SCIENCE

COORDINATE FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS, ENDOCRINE, AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

Major Divisions and Parts of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

• the CNS serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system it consists of two main components, mainly the:

A. Brain
• this is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributer of information for the body
It has three main parts:

Cerebrum - large upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought (orange)

Cerebellum - the part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance, and coordination (blue)

Brain stem - the part that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic function such as breathing, digestion, heart rate,
and blood pressure.

B. Spinal Cord
• this serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body and controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without
from the brain.

1. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• the PNS connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs.

it has two main divisions:

A. Somatic Nervous System

• this system is associated with the voluntary control of body movements and has two main parts:

Spinal Nerves - the nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body.

Cranial Nerves - the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.

B. Autonomic Nervous System

• this system is associated with the involuntary control of body movements and has two main parts:

Sympathetic - it is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress (e.g. increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of pupil,
sweating, etc.)

Parasympathetic - it maintains body function and restores the body to normal or related mode.

SYSTEMS:
1. Integumentary System
2. Skeletal System
3. Muscular System
4. Endocrine System
5. Respiratory System
6. Digestive System
7. Reproductive System
8. Immune system
9. excretory system
10. Circulatory system
THE NERVE CELL
• Basic unit of the nervous system
• All called neurons
• Billion of neurons in the body
• There are twelve to fourteen billion of neurons in one part of the brain alone.
• A neuron has a cell body containing the nucleus.
• Projecting out from body are root-like structures.
•Dendrites carry impulses towards the cell body.
• A cell may have as many as 200 dendrites carrying impulses toward the cell body.
• A single dendrite can be over one meter long.
• Axons carry impulses away from the cell body.
• Axons pass impulses to the dendrites of other neurons or cell body of muscle cells.
• Axons can be grouped together into cable-like bundles called nerves.

THE NERVE IMPULSE

• sudden reversal of the electrical charge across the membrane of a resting neuron
• a combination of an electrical charge and chemical reaction
• not a flow of electricity but an electrochemical signal moving along neurons
• thoughts, emotions, learning and many body functions

NEUROTRANSMITTER
• When a nerve impulse comes to an end of an axon, it produces the chemical called neurotransmitter.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• Controls and regulates body processes
• In control of the mechanisms in the body that slowly take place
• Composed of glands that secrete different types of hormones
• Regulating growth and development, metabolism, as well as reproductive and mood

HOW DOES YOUR ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTION?

• Endocrine glands secrete chemicals known as hormones into the bloodstream
• When a hormone in the blood reaches the target organ, it produces a notable effect
• Sends signals all over the body but the effects can take a few hours or even weeks

ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

GLAND LOCATION HORMONES RELEASED FUNCTION

Pituitary Gland At the base of the Oxytocin, vasopressin,
brain Growth hormone, Stimulates growth and controls the
adrenocorticotropic hormone functions of other glands
(ACTH), Prolactin,
luteinizing hormone, Follicle
stimulating Hormone
Thyroid Below the voice box Thyroxin, calcitonin Regulates body metabolism and
causes storage of calcium in bones
Parathyroid In the neck Parathyromone Controls the calcium levels in your
body and normalizes bone growth
Thymus In front of the heart Thymosin Enables the body to produce
certain antibodies

adrenal On top of the kidneys adrenaline Prepares the body for action,
controls the heart rate & breathing
in times of emergency
Pancreas Between the kidneys Insulin, glucagon Regulates body sugar levels
reproductive
 testes (male)
- Lower abdomen - Androgen, - Control maturation and
testosterone male characteristics
 ovaries
(females) - Lower abdomen - Estrogen - female traits and support
progesterone reproductive function
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• System involved in sexual reproduction
• The tissues, glands and organs involve in producing offspring (children)
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

PART FUNCTION
Testis  Produces sperm cell
Scrotum  Sac of skin that holds the testis

Penis  Deposit sperms into the vagina during mating

Vas Deferens (tube)  Carries sperm from testes to urethra
Urethra  Carries sperm and urine out of the body
GLANDS  Provide liquid in which sperm can swim

 Seminal vesicle -Secretes a fluid that makes-up most of the components of the semen
 Prostate gland -Secretes a slightly alkaline milky fluid that is discharged as part of the semen
 Bulbourethal -Secretes a thick a clear mucus that lubricates and neutralize the any trace of acidic urine in the urethra
gland

Functions of male Reproductive System

• They produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and semen (the protective fluid around sperm)
• They discharge sperm into the female reproductive tract
• They produce and secrete male sex hormones

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

PARTS FUNCTION
OVARY  Produce egg cells
OVIDUCT (Fallopian  Serves as passageway of eggs from the ovary to the uterus; site of the egg fertilization
tube)
UTERUS  Serves as site of egg implantation; is where the fertilized egg develops
VAGINA  Receives the penis of male during mating

Functions of Female Reproductive System

• Produces female sex cells
• Receives sperm cells from the male
• Nurtures the development of and provides nourishment for the new individual

COORDINATED FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS, ENDOCRINE AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

BREASTFEEDING
• The brain commands the mother's body to be nurturing towards the baby through breastfeeding. In order to produce milk hormones
such as prolactin and oxytocin are needed.
PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH
• Correct balance of sex hormones progesterone and estrogen is required throughout pregnancy with levels steadily rising until the
birth of the baby. Until the mother's body has adapted to the higher levels of these hormones, mood swings can be very common as
they also act on the nervous system, specifically the brain.

