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CHAPTER-1 : INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS

1.1 Force and characteristics of a force, Force system: - Definition,

classification of force system according to plane and line of action

Engineering mechanics is a branch of physics which deals with the application of

mechanics to solve various engineering problems. It describes the behaviour of a body
either in the state of rest or in motion subjected to the action of forces. Applied mechanics
bridges the gap between physical theory and its application to technology. It is used in many
fields of engineering especially mechanical and civil engineering.

Strength of materials deals with the behaviour of solid bodies subjected to stresses and strains
based on the elastic and plastic behaviour. It is applied to solid materials and hence It can also
be called as mechanics of materials.

Force : It is an external agency tends to produce or destroy motion. It is a vector

quantity and its unit is N.

Characteristics of a force :

It has magnitude, Direction, Line of action and point of application.

In fig, the line AB represents line of action, C is the point of application, 40o represents its
direction and 4 KN represents its magnitude.

Force system: It is a system in which two or more forces act on a body.

Classification of force system :

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PARALLEL FORCE SYSTEM :

Like : Parallel forces act in the same direction.

Unlike Parallel Forces: Parallel forces do not act in the same direction.

Composition of Forces : The process of finding out the resultant force of the given
component forces.

Resultant Forces : It is a single force which produces the same effect as that of all the given
forces.

Principle of transmissibility of Forces : It states that a force can be transmitted from one
point to another along the same line of action such that its effect produced by the force on a
body remains unchanged.

Moment of a force : It is the product of force and perpendicular distance between the line of
action and the point about which the moment is required. It gives the turning effect on a body
on which it acts.

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Couple : Two parallel forces equal in magnitude and opposite in direction separated by a
distance to form a couple. The effect of a couple is to produce a rotation in a specific
direction though the resultant force is zero.

Example : Steering wheel of a vehicle, Opening and closing of a valve.

Difference between a Moment and a Couple :

MOMENT COUPLE
Its magnitude is equal to the product of force Its magnitude is equal to the product of
and perpendicular distance. magnitude of one force and the perpendicular
distance between two forces.
Moment of the force may or may not be Moment of couple can never be zero.
equal to zero.
Resultant is not equal to zero. Resultant is equal to zero.

It has different effect about different points. It has the same effect at any point on the
body.
There must be a force and a perpendicular There must be two equal and opposite forces
distance separated by a definite distance.

Conditions of Equilibrium : It states that the algebraic sum of all the external forces as well
as moments about any point in their plane is equal to zero. ∑V = 0, ∑H = 0 and ∑M = 0.

1.3

Simple Problems on forces :

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CHAPTER – 3 : GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS

Centroid, centre of gravity, Concept of moment of inertia, Centre of gravity of plane

areas such as rectangle, triangle, circle, semicircle and quarter circle

Centroid :

It is defined as the point at which where the entire area of the lamina (plane figure) is
assumed to be concentrated.

Centroid for some of the basic sections:

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Centre of Gravity :

It is the point at which where the whole weight of the body is assumed to be concentrated.

Concept of Moment of Inertia :

Moment of inertia ' I ' is the measure of an object's resistance to change in direction of
rotation. Mathematically it can be defined as the product of its area and the square of the
distance from the X-axis.

It is a sectional property and its quantity is always positive. It can also be called as second
moment of area. Its unit is mm4

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Parallel axis and

perpendicular axis theorem, Radius of gyration & polar moment of inertia

PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM :

The moment of area of an object about any axis parallel to the centroidal axis is the sum of
MI about its centroidal axis and the product of area `with the square of distance from the
reference axis.

IG= Gross moment of inertia about its centroidal axis

A = Cross sectional area

h = Perpendicular distance between the centroidal axis and the parallel axis.

Ixx = Moment of inertia about centroidal xx axes.

PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM :

The moment of inertia of a plane area about an axis normal to the plane is equal to the sum of the
moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular axes lying in the plane and passing
through the given axis.

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Izz = Moment of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes (Polar moment of inertia)
Ixx = Moment of inertia about centroidal xx axes.
Iyy = Moment of inertia about centroidal yy axes.

Problems on C.G of irregular sections

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PROBLEMS ON CG :

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3.4

M.I of symmetrical and unsymmetrical sections (I, T, C, L- section) problems

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PROBLEMS ON MI :

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CHAPTER-4 : BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCE

BEAM : A beam is a horizontal member subjected to a system of external forces at right

angle to its axis.

CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS : Based on end conditions

1. Cantilever beam

2. Simply supported beam

3. Overhanging beam – One side and Double side overhang beam

4. Fixed beam

5. Continuous beam

6. Propped Cantilever

CANTILEVER BEAM : One end of the beam is fixed and the other end is free.

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM : Both the ends are simply resting on supports without
fixing or freely supported at both ends ( i.e. M=0)

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OVERHANGING BEAM : If the one end of the beam is projected beyond the support is
called as one side overhang and if both the ends of the beam is projected beyond the support
is called as double overhang.

FIXED BEAM :

A beam having its both ends rigidly fixed to its columns or built into its supporting wall such
that their end slopes remain zero.

CONTINOUS BEAM :

A beam supported on more than two supports is known as continuous beam.

TYPES OF LOAD : Following are the different types of loads

Point load (Concentrated load)
Uniformly distributed load
Uniform varying load
Externally applied moments

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Concentrated or point load : The load acting at a point on a beam section.

Uniformly distributed load : The load spreading over the entire length of the beam or part
thereof at a uniform rate .

Example : Self weight of structure, wall load and slab load etc.

Uniformly varying load : The load spreading over the entire length of the beam or a part of
a beam at uniformly varying rate is called as uniformly varying load.

UVL

w / unit length

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Support Reactions for Determinate Structures :

A beam may have following kinds of support

Roller support : A roller support can sustain a force only normal to its surface as the
possible movement on the supporting surface does not allow any resistance in that direction.
The reaction along the rolling surface is zero and it allows the rotation of the body.

Hinged support : Hinged support does not allow translational displacement of the beam but
it allows the free rotation. It sustain reactions in both vertical and horizontal directions.

Simply support : A wall support without buil-in.

Fixed or built-in support : Fixed support is a rigid support which does not allow any type of
movement or rotation. It exerts a fixing moment and a reaction on the beam.

SHEAR FORCE (SF or V) : Shear force at any section may be defined as the
algebraic sum of all the vertical forces either to the left or right side of the section or
unbalanced vertical force. The maximum shear force always occurs at its supports.

BENDING MOMENT : The bending moment at any section may be defined as the
algebraic sum of the moment of all the forces either to the left or right of the section or the
moment which causes the bending effect on the beam is called Bending Moment. It is
generally denoted by ‘M’ or ‘BM’.

Sign convention for Shear Force and Bending Moments :

The shear force and bending moments are vector quantities and the following sign
conventions are generally used.

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Sign convention for shear force : The shear force is positive if it tends to move left portion
upward relative to the right portion and vise versa.

Positive shear force Negative shear force

Sign convention for bending moment :

The bending moment is considered as Sagging Bending Moment if it tends to bend the beam
to a curvature having convexity at the bottom as shown in the figure given below. Sagging
bending moment is considered as positive bending moment.

Sagging bending moment [Positive bending moment ]

The bending moment is considered as hogging bending moment if it tends to bend the beam
to a curvature having convexity at the top as shown in the figure given below. Hogging
Bending Moment is considered as Negative Bending Moment.

Hogging bending moment [Negative bending moment ]

Relation between Bending moment, Shear force and Rate of loading :

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Nature of SF and BM variation

Load SF BM
No load Constant Linear
Uniformly distributed Linear Parabolic
Uniformly varying Parabolic Cubic

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams (SFD & BMD)

Shear Force Diagram (SFD) : The diagram which shows the variation of shear force along
the length of the beam is called Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) : The diagram which shows the variation of bending
moment along the length of the beam is called Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)

Significance of SFD and BMD :

 Structural members are designed based on the maximum shear force and maximum
bending moment which are depending on the span, type of load and end conditions.

 Based on BM diagram, slope and deflection can be determined by moment area

method.

Point of Contra flexure : It is a point at which where the bending moment changes its
sign (From positive to negative and vice versa). It occurs only in over hanging beams. BM is
zero at this point.

Simply supported beam carrying central point load :

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W
2

W

2
W
2

L W L WL
 RB    
2 2 2 4

Simply supported beam carrying udl

WL
2
WL

2

WL
2
0
L L L
RB  W  
2 2 4
WL WL WL2
2 2
 
4 8 8
0

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Cantilever beam carrying point load at free end :

Cantilever beam carrying udl :

L WL2
W  L  
2 2

STANDARD CASES :

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Salient Features of SFD and BMD :

1. If there is no loading between any two sections, SFD will be a horizontal line
2. The SFD consists of rectangles in case of point loads and inclined lines for the portion
of UDL.
3. BM is zero at supports of simply supported beam.
4. BM is zero at free end for cantilever beam and maximum at fixed end.
5. Maximum BM occurs where SF changes its sign.
6. The BMD consists of inclined lines in case of point loads and parabolic curve for the
portion of UDL.
7. In case of over hanging beam, maximum SF occurs at supports. Maximum sagging
BM occurs between the supports and maximum hogging BM occurs at support next to
free end. BM is zero at free end.

