UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................2
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS............................................................................................2
SI BASE QUANTITIES AND UNITS........................................................................................................2
SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS....................................................................................................................3
SOME COMMON UNITS.....................................................................................................................3
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS / SIGNIFICANT FIGURES....................................................................................4
Rules for determining the number of significant figures:..............................................................4
RULES FOR ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS WITH SIGNIFICANT FIGURES.................................................5
ROUNDING OFF UNCERTAIN DIGITS..................................................................................................6
RULES FOR DETERMINING UNCERTAINITY IN RESULTS OF ARITHMETIC CALCULATIONS..................6
DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES............................................................................................8
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS............................................................8
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONS..............................................................................9
Checking the Homegenity / dimensional consistency of Equations...............................................9
DEDUCING RELATION AMONG THE PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.............................................................10
INTRODUCTION
 Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic,
arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called UNIT.
 Measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a number (or numerical measure)
accompanied by a unit. Example: 24 meters
 A limited number of units is used for expressing all the physical quantities, since they are
interrelated with one another.
 The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called FUNDAMENTAL or BASE
UNITS.
 The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as combinations of the base
units. Such units obtained for the derived quantities are called DERIVED UNITS.
 A complete set of these units, both the base units and derived units, is known as the
SYSTEM OF UNITS.
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS system were in use extensively. The base units
for length, mass and time in these systems were as follows:
• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second respectively.
The system of units internationally accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale
d’ Unites (French for International System of Units), abbreviated as SI.
The SI, with standard scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations, developed by the Bureau
International des Poids et measures (The International Bureau of Weights and Measures,
BIPM) in 1971 were recently revised by the General Conference on Weights and Measures
in November 2018. The scheme is now for international usage in scientific, technical,
industrial and commercial work. Because SI units used decimal system, conversions within
the system are quite simple and convenient.
In SI there are 7 base units and 2 supplementary units.
SI BASE QUANTITIES AND UNITS
Base Quantity Name Unit
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric Ampere A
Thermal dynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance Mole Mol
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS
The plane angle dθ is the ratio of length of arc ds to the radius r , as shown in Fig. 1.1(a),
Unit for plane angle is radian, with symbol rad.
The plane angle (dθ) is the angle of rotation of two intersecting lines that are required to
make the two lines overlap. dθ can be described as the infinitesimally small change in the
angle between 2 intersecting lines that can be computed as the infinitesimally small change
in the length of the arc upon the radius R. i.e. dθ = dl/R. The plane angle is a two
dimensional angle.
The solid angle dΩ as the ratio of the intercepted area dA of the spherical surface, described
about the apex O as the centre, to the square of its radius r, as shown in Fig. 1.1(b). The unit
for the solid angle is steradian with the symbol sr. The solid angle is a three dimensional
angle.
In geometry, a solid angle is a measure of the amount of the field of view from some
particular point that a given object covers. That is, it is a measure of how large the object
appears to an observer looking from that point. The point from which the object is viewed is
called the apex of the solid angle, and the object is said to subtend its solid angle at that
point.
Formula to find the solid angle is, if A is the area of a part of the spherical surface, and r is
the radius of the sphere, then the solid angle is given as Ω = A /r 2
Both these are dimensionless quantities

SOME COMMON UNITS

Name Symbol Value in SI U
minute Min 60 s
hour H 60 min = 360
Day d 24h = 86400
year Y 365.25d = 3.1
degree 1 = (/ 180
Litre L 1 dm3 = 10-3 m
tonne t 103 kg
carrat c 200 mg
bar bar 0.1 MPa = 10
curie Ci 3.7 X 1010 s-1
roentgen R 2.58 X 10-4 C/
quintal q 100 kg
barn b 100 fm2 = 10
are a 1 dam2 = 102
Hectare ha 1 hm2 = 104 m
 Standard atmospheric pressure atm 101325 Pa = 1.013 X 105 Pa