COPULATION
• As the brain processes physical stimulation, the sex organs perform their corresponding biological functions. The sex glands in the
endocrine system then produce secretions that are necessary for reproduction.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

THE FEEDBACK MECHANISM IN MENSTRUAL CYCLE

 An ovary releases on egg cell every 28 days

Menstrual cycle is the monthly hormonal cycle a female's body goes through to prepare for pregnancy

Ovulation - release of an egg from your ovary, into your fallopian tube

Menstruation - when blood and tissue from uterus comes out from vagina

Ovarian cycle - includes the events that occur in the ovary

Uterine cycle - events that occur in the uterus

MENSTRUAL PHASE
• typically lasts from 1 to 5 days
• this is when menstruation occurs
• blood and endometrial tissues detach from the inside of the uterus to the vagina and then out of the body
menstrual cramps happen because of contractions in the uterus or womb

FOLLICULAR PHASE
• (6-13 days) the endometrium in the uterus begins to build up again
• several follicles start maturing in the ovaries

OVULATION PHASE
• (day 14) a matured oocyte or egg cell will be released from the ovary

LUTEAL PHASE
• (15-28 days) endometrium of the uterus continues to prepare for fertilized egg
• the uterine lining becomes thicker and develops more blood vessels
• the mature follicle that just released its egg develops into a structure called a corpus luteum
1. The fertilized egg will be implanted in the endometrium of the uterus
2. The endometrium will break down, leading to menstruation
Feedback mechanism in menstrual cycle
HOMEOSTASIS
- Homeostasis is the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living organisms.
- Homeostasis is attained through regulation of the bodily functions of the endocrine and nervous system.
FEEDBACK MECHANISM
- is the process through which the level of one substance influences the level of another substance.
- The levels of hormones in the body are controlled by feedback.
1. Negative feedback involves a response that is the reverse of the change detected. Ex. Thermoregulation
2. Positive feedback involves response that reinforces the change detected. Ex. Childbirth

ACHIEVING HOMEOSTASIS
1. Body temperature
2. Amount of water in the body
3. Metabolic waste in the cell
4. Calcium level
5. Hormones in the blood

THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

 Human reproductive cycles are controlled by the interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary with
hormones from reproductive organs.
 In both sexes the hypothalamus monitors and causes the release of hormones from the pituitary gland
 When the reproductive hormone is required the hypothalamus sends a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (gnrh) to the anterior
pituitary gland. This causes the the release of follicle stimulatinf hormones (FSH) and lunteinizing hormones (LH) from the
anterior pituitary gland into the blood.
 The body must reach puberty in order for the adrenal glands to relese the hormones that must be present for gnrh to be produced

REGULATION OF REPRODUCTIVE HORMONE SECRETION IN MALES

1. At start of puberty the hypothalmus will release gnrh to stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to produce and release LH and FSH.
2. The fsh and lh release by the puititary gland will travel into the male reproductive system.
3. Follicle enters the testes and stimulates the sertoli cells to begin facilitating spermtogenesis using negative feedback
4. Neotronizing hormone(LH) also enters the testes and stimulates the interstitial cells of leydig to make and release testos terone
into the testes and the blood.
5. A negative feedback syste occurs in the male with rising levels of testosterone acting on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to
inhibit the release of gnrh, FSH, and LH.
6. The sertoli cells produce the hotmone inhibin which is release into the blood when the sperm count is too high.
7. The hormone inhibin stops the release of gnrh and FSH, which will cause spermatogenisis to slow down.
8. However if the sperm count reaches 20 million per milliliters, the sertolicells stop the release of inhibin and the sperm count
increases again.