Sections for Shear Force and Bending Moment Calculations :

SF and BM are to be calculated at various salient loaded points of the beam to draw SFD
and BMD.

These sections are generally considered on the beam where the magnitude of shear force
and bending moments are changing abruptly.

EXAMPLE :

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Shear Force calculation:

SF at D= 8kN
SF at C=8+5=13kN
SF at B=13+3=16kN
SF at A=16kN
Bending moment
calculation:
BM at D=0
BM at C=8x2=16kN-m
BM at D=8x4+5x2
=42kN-m
BM at A=8x6+5x4+3x2
=74kN-m

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PROBLEMS :

CANTILEVER BEAMS :

 A cantilever beam 4 m long carries point loads of 3kN at free end. Draw SFD
and BMD

 A cantilever beam 5m long carries point loads of 5kN and 3kN at free end and
3m from free end . Draw SFD and BMD

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 A cantilever beam 5 m long carries point loads of 2kN, 3kN and 3kN at 1, 3 and
5metre from the fixed end. Draw SFD and BMD

 A cantilever beam 4m long carries a UDL of intensity 5kN/m through out the
span. Draw SFD and BMD.

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 A cantilever beam 4m long carries a UDL of intensity 5kN/m for a span of 2m

from the free end . Draw SFD and BMD.

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 A cantilever beam 4m long carries a point load of 3kN at the free end. It also
carries a UDL of 5kN/m for a span of 2m from the fixed end.

 A cantilever beam of 4m long carries a point load of 3kN at the free end. It also
carries an UDL of 5kN/m for the entire span. Draw SFD and BMD.

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 A cantilever beam of 4m span carries a point load of 3kN at the free end ,it
carries another point load of 2kN at a distance of 1m from the free end . It also
carries a UDL of 5kN/m for a span of 2m from the fixed end.

 A cantilever beam carries two point loads 2kN and 3kN at the distances of 1m
and 2m from the fixed end respectively. It also carries a UDL of 5kN/m intensity
spread over 2m from the free end. Draw SFD and BMD.

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SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS:

 A simply supported beam of 6m span carries a point load of 10kN at 2m from

the left support. Draw SFD and BMD.

 A simply supported beam 6m long carries two point loads of equal magnitude
10kN at distances of 2m from the left support and 2m from the right support
respectively. Draw SFD and BMD.

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 A SSB of 6.5m span carries three point loads 20kN , 40kN and 60kN at distances
of 1.5m , 3.5m and 5.5m respectively . Draw SFD and BMD.

 A simply supported beam 6m long carries a UDL of 5kN/m for the entire span.
Draw SFD and BMD.

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 Draw SFD and BMD for a SSB of span 6m carrying a UDL of 5kN/m spread
over 3m span from the left support.

 A SSB 6m long carries a UDL 5kN/m over a span of 3m from the right support.
Draw SFD and BMD.

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 A simply supported beam 6m long carries a UDL of 5kN/m spread over a span of
3m at a distance of 1.5m from the left support. Draw SFD and BMD.

 A simply supported beam 6m long carries UDL 5kN/m spread over 3m span
from the left support . It also carries a point load 15kN at 1.5m from the right
support. Calculate SF and BM. Draw SFD and BMD.

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 A SSB 6m long carries a UDL 5kN/m for a span of 3m from the right support. It
also carries a point load of 2kN at a distance of 1.5m from the left support. Draw
SFD and BMD. Calculate maximum bending moment.

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 A SSB 6m long carries two point loads 4kN and 5kN at distances 1.5m and 3m
from the left support respectively. It also carries UDL for a span of 3m from the
right support. Draw SFD and BMD . Calculate maximum bending moment.

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 Draw SFD and BMD and also calculate the max BM for a SSB 6m long which
carries two point loads 10kN and 10kN at distances 1.5m from the left support
and 1.5m from the right support respectively. It also carries a UDL in between
the two point loads.

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 A SSB 3m long carries a point load at the mid span and also carries a UDL
5kN/m spread over the entire span. Draw SFD and BMD.

 Draw SFD and BMD for a SSB show in the figure. Also calculate the max BM.

