine operations procedures frequently: This design

practice focuses on continuously refining operational
procedures by seeking out improvement opportunities.
As the workload evolves, procedures should be adapted
to match the workloads. This practice encourages the
review and verification of the efficacy of procedures
while familiarizing teams with their execution.
• Anticipate failure: This design practice is about
conducting “pre-mortem” exercises to pinpoint
potential failure sources and to remove or mitigate
them accordingly. It involves testing various failure
scenarios, as well as verifying the effectiveness of
response procedures and ensuring that teams are well-­
versed in their execution.

194
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

• Learn from all operational failures: This design

practice is about enabling improvement by deriving
lessons from all operational events and failures. It
emphasizes the importance of sharing these lessons
across teams and throughout the entire organization to
enhance overall performance.

Best Practices
Each architectural pillar also includes a number of best practices related to
various categories. For the operational excellence pillar, although there are
numerous best practices mentioned within each pillar, here are some to
illustrate them.

• Evaluate external customer needs: This best practice

is about involving key stakeholders from business,
development, and operations teams to prioritize
external customer needs. In doing so, one can get
a comprehensive understanding of the operational
support required for achieving desired business
outcomes.
• Evaluate internal customer needs: This best practice
involves collaborating with key internal stakeholders
across business, development, and operations teams
to address internal customer needs effectively. By
understanding the operational support required for
various business outcomes, improvements can be
strategically focused on areas such as team skills,
workload performance, cost reduction, automation, or
monitoring.

195
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

• Perform patch management: This best practice is

about implementing patch management to acquire
features, resolve issues, and maintain compliance with
governance. Automating patch management minimizes
errors caused by manual processes and reduces the
effort required for patching. This practice encourages
the use of immutable infrastructures wherever possible
but if that’s not feasible, in-place patching remains
an alternative option. Immutable infrastructure is
an approach to managing IT infrastructure where
components are replaced rather than updated,
ensuring a consistent and stable environment by
eliminating changes to existing systems.

• Implement practices to improve code quality:

This best practice centers on adopting practices that
enhance code quality and minimize defects, such as
utilizing test-driven development, conducting code
reviews, and implementing coding standards.

• Fully automate integration and deployment: This

best practice emphasizes automating the build,
deployment, and testing processes of the workload,
which helps decrease errors resulting from manual
procedures and lowers the effort needed to implement
changes.

AWS Well-Architected Lenses

AWS Well-Architected provides general guidance for building and
operating cloud-based systems. However, Amazon recognizes that
specific use cases may require tailored approaches. To address these
unique scenarios, Amazon has introduced “lenses,” which are specialized

196
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

adaptations of the Well-Architected framework for particular types of

applications or technologies. For example, the Container Build Lens is
a specific set of architectural principles, guidelines, and best practices
designed to optimize container-based applications. AWS also offers
lenses for data analytics, SAP applications, serverless applications, hybrid
networking, and others.
In summary, lenses allow the application of AWS Well-Architected
framework to specific situations in a more focused manner.

Deciding on a Custom
Architectural Framework
While established industry architectural frameworks provide useful
guidance and best practices for solutions architecture, solutions architects
may find it beneficial to develop their own custom framework tailored
to their organization’s specific needs and requirements. This is because
established frameworks can be lengthy and may not provide a clear,
focused approach to address the specific challenges and objectives of the
organization. Developing a custom framework allows solutions architects
to create a streamlined and targeted approach to solutions architecture
that is tailored to the organization’s needs.
Creating a custom framework involves assessing the organization’s
current needs, goals, and priorities and then identifying the key factors
that should be considered in the solutions architecture process. This can
include factors such as the organization’s business strategy, technology
goals, regulatory requirements, and existing IT infrastructure. By
identifying these factors, solutions architects can create a framework
that addresses specific areas of concern, ensuring that the solutions
architecture aligns with the organization’s overall objectives.

197
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

E xample: Selecting the Right Kubernetes

Service
As an example, let’s look at Kubernetes, which has become the standard
way of managing containerized workloads and has grown in popularity
in recent years. Organizations can choose from a variety of options for
implementing Kubernetes, ranging from DIY (Do It Yourself ) approaches
to fully managed solutions offered by cloud providers. Let’s explore the
options that a solutions architect may have and the factors that may
influence their decision.

Self-Managed Kubernetes
Organizations can choose to set up and manage their own Kubernetes
clusters using open-source tools such as Kubernetes, Kubeadm, and
Helm. This approach gives them full control over the deployment,
configuration, and management of their Kubernetes environment.
However, it requires significant expertise and resources to manage a
Kubernetes cluster effectively. The organization needs to manage the
underlying infrastructure, including servers, storage, and networking, as
well as ensuring the cluster is highly available, secure, and scalable. This
approach is suitable for organizations that have a dedicated team with
expertise in Kubernetes, have specific requirements that cannot be met by
managed solutions, or have a preference for complete control over their
environment.