Note: When mole is used , the elementary entities should be specified – which could be
atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles or specified groups of such particles.
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS / SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
 Every measurement involves errors. So, the measurement should be reported with
precision. Normally, the reported result will have a number, which includes all digits that
are reliably plus and the first digit that is uncertain.
 The reliable digits plus the first digit are known as significant digits or significant figures.
Example: Let’s say period of oscillation of a pendulum is 1.83 s. Digits 1 and 8 are reliable
and certain, whereas 3 is uncertain.
 Significant figures indicate the precision of measurement that depends on the least
count of the measuring instrument. Note, the smallest value that can be measured by
the measuring instrument is called its least count
Rules for determining the number of significant figures:
1. Change/choice of different units does not change the number of significant digits or
figures in a measurement. Example 2.308 cm = 23.08 mm = 23080 µm = 0.02308m.
In all these, there are four significant figures: 2,3,0,8. This reveals that decimal point
location does not impact in finding the number of significant figures.
2. All the non-zero digits are significant
3. All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the
decimal point is located.
4. If the number is less than 1, the zeros after the decimal point and before the first
non-zero digit are NOT significant. Ex: in 0.00349, underlined zeros are not
significant.
5. The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are not
significant
6. The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant. Ex: In
0.3500, 0.004600 – there are four significant figures each.
7. Trailing zeros in a number with decimal point are significant. And these zeros are
meant to convey the precision of measurement. Ex: 4.7 m or 4.700 m.
8. To get an approximate/estimated value of the number if ‘a’ value is less than or
equal 5, then ‘a’ is considered as 1. If ‘a’ value is greater than 5 then it is considered
as 10. So the number is expressed simply in terms of 10b. In this, the power b is
called as Order of Magnitude of the physical quantity. For example, the diameter of
earth is 1.28 X 107
Here the order of magnitude is 7. In diameter of Hydrogen atom: 1.06 X 10 -10.The
order of magnitude is -10. So, diameter of earth is 17 orders greater than that of the
Hydrogen atom.
9. To remove ambiguities in determining the number of significant figures, best way is
to report every measurement in scientific notation in the power of 10, that is, in the
format of a X 10b, where a is between 1 and 10 , b is positive or negative exponent
(power) of 10.
 In scientific notation, the decimal point is written after the first digit to avoid
confusion. Let us consider the base number 4.700 m.
4.700 m = 4.700 X 102 cm = 4.700 X 103 mm = 4.700 X 10-3 km
Power of 10 does not impact in determining the significant figures. However zeros in
the base number is considered. (as per point 6 above). Here there are 4 significant
figures.
10. Only the scientific notation is ideal for reporting measurement. If not used, then
follow these two rules:
For a number > 1 without any decimal, trailing zeros are not significant
For a number with a decimal, the trailing zeros are significant
11. The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a decimal for a number less than 1 (like
0.1250) is never significant. However, zeroes at end of such number are significant in
measurement.
12. The multiplying or dividing factors that are exact values have infinite number of
d
significant digits. For example in r= = or s = 2πr, the factor 2 is an exact number
2
and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00 or 2.0000 as required.
RULES FOR ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS WITH SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Values with limited number of significant figures would reflect uncertainties in original
measured values. Generally, the final result should not have more significant figures than
the original data from which it was obtained. For example, let mass be 4.237 g, volume be
2.51 cm3, its density by arithmetic division is 1.68804780876 g/cm3 upto 11 decimal places.
It is not necessary to have such precision. Following two rules for arithmetic operations
ensure final calculation result is shown with precision that is consistent with input precision:
Rule 1: In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many significant figures
as are there in the original number with the least significant figures
Rule 2: In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal places as
are there in the number with the least decimal places.
Rule 1 details:
Example 1: Density example as above would be reported to three significant figures
Density = 4.237 g / 2.52 cm3 = 1.69 g cm-3
Example 2: If speed of light is 3.00 X 108 m s-1 (three significant figures) and one year
( 365.25 days) has 3.1557 X 107 s (five significant figures) the light year will have the least
significant figures: three in this case 9.47 X 1015 m.
Rule 2 details:
Example 1: Adding 436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g gives 663.821 g. Here the least precise
measurement is with 227.2, which is to only one decimal place. Therefore final result should
be rounded to 663.8 g.
Example 2: 0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m = 3 ×10 –3 m
Note: Do not apply rule 1 for addition and subtraction and write it as 3.00 X 10 –3 m. It is
incorrect.
ROUNDING OFF UNCERTAIN DIGITS
Result with more than one uncertain digit should be rounded off. Number 2.746, when
rounded off to three significant figures is 2.75.
Few rules:
Rule 1: the preceding digit is increased by 1 if the insignificant digit to be dropped (the
underlined digit in this case: 6) is > 5, and is left unchanged if the latter is less than 5.
Rule 2: if the preceding digit is even, the insignificant digit is simply dropped and, if it is odd,
the preceding digit is raised by 1. Example: the number 2.745 rounded off to three
significant figures becomes 2.74. On the other hand, the number 2.735 rounded off to three
significant figures becomes 2.74 since the preceding digit is odd.
Rule 3: In multiple step calculations, retain one digit more than significant digits in all the
intermediate steps and round off to proper significant figures at the end of calculation.