REGULATION OF REPRODUCTIVE HORMONE SECRETION IN MALES

1. The gnrh from the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release the hormones FSH and LH into the ovaries.
2. The luteinizing hormones and follicle stimulating hormones stimulate the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone.
3. Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates development of egg cells called ova, which develop in structures called follicles.
4. Follicle cells produce the hormone inhibin, which stops FSH production. This gives negative feedback in the female reproductive
system

TESTOSTERONE – stimulates spermatogenesis

Characteristics:
 Deepening of the voice
 Growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair
 Beginnings of the sexual urge
ESTROGEN - assists in endometrial regrowth, ovulation, ana calcium absorption
Characteristics:
 Breast development
 Widening of hips
  Shorter period necessary for bone maturation.
PROGESTERONE
 Assists in endometrial re-growth
 Inhibition of the release of FSH and LH

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

 is the genetic material of organisms. A DNA is a double helix molecule composed of two complementary strands of
deoxyribonucleotides units. The complementary base pairs of the DNA are held by hydrogen bonds.

 The central dogma of the transfer of genetic information states that the sequence involved in the expression of hereditary
characteristics is from DNA to RNA to proteins.

Genes - segments of DNA that may code for RNA or proteins.

 Most sequences of three bases in the DNA of a gene code for a single amino acid in a protein.

Transcription - is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).

There are three major types of RNA in the cell and their functions:

1) mRNA - carries the information from DNA to the ribosomes.

2) tRNA - translates the genetic message carried by the mRNA through protein synthesis.

3) rRNA - forms the structural component of the ribosome.

Ribosomal RNA

 serves as the site for attachment of mRNA and tRNA and for protein synthesis

Translation

 is a process which determines the order of bases in mRNA of amino acids into a protein. It occurs in a ribosome in the cytoplasm.

mutation

 is a change in the base sequence of DNA. Mutations may affect only one gene, or they may affect whole chromosomes.
 Mutations in eggs or sperm may affect future generations by transmitting these changes in the offsprings. Mutations in non-sex
(somatic) cells only are not hereditary.

recombinant DNA

 When DNA from two different species are joined together.

 This process uses restriction enzymes to cleave one organism's DNA into fragments and other enzymes to splice the DNA fragment
into a plasmid or viral DNA.

Glossary of Terms

1. Amino acid
 the building blocks of a protein molecule

2. Anticodon
 the complement of the mRNA; triplet code in the tRNA

3. Chromosomal mutations
 changes in the chromosomes where parts of the chromosomes are broken and lost during mitosis.
4. Codon
 each set of three nitrogenous bases in mRNA representing an amino acid or a start/stop signal

5. DNA replication
 process in which the DNA is copied

6. Genetic code
 set of rules that specify the codons in DNA or RNA that corresponds to the amino acids in proteins

7. mRNA
 messenger RNA; brings information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm

8. Mutation
 any change in the DNA sequence.

9. Nitrogenous base
 is a carbon ring structure that contains one or more atoms of nitrogen. In DNA, there are four possible nitrogen bases:
adenine(A), thymine(T), cytosine (C) and guanine(G)

10. Recombinant DNA

 a form of DNA produced by combining genetic material from two or more different sources by means of genetic engineering

11. rRNA
 ribosomal RNA; hold tightly to the mRNA and use

12. Transcription
 its information to assemble amino acids process of copying DNA sequence into RNA.

13. Translation
 process of converting information in mRNA into a sequence of amino acids in a protein.

14. tRNA
 transfer RNA; a type of RNA that attach the correct amino acid to the protein chain that is being synthesized in the
ribosome.
 HEREDITY: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

GENETIC DISORDERS-the gain or loss of chromosome material

CRI du Chat - is caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5, is French and the condition is so named because
affected babies make high pitched cries that sound like a cat.

Down's syndrome - caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21) decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical
skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate mental retardation

Edward's syndrome - 2d most common trisomy of chromosome 18

Jacobsen syndrome- is also called terminal 11q deletion disorder.

Klinefelters syndrome-(XXY)-usually sterile and tend to have longer arms and legs and to be taller than their peers.

Tumer's syndrome- (X instead of XX ox XY) female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. Short stature, low hairline

BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

EVOLUTION-Evolution is continuous

Evolution refers to change

If there is mutation there is evolution

FOSSILS- are examples of evidences that paleontologists use in studying evolution.

Traces of organisms that lived in the past and were preserved by natural process or catastrophic events

Most fossils are commonly found in sedimentary rocks

IMPRINT OR IMPRESSION-type of fossil that are shallow external molds left by animal or plant tissues with little or no organic
materials present.

COMPRESSION-other side with more organic material

RELATIVE DATING-is a method used to determine the age of the rocks by comparing them with the rocks in the other layer

INVERTEBRATES - are probably one of the first and oldest organisms that lived on earth

CARBON-14-method is through the use of radioactive isotopes

Used to tell the age of organic materials

RADIOMETRIC DATING- is a method used to determine the age of rocks using the decay of radioactive isotopes present in rocks

PALEOZOIC-era where the oldest fossil can be found

HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE-parts of different organisms that are similar in structure but serve different functions.

(Example: forelimb of dog, bird, lizard and whale which are structurally the same)
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