Managed Kubernetes Services

Cloud providers like Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure offer
fully managed Kubernetes services such as Amazon Elastic Kubernetes
Service (Amazon EKS) and Azure Kubernetes Service (AKS), respectively.
Google Kubernetes Engine (GKE) Autopilot is a mode of operation in

198
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

Google Kubernetes Engine where Google Cloud automatically manages

and operates the underlying Kubernetes infrastructure, including the
control plane and the worker nodes. This allows developers and operators
to focus more on deploying and managing their applications, and less on
managing and operating the underlying infrastructure. This approach
allows organizations to deploy and manage Kubernetes clusters without
the overhead of infrastructure management. The cloud provider handles
the underlying infrastructure, including servers, storage, and networking,
while the organization focuses on deploying its applications and services.
Managed Kubernetes services also provide built-in features such as
automatic scaling, load balancing, and security features. However,
this approach may limit the organization’s flexibility and control over
the environment, as it must rely on the cloud provider’s offerings and
capabilities. Managed Kubernetes services are suitable for organizations
that want to focus on their applications and services and reduce the
operational overhead of managing infrastructure.

Kubernetes as a Service
Kubernetes as a Service (KaaS) providers like Platform9, Mirantis, and
Giant Swarm offer fully managed Kubernetes environments on their own
infrastructure. This approach allows organizations to deploy and manage
Kubernetes clusters without the overhead of managing infrastructure
or relying on a cloud provider’s capabilities. KaaS providers often offer
additional services, such as continuous integration and delivery (CI/CD),
monitoring, and logging, to provide a complete solution for deploying and
managing containerized workloads. However, this approach may limit
the organization’s flexibility and control over the environment, as it must
rely on the KaaS provider’s offerings and capabilities. KaaS is suitable for
organizations that want a turnkey solution for deploying and managing
containerized workloads and don’t want to manage the infrastructure or
rely on a cloud provider’s capabilities.

199
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

Hybrid Approach
Organizations can also choose a hybrid approach, combining self-­
managed Kubernetes with managed Kubernetes or KaaS services.
For example, an organization can choose to manage its Kubernetes
environment on-premises or in a private cloud, while using managed
Kubernetes services like Amazon EKS or AKS for their public cloud
deployments. This approach provides greater flexibility and control over
the environment while reducing the operational overhead of managing
infrastructure. However, it also requires the organization to manage
and integrate multiple Kubernetes environments, which may increase
complexity and costs.
By weighing the pros and cons of each option, solutions architects can
select the service that best matches the organization’s goals and objectives
and also provides a clear, focused approach to solution development and
implementation.

T echnical Debt Considerations

in Solutions Architecture
In this section, you will delve into the concept of technical debt, exploring
its implications on software and digital systems and, more importantly,
how it intertwines with the role of solutions architects. You will examine
the various ways in which architectural decisions can contribute to or
exacerbate technical debt and provide insights on strategic approaches
that solutions architects can adopt to minimize its accumulation. The
section will highlight the importance of establishing standards and
frameworks that promote best practices to help mitigate the risk of
accumulating technical debt. By implementing robust guidelines and
architectural principles, solutions architects can proactively address
potential debt and ensure long-term software maintainability.

200
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

T echnical Debt and Its Relevance

to Solutions Architecture
Technical debt is a concept in software development that reflects the
implied cost of additional rework caused by choosing an easy or quick
solution now instead of using a better approach that would take longer.
The term can also include outdated technology, poor documentation,
lack of testing, and sloppy coding practices. It was coined by Ward
Cunningham [10] to describe the long-term costs and consequences of
expedited software development.
Here’s how technical debt can impact an organization:

• Reduced productivity: If an organization has a lot of

technical debt, its developers may spend more time
fixing bugs and issues than adding new features or
improving the system. This decreases productivity and
slows down the pace of innovation.

• Increased costs: As technical debt accumulates, it can

lead to significant financial costs. This includes the
direct costs of paying developers to fix issues and the
indirect costs of lost productivity and opportunity costs.
• Poor quality products: When technical debt leads to
bugs, crashes, or performance issues, it can degrade the
quality of the product or service that the organization
provides. This can lead to customer dissatisfaction and
potentially loss of market share.

• Low morale: Working in a codebase with high

technical debt can be frustrating and demoralizing for
developers. This can lead to lower job satisfaction and
higher turnover, which can further increase costs and
reduce productivity.

201
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

• Strategic risk: In the long term, high technical debt

can put an organization’s strategic goals at risk. If the
organization’s systems are unstable or hard to change,
it can be difficult to adapt to new market opportunities
or threats.
• Scalability issues: High technical debt can hinder
scalability efforts. As the system grows and evolves,
the debt (if not dealt with properly) can make it
increasingly difficult to implement necessary changes
or enhancements, affecting the overall growth of the
organization.

Although the concept of technical debt is a concept that originates in

software development, it’s also applicable to other systems and processes
in an organization. It’s not limited to poor software alone; it can occur
anytime a suboptimal or expedited decision is made with the intent to
correct or improve it later. Here are some examples.
• Infrastructure debt: The choice to use outdated or
cheaper hardware, or not following best practices in
infrastructure setup, can lead to infrastructure technical
debt. This can result in performance and reliability
issues that can disrupt business operations, negatively
impact customer experience, and require expensive
hardware upgrades and restructuring in the future.
• Data debt: Poorly designed databases, lack of data
governance, or ineffective data quality controls can
result in data-related technical debt. This can impede
an organization’s capacity to use its data efficiently for
decision-making or operations, creating inefficiencies
and potential inaccuracies in business processes that
rely heavily on data. Correcting these issues later can
require substantial effort and resources.

202
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

• Process debt: When business processes are hastily

designed or implemented without optimization,
the organization incurs what can be referred to as
process debt. This can lead to inefficient or overly
complex processes that slow down operations,
reduce productivity, and potentially create customer
dissatisfaction. Over time, the organization will need
to invest in redesigning these processes to improve
efficiency and effectiveness.