Rule 4: The exact numbers that appear in the formulae like 2 π in T = 2π

√ L
g
.

The value of π = 3.1415926.... is known to a large number of significant figures. We can take
value as 3.142 or 3.14 for π, with limited number of significant figures as required in specific
cases.
RULES FOR DETERMINING UNCERTAINITY IN RESULTS OF ARITHMETIC CALCULATIONS
1. The error of the product of two (or more) experimental values, is represented using the
combination of errors rule. Combination of errors is how the errors in measurements
combine in various mathematical operations.
Combination of Errors in addition/subtraction: Let x = a + b or x = a- b
If the measured values of two quantities a and b are (a ± Δa) and (b ± Δb), then maximum
absolute error in their addition or subtraction is Δx = ± (Δa + Δb)
Combination of Errors in Multiplication or Combination of Errors in Division:
Let x = a x b or x = a/b
If the measured values of a and b are (a ± Δa) and (b ± Δb), then maximum relative error in
multiplication or division is ( Δa/a + Δb/b)
Example: Length and Breadth of a thin rectangular sheet: 16.2 cm and 10.1 cm
l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm
Representing this 0.1 cm in terms of error percentage – it is 0.1/ 16.2 = 0.006 = 0.6%
l = 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %.
b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm = 10.1 cm ± 1 %
 Now l X b = 163.62 cm2 + 1.6% = 163.62 + 2.6 cm2
The final result is b = 164 ± 3 cm2
Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the estimation of area of rectangular sheet.
2. If a set of experimental data is specified to n significant figures, the result obtained by
combining the data will also be valid to n significant figures. However, if data are subtracted,
the number of significant figures can be reduced.
In example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g, both have three significant figures. The answer is 5.8 g only as
uncertainties in addition or subtraction, take the smallest number of decimal places (here
one in 12.9 g) rather than the number of significant figures in any of the number added or
subtracted.
3. The relative error of a value of number specified to significant figures depends not only
on n but also on the number itself.
For example, the accuracy in measurement of mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g. The relative error in 1.02 g is
= (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 %
= ± 1%
Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is
= (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 %
= ± 0.1 %
4. Intermediate steps in multi-step calculation should consider one digit more than
significant digits, in the least precise measurement. Otherwise rounding errors will build.
Example: Reciprocal of 9.58 (after rounding off) gives 0.104. But the reciprocal of 0.104 is
9.62 and not 9.58, which is incorrect. However, if we had written 1/9.58 = 0.1044 and then
taken the reciprocal to three significant figures, we would have retrieved the original value
of 9.58.
DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
1. The nature of a physical quantity is described by its dimensions. All physical
quantities represented by derived units can be expressed in terms of some
combination of seven fundamental or base quantities.
2. The 7 base quantities are called as the seven dimensions of the physical world, which
are denoted with square brackets [ ].
3. Length has the dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current [A],
thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous intensity [cd], and amount of substance
[mol].
4. The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the
base quantities are raised to represent that quantity.
 5. Note that using the square brackets [ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing
with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity
6. In mechanics, all hysical quantities can be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M]
and [T]. For example, the volume of an object is product of length, breadth and
height, or three lengths. Hence the dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L] 3 = [L3
]. As the volume is independent of mass and time, it is said to possess zero
dimension in mass [M°], zero dimension in time [T°] and three dimensions in length.
7. Force, the product of mass and acceleration, can be expressed as Force = mass ×
acceleration = mass × (length)/(time)2
8. The dimensions of force are [M] [L]/[T]2 = [M L T –2 ]. Thus, the force has one
dimension in mass, one dimension in length and -2 dimension in time. The
dimensions in all other base quantities are zero.
9. Note, the magnitude is not considered here. Only the type of physical quantity is
considered. Thus a change in velocity, initial velocity, average velocity, final velocity
and speed are all equivalent in this context.
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represent the dimensions
of a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical quantity.
For example, the dimensional formula of the volume is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or
velocity is [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional formula of acceleration and [M L –
3
T°] that of mass density.
An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called
the dimensional equation of the physical quantity. The dimensions of a physical quantity are
represented in terms of the base quantities in a dimensional formula.
For example, the dimensional equations of volume [V], speed [v], force [F ] and mass density
[ρ] may be expressed as
[V] = [M0 L3 T0 ]
[v] = [M0 L T–1]
[F] = [M L T–2]
[ρ] = [M L–3 T0]
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
A thorough understanding of dimensional analysis helps in deducing certain relations among
different physical quantities and checking the derivation, accuracy and dimensional
consistency or homogeneity of various mathematical expressions.
When magnitudes of two or more physical quantities are multiplied, their units should be
treated in the same manner as ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel identical units in
the numerator and denominator. The same is true for dimensions of a physical quantity.
Similarly, physical quantities represented by symbols on both sides of a mathematical
equation must have the same dimensions.
Checking the Homegenity / dimensional consistency of Equations
The magnitudes of physical quantities may be added together or subtracted from one
another only if they have the same dimensions. That is, we can add or subtract similar
physical quantities. Thus, velocity cannot be added to force, or an electric current cannot be
subtracted from the thermodynamic temperature. This simple principle called the principle
of homogeneity of dimensions in an equation is extremely useful in checking the correctness
of an equation.
Dimensions are used as a preliminary test of the consistency of an equation, when there is
some doubt about the correctness of the equation. However, the dimensional consistency
does not guarantee correct equations.
It is uncertain to find consistency of dimensionless quantities or functions. The arguments of
special functions, such as the trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions are
dimensionless. For example: a pure number or a ratio of similar physical quantities (say
angle as ratio of length to length or refractive index as ratio of speed of light in vacuum to
speed of light in medium etc) as no dimensions.
Let us test the dimensional consistency or homogeneity of the equation