• Information security debt: Ignoring or delaying

best practices in security for the sake of expedience
can create a form of technical debt that increases the
organization’s vulnerability to cyber threats. This can
lead to significant business disruptions in the event of a
security breach and may require extensive remediation
efforts.

As you can see, the impact of technical debt on various system

dimensions can have far-reaching effects on an organization’s overall
business operations. It can lead to inefficiencies, increased costs, and
disruptions that adversely affect an organization’s ability to deliver its
products or services effectively.
The concept of technical debt, therefore, is a critical concern for
technical teams, particularly in today’s fast-paced digital solutions delivery
environments. Well-thought-out technical standards and architectural
frameworks can provide a pathway to balance this challenge. These
standards and frameworks, when effectively implemented, guide teams
to design and build solutions that not only meet immediate requirements
but also consider future needs and scalability. This approach ensures that
teams can maintain development speed without sacrificing the quality
of their work. Over time, adhering to these standards can result in less
technical debt, or even reduce existing debt, as it discourages

203
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

short-­term fixes and encourages solutions built for long-term stability and
maintainability. This harmonization of speed and quality can lead to more
efficient development cycles and robust solutions, ultimately benefiting
the teams, the end users, and the organization as a whole. Figure 5-1
illustrates this balance.

Figure 5-1.  Balancing immediate delivery pressures with quality of

delivery

Therefore, managing technical debt is crucial for maintaining smooth

and efficient business operations and ensuring the long-term success
of an organization. To effectively manage and reduce technical debt,
organizations and solutions architects should ensure that their decisions
in the project lifecycle consider this concept. You will review that next.

T he Role of the Solutions Architect in Influencing

Technical Debt
Solutions architects in their strategic role can greatly influence an
organization’s level of technical debt. Their decisions can either mitigate or
exacerbate potential future issues that may arise from the accumulation of
this debt. However, their ability to strike the right balance between speed
and quality can be significantly enhanced by established standards, well-
thought-out practices, and effective frameworks.
Established standards in software development provide a blueprint
for quality and consistency. They include guidelines for code structure,
commenting, naming conventions, and more. Following these standards

204
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

can help prevent the creation of error-prone or hard-to-maintain code,

which often contributes to technical debt. Solutions architects, by
advocating for and ensuring adherence to these standards, can play a
significant role in reducing the potential for this form of debt.
Similarly, well-thought-out practices, such as Test-Driven
Development (TDD) or Pair Programming, can contribute to the quality
of the software. By incorporating these practices into the development
process, solutions architects can foster an environment that encourages
writing robust, maintainable code, thus minimizing the risk of incurring
technical debt.
Frameworks, on the other hand, provide structure and reusable
components that can expedite the digital system’s design and development
process while maintaining quality. Solutions architects can also use
standards, practices, and frameworks as reference points when making
critical decisions. These elements provide a roadmap that architects
can use to balance the need for speed in delivery with the requirement
to “do things right.” For instance, knowing the standard or framework’s
capabilities and limitations can inform decisions about whether a quick fix
now would likely result in significant rework later.
In conclusion, solutions architects have a pivotal role in influencing
the level of technical debt within an organization. The effectiveness of
their decisions can, therefore, be significantly enhanced by established
standards, well-thought-out practices, and effective frameworks. These
tools can help architects navigate the often challenging balance between
delivering quickly and ensuring long-term system sustainability and
quality.

Example: Technical Debt-Related Decisions

Let’s consider a practical example of a digital project where a bank is
planning to develop a new mobile banking application that is user-­
friendly, secure, and can handle a large volume of transactions.

205
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

The solutions architect in charge has the following key decisions to make
that will influence the system’s design and the potential for accumulating
technical debt:

• Choice of technology stack: The solutions architect

has to decide the technology stack to be used for
the project. They might be tempted to adopt a new,
cutting-edge technology for its advanced features
and potential performance benefits. However, if
the team lacks experience with this technology,
this can result in suboptimal implementation and a
steeper learning curve, introducing technical debt.
Alternatively, using a familiar but possibly outdated
technology might expedite the initial development
but could accrue technical debt in the long run
due to lower performance, diminished community
support, or difficulty integrating with other modern
systems. To make an informed decision, the architect
could evaluate the team’s proficiency with proposed
technologies and the support available for these
technologies in terms of community, documentation,
and longevity. They might choose a newer technology
if they judge that the team can quickly upskill and the
long-term benefits outweigh the initial learning curve.

• Code quality and standards: When it comes to

maintaining code quality and implementing coding
standards, the solutions architect plays a crucial role.
If the emphasis is on quick delivery, the team might
overlook best practices like writing clean, modular code
or following TDD. This can lead to a messy, bug-prone
codebase that is harder to maintain and update in the

206
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

future, thereby incurring technical debt. To navigate

this, the architect might advocate for adherence to
established coding standards and practices to ensure
a robust, maintainable codebase. They could decide to
provide training to the team on these practices and may
argue for slightly extended development timeframes to
accommodate these quality practices, considering their
future benefits in reducing maintenance effort and
error rates.

• Security considerations: Security is of paramount

importance in banking applications. The architect
might face a decision between implementing robust,
time-consuming security measures upfront or
launching quickly with minimal security, planning
to enhance it later. The latter approach, while faster,
could lead to significant security-related technical debt.
The architect should emphasize the importance of
thorough security measures given the sensitive nature
of banking data. They might decide to invest time and
resources upfront in implementing strong security
features, such as encryption, secure APIs, and robust
authentication mechanisms, to avoid future security
risks and potential remediation efforts.

• Scalability: The solutions architect needs to consider

the application’s ability to handle growth in user traffic
or data volume. They might be faced with a decision
between a simpler, faster-to-implement architecture
that may struggle under high loads, or a more complex,
distributed architecture that scales well but might
take longer to develop. Choosing the former can lead
to scalability-related technical debt. In this case, the

207
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

architect could consider the projected growth of the

application. If high scalability is a likely requirement,
they might decide to invest in a scalable architecture
upfront, despite the additional initial development
time, to avoid performance issues down the line.

• User interface (UI) development: The solutions

architect has to decide between building a custom UI,
which gives more control over the user experience but
can be time-consuming, or using a ready-made UI
framework to expedite development. The latter choice
could accelerate the initial development, but potential
limitations of the framework might lead to debt if
extensive customizations become necessary later. The
architect could consider the unique UI requirements of
the project and the team’s proficiency with the chosen
framework. If the UI needs are complex or unique,
they might decide to invest in a custom UI, despite the
additional effort, to avoid future rework.

In each decision, the solutions architect needs to balance immediate

needs with potential future costs associated with technical debt, guiding
the project towards long-term success.

Summary
This chapter highlighted the importance of using digital architectural
frameworks for building digital solutions. These frameworks are based on
industry-established best practices, standards, and guidelines that ensure
alignment with the latest technological advancements. By leveraging
these frameworks, solutions architects can ensure that digital solutions are
designed, implemented, and managed in a way that aligns with industry
standards.

208
 Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

As digital technologies and trends continue to evolve, organizations

must adapt quickly and efficiently to these changes. By following industry
frameworks, they can ensure that the frameworks are kept up to date by
their owners.
I delved into the concept of technical debt, an essential consideration
when implementing digital solutions. I emphasized that well-thought-out
standards and architectural frameworks are key in preventing technical
debt. By adhering to industry standards and using robust architectural
frameworks, organizations can ensure that the solutions they implement
are both scalable and maintainable.
Finally, I covered the importance of organizations customizing these
frameworks to their specific needs and ensuring that they align with their
overall business strategy. A one-size-fits-all approach may not always
be appropriate for every organization, and they may need to tailor the
frameworks to fit their unique requirements. Additionally, organizations
should regularly review and update these frameworks to ensure that they
remain relevant and effective in the face of changing technologies and
business needs.

References
1. Avolution. (2021, July 8). “How to Choose an
Enterprise Architecture Framework. Avolution
Software.” Retrieved from www.avolutionsoftware.
com/news/how-to-choose-an-enterprise-­
architecture-framework/

2. Amazon Web Services (AWS). (n.d.). Well-

Architected. AWS Architecture Center. Retrieved
from https://aws.amazon.com/architecture/
well-architected

209
Chapter 5 Deciding on Digital Architectural Frameworks and Best Practices

3. ­www.microsoft.com/azure/partners/well-
architected

4. ­https://cloud.google.com/architecture/
framework

5. ­www.cncf.io/

6. ­www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/
publications/20_0204_cisa_sed_internet_of_
things_acquisition_guidance_final_508_1.pdf

7. ­https://docs.openstack.org/arch-design/

8. Kubernetes - Production-Grade Container

Orchestration. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from
https://kubernetes.io/

9. ­https://tanzu.vmware.com/tanzu

10. “What is technical debt?” TechTarget. Retrieved

June 7, 2023, from ­www.techtarget.com/whatis/
definition/technical-debt

210
CHAPTER 6

Concluding Remarks
for CIOs and 
Solutions Architects
This concluding chapter offers a few words for CIOs and CTOs, explaining
the importance of the role of solutions architecture in delivering high-­
performing digital solutions that align with business goals and objectives.
It is essential for CIOs and other technology executives to understand
the value of this domain and how solutions architects can help their
organizations to achieve their digital transformation goals. Toward the
end, the chapter also reviews some of the key skills and knowledge needed
to become a successful solutions architect.

A Message to CIOs and CTOs

The role of a CIO or CTO is to ensure the delivery of digital and IT
capabilities that are aligned with the business. They need to ensure that
technology is integrated into the business and is not seen as a separate
entity. To achieve this, they need to ensure alignment at all levels of the
organization and ensure that all levels of their tech organizations are
engaged in activities that maximize this alignment.

© Wasim Rajput 2023 211

W. Rajput, Solutions Architecture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9657-8_6
Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

This alignment between technology and business has been a critical

issue for CIOs and CTOs for several decades, as it’s crucial to ensure that
digital and IT capabilities are aligned with the business strategies, goals,
and objectives. However, due to the constant evolution of technology,
changing business needs, organizational silos, and such, executives
continue to struggle with it.
One of the key reasons why achieving alignment can be challenging is due
to the misconception that alignment is exclusively focused on higher levels
of the organization. This misconception often overlooks the importance of
alignment across all levels of the business and technology teams. Recognizing
and addressing this misconception is the first step towards creating a culture
of alignment that permeates throughout the entire organization.
This culture of alignment should not only exist amongst the teams but
also reflect in the strategic approach of the organization’s leaders. CIOs
and CTOs, therefore, must take a holistic approach that encompasses both
the business and technology aspects of the organization. They need to
understand the business goals, objectives, and processes and then ensure
that technology initiatives are tailored to meet them. By anticipating
future needs while addressing current ones, leaders demonstrate their
deep understanding of the business, its customers, and its markets. This
holistic alignment, however, cannot be achieved without addressing one
vital aspect of the organization: the domain of solutions architecture.
This domain acts as the glue binding business goals with technology
capabilities, serving as a conduit to truly achieving alignment.