x = x 0 + v0 t + ( 12 ) α t 2

for the distance x travelled by a particle or body in time t which starts from the position x 0
with an initial velocity v0 at time t = 0 and has uniform acceleration a along the direction of
motion. The dimensions of each term may be written as

[x] = [L]
[x0 ] = [L]
[v0 t] = [L T–1] [T] = [L]
[(1/2) α t2] = [L T–2] [T2]
Each term on RHS and LHS has same dimension and hence this equation is dimensionally
correct equation. If an equation fails this consistency test, it is proved wrong, but if it passes,
it is not proved right. Thus, a dimensionally correct equation need not be actually an exact
(correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong (incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be
wrong.
DEDUCING RELATION AMONG THE PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Method of dimensions can be used to deduce relation up to three physical quantities or
linearly independent variables. For example, consider a bob in pendulum oscillates under
gravitational force. Oscillation period T depends on length of string, l and mass of bob, m
and acceleration due to gravity g.

T = = k l x gy m z
where k is dimensionless constant and x, y and z are the exponents. By considering
dimensions on both sides, we have

[L0 M0 T1]=[L1 ]x [L1 T -2] [M1 ]z = Lx+y T–2y Mz

On equating the dimensions on both sides, we have

x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0
1 1
x = 2 , y = - 2 , z=0

T=kl½g½
l
T=k√g

Value of k cannot be got from dimensions method and it does not affect the dimensions.
l
We know k = 2 π. Therefore T = 2 π√
g
Points to remember:

 Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing relations among the interdependent

physical quantities.
 Dimensionless constants cannot be obtained by this method.
 The method of dimensions can only test the dimensional validity, but not the exact
relationship between physical quantities in any equation.
 It does not distinguish between the physical quantities having same dimensions.