E nsuring Alignment Through the Domain

of Solutions Architecture
As emphasized earlier in this book, the realm of solutions architecture
plays a crucial role in ensuring the harmonious integration of digital
solutions with business strategies, goals, and objectives. This is
accomplished through the utilization of a well-defined framework that

212
 Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

provides guidance for the design and execution of digital solutions. These
solutions are custom tailored to not only address the unique requirements
of the business but also take into account the technical implications and
prerequisites.
At the core of solutions architecture lies the creation and
implementation of purpose-built, scalable, and maintainable digital
solutions. This necessitates a deep comprehension of the business context
and requirements, which are subsequently translated into a technical
architecture specifically tailored to fulfill those particular needs. The
ultimate objective is to develop a solution that effectively bridges the
divide between business requirements and technological capabilities,
thereby fostering alignment within the organization.

The Role of Solutions Architects

The role of solutions architects, thus, has become increasingly important
in ensuring this alignment between digital solutions and business
strategies, goals, and objectives. They are instrumental in providing and
facilitating that alignment both at lower levels and by connecting at higher
levels of the organization. CIOs and CTOs should empower them for
ensuring that digital solutions are aligned with business strategies, goals,
and objectives, and this requires collaboration across all levels of the
organization.
At the lower levels of the organization, solutions architects work closely
with the development teams to ensure that digital solutions are designed
and implemented in a way that meets the requirements of the business.
They provide guidance on technical design decisions, ensure that
solutions are scalable and maintainable, and work to ensure that solutions
are aligned with the overall architecture of the organization. By doing so,
they help to ensure that digital solutions are designed and implemented in
a way that supports the goals of the business.

213
Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

At the same time, solutions architects also connect with higher levels
of the organization, including senior management and business leaders.
They work to understand the business strategy and goals, and they ensure
that digital solutions are aligned with those goals. They provide guidance
on the technical implications of business decisions and work to ensure
that digital solutions are designed to support the long-term strategic goals
of the organization.
In addition, solutions architects also facilitate alignment across different
functional areas of the organization. They work to ensure that digital
solutions are designed to support the needs of different business functions
and that these solutions are integrated in a way that supports overall
organizational objectives. They work to break down silos between different
functional areas of the organization and ensure that digital solutions are
designed to support cross-functional collaboration and communication.
Given the critical role solutions architects play in facilitating alignment
throughout the organization, it is crucial for CIOs and CTOs to establish
a robust solutions architecture team that possesses a comprehensive
understanding of both IT and business requirements. These architects
should be empowered to collaborate closely with business executives and
IT teams, guiding the design and implementation of solutions that align
with the overarching business strategy. By investing in skilled solutions
architecture professionals, CIOs and CTOs can guarantee that their
organizations have the necessary expertise to deliver impactful digital
solutions while ensuring alignment between IT and business objectives.

Becoming a Solutions Architect

In this section, I address a common question posed by many technical
professionals interested in becoming digital solutions architects: “What are
the necessary skills needed for this role?” To answer this effectively, let’s
begin by defining the term “solutions architect” and then cover some of
the key skills required to thrive in this role.

214
 Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

Definition of a Solutions Architect

First, it is important to note that there is no set definition of a solutions
architect, and the role can vary significantly depending on the organization
and its specific needs. In some organizations, a solutions architect may
be seen as a highly technical position, with a strong focus on software
development languages and programming expertise. This type of solutions
architect is often responsible for designing and implementing complex
software systems (working more or less as a software architect), using their
deep understanding of software architecture and programming languages
to create efficient and effective solutions.
In other organizations, the focus of the solutions architect may be
on broader technical concepts, such as cloud computing and AWS/
Azure/GCP architectural concepts. These solutions architects may be
responsible for designing and implementing solutions that leverage the
benefits of cloud computing, such as scalability, security, performance,
cost effectiveness, and agility. They may work closely with development
teams and stakeholders to understand business requirements and develop
solutions that meet those needs.
Some organizations may even use the term “solutions architect” to
refer to a more general technical leadership role, with a focus on providing
high-level technical direction and guidance to teams and stakeholders.
Therefore, the focus area that a solutions architect pursues will
depend on their own interests and expertise as well as the needs of the
organization they work for. Some solutions architects may choose to
focus on software development and programming languages, while
others may focus on cloud computing and AWS/Azure/GCP architectural
concepts. Ultimately, the role of a solutions architect is to design and
implement solutions that meet business requirements and constraints,
while leveraging their technical expertise and leadership skills to guide
development teams and stakeholders towards a successful outcome.

215
Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

 ey Skills Needed to Become

K
a Solutions Architect
Even though the definition of a solutions architect may vary depending on
the organization, there are still several skills that all solutions architects
should possess. These skills are covered below.

Technical Expertise
A solutions architect must have a deep understanding of technical
concepts to design and implement solutions that meet business needs.
Depending on the projects and the organizations, and how the role is
defined, the required skills may include programming languages such as
Java, Python, or C++, system architecture and design patterns, knowledge
of cloud computing frameworks such as AWS or Azure, database design
and management, networking protocols and security, DevOps practices
and tools, API design and implementation, microservices architecture,
security practices and tools, and agile methodologies. A combination of
these technical skills enables solutions architects to design and implement
effective solutions that meet business requirements and constraints.

Business Alignment Skills

As discussed earlier in the book, one of the key domains of responsibility
of a solutions architect is to work closely with the business to ensure
business alignment. Such skills require solutions architects to gain a
deeper understanding of the business and industry they are working in.
They must be able to understand the organization’s strategy, its strategic
goals and objectives, and align technical solutions with that strategy and
goals. Accordingly, they must be able to identify and prioritize business
needs and requirements of the organization and then use their technical
expertise to envision, design, develop, and implement solutions that
address those needs and requirements.

216
 Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

Achieving this business alignment requires solutions architects to

be able to work closely with the organization’s business stakeholders.
These stakeholders include business leaders, project managers, business
users, development and operations teams. They must also be able to
communicate technical concepts to non-technical stakeholders and
help them understand the implications of technical decisions on the
organization’s business objectives, processes, business rules, and the
overall business ecosystem. In doing so, solutions architects must be able
to strike a balance between technical feasibility and the business needs
and constraints.

Ability to Envision the Technical Solution

As discussed earlier in the book, developing a vision for the technical
solution and how its components integrate and fit together is a critical skill
that solutions architects need to possess to be able to be effective in their
roles. It involves envisioning a digital solution with technical capabilities
that addresses the business requirements and user needs. Creating this
vision is critical as it helps ensure that all stakeholders have a shared
understanding of what the solution will deliver, how it will work, and how
it will deliver the intended business outcomes.
Developing the ability to envision technical solutions is often the product
of extensive experience with similar projects and a deep understanding of
diverse technologies and their applications. Solutions architects with a rich
history of implementing technical solutions are naturally better positioned to
design such strategies, compared to those less experienced.

Digital/IT Management Skills

Solutions architects should also possess good IT governance skills for
them to be able to work effectively and deliver digital solutions and
business outcomes. IT governance provides a framework for managing
and controlling IT resources, ensuring that they are used effectively and

217
Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

efficiently to create value for the organization. Solutions architects with

good IT governance skills are better equipped to design and implement
effective technology solutions that deliver business value as well as comply
with legal and regulatory requirements. They are able to work within
the organization’s IT governance frameworks to ensure that technology
solutions are aligned with business objectives, manage IT-related risks,
and optimize IT investments. By doing so, solutions architects can help
organizations achieve their strategic goals and create long-term value.

Enterprise Architecture Skills

As a solutions architect, familiarity with enterprise architecture (EA) is
crucial. EA offers a structured approach to designing technology solutions,
taking into account the organization’s people, processes, information, and
various technology dimensions. Understanding EA is important because
it provides a holistic and strategic framework for designing and managing
technology solutions. With this knowledge, a solutions architect can gain
a deeper understanding of how the technology solutions they are working
on align with the broader context of an organization’s business strategy
and goals.
Furthermore, learning about EA helps a solutions architect identify
and manage risks and dependencies that could impact the success
of technology solutions. As mentioned, EA provides a framework
for analyzing the impact of changes to technology solutions on an
organization’s overall business operations, ensuring compliance with legal
and regulatory requirements.
In summary, knowledge of EA enables the architect to design solutions
that align with the organization’s business objectives, effectively manage
risks and dependencies, and communicate with other stakeholders.
By leveraging EA, solutions architects can ensure that their technology
solutions not only address specific needs but also align with the overall
strategic direction of the organization.

218
 Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

Building Professional Networks

To succeed as a solutions architect, it’s essential to build professional
relationships with various stakeholders, including business leaders,
developers, project managers, and other stakeholders, both within and
outside the organization. Solutions architects need to work closely with
these stakeholders to ensure the successful implementation of technology
solutions.
By building a network of professional relationships, for example,
solutions architects can gain valuable insights into the industry, stay
up to date with the latest trends and technologies, and uncover new
opportunities for their organization. This includes staying in touch with
vendors who provide access to specialized knowledge and expertise
related to specific technologies and products.
Regular communication with vendors allows solutions architects
to stay informed about product updates, enhancements, and emerging
technologies that could potentially enhance their solutions. Additionally,
vendors often offer support, training, and resources that can assist
solutions architects in designing and implementing effective solutions.
To build and nurture their network, solutions architects can attend
industry events, participate in meetups, connect with other professionals
on platforms like LinkedIn, and seek mentorship opportunities from
experienced professionals. By actively engaging with stakeholders,
including vendors, solutions architects can expand their reach, collaborate
effectively, and stay relevant in an ever-changing industry while leveraging
the expertise and resources provided by all parties involved.

Solutions Architecture Certifications

Certifications are an important aspect of becoming a solutions architect
because they provide a tangible measure of a candidate’s knowledge, skills,
and expertise in a specific technology or field. For example, certifications

219
Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

such as AWS Certified Solutions Architect or Microsoft Certified: Azure

Solutions Architect demonstrate a candidate’s proficiency in designing and
implementing solutions using specific cloud platforms.
Certifications can also serve as a form of professional development
and help candidates stay up to date with the latest technologies and
trends in the industry. For instance, the TOGAF 9 certification provides
a framework for enterprise architecture that can be used to guide the
design and implementation of technology solutions in a structured and
systematic manner.
Furthermore, certifications in one area can be beneficial in others,
especially if there is commonality of topics between the certifications. For
example, a solutions architect certified in AWS cloud technologies may be
able to transition to Azure easily because both platforms share concepts
such as virtual machines, storage, networking, and security. Similarly,
a solutions architect certified in VMware technologies may have an
easier time learning about virtualization in cloud platforms such as AWS
or Azure.
In conclusion, certifications are an important factor for evaluating a
candidate for a solutions architect role, but they are not the only factor.
Other elements, such as experience, soft skills, and the ability to think
strategically and creatively are also important considerations. Additionally,
certifications in one area can be beneficial in others, especially if there is
commonality of topics between the certifications.

Gaining Real-World Experience

The best way to build one’s skills as a solutions architect is to gain real-­
world experience. Working on projects that align with one’s career
goals and utilizing technical knowledge and skills can lead to valuable
experience. Roles such as a technical leads, systems analysis, or technical
project managers can provide exposure to various technologies and
industry verticals. Freelance projects and consulting work are also

220
 Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

excellent opportunities to gain practical experience and develop skills in a

practical setting. By participating in real-world projects, you can improve
skills, gain practical experience, and build a portfolio that showcases their
work. As a solutions architect, it is imperative to continually develop skills
and expertise, and gaining real-world experience is an effective way to
achieve that.

The Importance of Soft Skills

Finally, in addition to technical skills, soft skills are also essential for
solutions architects. Solutions architects need to communicate effectively
with different stakeholders, including business leaders, developers, and
project managers. They must be able to understand and translate technical
concepts into language that non-technical stakeholders can understand.
Solutions architects also need to be strong problem solvers, critical thinkers,
and able to work well under pressure. They must be able to manage and
prioritize multiple projects and deadlines effectively. Additionally, solutions
architects need to have strong leadership and interpersonal skills, as they
are often responsible for leading development teams and collaborating
with other departments within the organization. Strong soft skills can help
solutions architects build effective relationships with stakeholders, inspire
confidence in their teams, and drive successful project outcomes.

Summary
In conclusion, this chapter highlighted the critical role that the solutions
architecture domain plays in bridging the gap between digital solutions
and business strategies, goals, and objectives. A crucial takeaway is the
importance of achieving alignment across all levels of the organization,
and not just at the top. This alignment, facilitated by skilled solutions
architects, is instrumental in delivering effective, scalable, and
maintainable digital solutions that are in harmony with business needs.

221
Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks for CIOs and Solutions Architects

CIOs and CTOs bear the responsibility of fostering this culture of

alignment, requiring a deep understanding of both the business and
technological aspects of the organization. Simultaneously, the value
of a robust solutions architecture team cannot be overstated. These
professionals, equipped with a comprehensive understanding of IT and
business requirements, help ensure that digital solutions align with
business strategies, goals, and objectives. Furthermore, this chapter
underscored the important skills and knowledge required to excel as a
solutions architect, providing guidance for those interested in stepping
into this critical role. In essence, the journey towards successful digital
transformation hinges on the effective integration of business needs
with technological capabilities, facilitated by the pivotal role of solutions
architecture.

222
Index
A Azure Kubernetes Service (AKS),
198, 200
Adaptive AI, 7
Azure Well-Architected
AI-based solution, 74
framework, 187
AI chatbot, 74, 106
Amazon, 2
Amazon Web Services (AWS), B
181, 198 Blob Storage, 182
Apache Flink, 164 Business alignment
Apache Kafka, 64, 164, 167 business capabilities, 88–90
Application architecture, 57, 63, business processes, 85, 86
151–152, 157–161, 178 business rules, 87
Architectural framework business stakeholders, 114, 115
benefits, 184, 185 business strategy, 82
principles, 184 CIOs aligning, 75
Artificial intelligence (AI), 1, 4, 6, components, 78–81
101, 125 data/information, 86
Augmented reality (AR), 94, 95, 97 definition, 73
Authentication, 159, 170 digital solution’s
Authorization, 122, 170 architecture, 83
AWS cloud, 172, 220 functions, 75, 76
AWS Well-Architected organization stakeholders, 87
framework organization’s technology, 73
best practices, 195, 196 performance metrics, 88
definition, 191 product owner, 116
design principles, 193, 195 products/services, 84
lenses, 196 project deliverables, 116
six pillars, 192, 193 SLAs, 113, 114

© Wasim Rajput 2023 223

W. Rajput, Solutions Architecture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9657-8
INDEX

Business alignment (cont.) Custom architectural

technical/business team, 115 framework, 197
technical mentor/advisor, 112 Customer-centric approaches, 1
technological solutions, 76–78 Customer relationship
technology leaders, 119 management (CRM)
traditional IT solutions, 111 system, 26, 77, 158
use cases Cybersecurity and Infrastructure
vs. business Security Agency’s
processes, 91–93 (CISA), 189
business requirements, 90
examples, 93, 94
technologies, 94–96 D
Data architecture, 149–151, 153,
162, 175, 178
C Data protection, 170
ChatGPT, 5, 7, 8, 81 Digital and cloud services, 182
CI/CD pipelines, 122 Digital architectural frameworks
CIO/CTO Amazon web services, 186
alignment, 212 Azure well-architected, 187
digital and IT capabilities, 211 CISA, 189
role of solutions architecture, CNCF, 188
213, 214 Google cloud architecture,
solutions architecture, 212, 213 187, 188
Cloud-based technologies, 135 K8s, 189
Cloud computing, 1, 189, 191, OpenStack, 189
215, 216 Tanzu, 190, 191
Cloud Native Computing Digitalization, 2
Foundation (CNCF), Digital native organizations, 3
188, 190 Digital service providers, 185, 186
Computer vision system, 10 Digital solutions
Content delivery network benefits, 23–27
(CDN), 155 complexity factors
Continuous integration and business processes, 11, 12
delivery (CI/CD), 199 integrating systems, 14, 15

224
 INDEX

multiple vendors, 16, 17 F

new digital
Functional requirements, 96
technologies, 14
technical complexities, 12
complexity framework G
high complexity General Transit Feed Specification
projects, 21, 22 (GTFS), 166
low impact, 20 Google Cloud Architecture
medium projects, 20 framework, 187
organization’s size, 19 Google Cloud Platform (GCP), 181,
risk assessment, 17, 18 187, 188
design, 28
digital technologies, 3–8
successful digital H
projects, 8–10 Human intelligence, 5
Distributed applications, 64 Hybrid approach, 200
Distributed denial-of-service Hybrid cloud, 4
(DDoS), 133, 183
Domain Name System (DNS), 183
I, J
Industry architectural
E frameworks, 197
Electronic health records (EHRs), Information architecture, 56, 59,
126, 163 62, 146, 149–151
Encryption, 170 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), 161
Enterprise architecture (EA), Integrating diverse systems, 1
129, 218 Integrating systems, 14, 15
application, 63 Internet of Things (IoT), 1, 189
business, 62
business processes, 55–59
information, 62 K
vs. SA, 61, 62 Kubernetes as a Service (KaaS),
technical, 62 199, 200
technology capabilities, 60 Kubernetes (K8s), 189

225
INDEX

Kubernetes (K8s) (cont.) R

hybrid approach, 200
Recovery point objectives
KaaS, 199
(RPO), 165
managed Kubernetes
Recovery time objectives
services, 198
(RTO), 165
self-managed, 198
Relational Database Service
(RDS), 182
L RESTful API-driven approach, 160
Laboratory information systems Return on investment (ROI), 118
(LIS), 126 Robotics technologies, 8
Royal Dutch Shell, 9

M
Machine learning algorithms, 97
S
Machine learning (ML), 4 Secure data handling system, 107
Manufacturing execution systems Security monitoring, 171
(MES), 133 Site reliability engineers
Metaverse, 6 (SREs), 137
MongoDB NoSQL database, 135 SMB-based (Server Message Block)
file, 182
Software as a Service (SaaS), 161
N Software development kits
Natural language processing (NLP) (SDKs), 136
techniques, 81 Solution architecture
Network security, 170 enterprise architecture (EA), 55
project lifecycle, 48, 49
O Solution requirements
OpenStack, 189 features, 96
functional, 96
AR use case, 97
P, Q new technologies, 100–102
Pair Programming, 205 process, 98–100
Platform as a Service (PaaS), 161 traditional
Proof of Concepts (POCs), 141–145 challenges, 103–105

226
 INDEX

non-functional, 105–108 architecture vs. design, 46, 47

AR application, 108–110 design/architecture, 44, 45
attributes, 107 organization, 64, 66
cloud-based technical architecture, 42
infrastructure, 108 typical phases/
user-friendly interface, 107 sub-­activities, 42, 43
project stakeholders, 96 technology options, 67
Solutions alignment, EA Strategic-level agreements
application architecture, (SLAs), 113
151, 152 Superapps, 6
data architecture vs.
information, 149–151
digital projects, 147 T, U
digital solutions, 153 Tanzu, 190
principles, 145 Target digital technology
standards/structures, 146 architecture
technology architecture, 148 creating application,
Solutions architect (SA), 62 157–159, 161
skills creating data, 162–167
build professional document, 121
relationships, 219 example, 122–124
business alignment, 216, 217 infrastructure, 154–157
certifications, 219 IoT-based system, 131–134
digital/IT management, 217 perform current technology
EA, 218 assessment
envision, 217 new solution, 125, 126
real world experience, 220 operational environment,
soft skills, 221, 222 128, 129
technical expertise, 216 organization
technical leadership role, 215 implementations, 126
Solutions architecture organization technical
EA, 70 standards, 129
examples, 68, 69 security/regulatory
vs. project lifecycle compliance status, 127

227
INDEX

Target digital technology LAMP, 135

architecture (cont.) Test-Driven Development
stakeholders, 128 (TDD), 205
technology assessment, 130 Typical solutions architecture
project deliverables, 174–177 typical tasks, 49, 50
risk assessment architecture/design, 50
cloud-based solutions, 172 development/testing
example, 172, 173 phase, 52
security, 168–171 key solution architecture
technology assessment, 130 deliverables, 54
Technical debt low-level design, 50–52
digital project, 205 operational roles, 53, 54
digital solutions, 209
example, 206–208
influence, 204, 205
V
solution architecture, 201–204 Virtual Private Cloud (VPC), 183
standards and frameworks, 200 Virtual private network (VPN), 155
Technology architecture, 148
Technology stacks
definition, 134 W, X, Y, Z
examples, 136, 137 Web Application Firewall
key considerations, 138–141 (WAF), 183

228