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OVERHANGING BEAM :

 A 10m long beam having a span of 8m is overhanging on the right side by 2m. A
point load of 20N is acting at 2m and another point load of 20kN at 6m from the
left end. In addition another point load of 20kN is acting at the free end of the
overhang. Draw SFD and BMD. Also find the point of contraflexture. Indicate
the values max BM and SF

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 A beam 12m long rests on supports 10m apart with an overhang of 2m at the
right end side . It also carries UDL of 20kN/m over the entire length. Construct
BMD and BMD

Max.B.M :

B.M. at D=96x4.8-20x4.8x4.8/2=230.4kN-m

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 A beam of uniform section 7m long carries a UDL of 20kN/m over the whole length and a
concentrated load of 10kN at the right end. If the beam is freely supported at the left end
and 2m from the right end , draw zSFD and BMD indicating the salient values. Also locate
the point of contraflexture.

Max.B.M :

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B.M. at D=38x1.9-20x1.9x1.9/2=36.1kN-m

 Draw SF and BM diagrams for the beam loaded shown in the figure.

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 Draw SF and BM diagrams for the loaded beam shown in the figure.

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 Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for a given figure where
weight of man is 84 kg (823.7586 Newton)

Solution :

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CHAPTER – 5 : THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING

5.1

Introduction – Bending stress in beam, Assumptions in simple bending theory, bending

equation, neutral axis, Modulus of rupture, section modulus, flexural rigidity, moment of
resistance

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Resistance:

Beams are subjected to bending moment and shearing forces which vary from section to
section.

To resist the bending moment and shearing force, the beam section develops stresses.

Stresses in beams :

The bending moment at a section tends to bend or deflect the beam and the internal
stresses resists its bending .The resistance offered by the internal stresses to the
bending is called as Bending stress( Flexural). The resistance offered by the internal
stresses to the shear force is called as shear stress and the relevant theory is called as
theory of simple bending.

ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN SIMPLE BENDING THEORY :

1. The material of the beam is homogeneous and Isotropic.

2. The material is loaded within the elastic limit and obeys Hooke's law.
3. The transverse section which are plane before bending remain plane after bending.
4. The modules elasticity or Young's modulus E is same in Tension as well as in compression.
5. The beam is initially straight and every layer of it is free to expand or contract.

BENDING EQUATION :

Where,

M = Bending moment in N-mm

I = Moment of inertia about centroidal axis in mm4

f=Bending stress in N/mm2

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y = Distance of the farthest fiber from the neutral axis of the beam section in mm

E = Modulus of elasticity for the beam material in N/mm2

R = Radius of curvature in mm.

Neutral Axis:

It is an axis which divides the section into compression and tension. It intersects the neutral
layer which neither elongates nor contracts. Bending stress is zero but shear stress is
maximum at neutral axis.

Simple Bending :

If a length of a beam is subjected to a constant bending moment and no shear force or zero
shear force, then the stresses will be setup in that length of the beam is due to bending
moment only and in that length of the beam is said to be in PURE BENDING or SIMPLE
BENDING.

The bending moment in the beam is uniform throughout and the shear force in the beam is
zero.

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Bending action:

Sagging

Fibres below the neutral axis (NA) get stretched

->Fibres are under tension

Fibres above the NA get compressed

->Fibres are in compression

Hogging:

Fibres below the neutral axis (NA) get compressed

-->Fibres are in compression

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Fibres above the NA get stretched

->Fibres are under tension

BENDING THEORY: If we apply a constant B.M.

 The top fibers of the beam will be subjected to tension.

 The bottom fibers of the beam will be subjected to compression. Somewhere between the
two there are points at which the stress is zero.

 Locus of all points is termed the neutral axis.

 The radius of curvature R is then measured to this axis

 The neutral axis will always pass through the centre of area of centroid.

 The maximum tension and compression will be at the outer surface or the farthest distance
from the neutral axis.

 The top layer such as HG has deformed to the shape H‘G'. This layer has been shortened in
its length.

 The bottom layer EF has deformed to the shape E‘F'. This layer has been elongated. At a
level between the top and bottom of the beam.

 There will be a layer which is neither shortened nor elongated. This layer is known as neutral
layer or neutral surface.

 The amount by which a layer increases or decreases in length, depends upon the position of
the layer with respect to N-A.

Cantilever beam :

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Simply supported beam :

MODULUS OF RUPTURE:

It is the ratio of the Moment of resistance(M) to the modulus of section (Z) or

It may be also defined as the maximum bending stress required to cause the bending failure
of a beam. Unit of Modulus of rupture is N/mm2

M=fXZ

SECTION MODULUS :

Section modulus is defined as ratio of moment of inertia about the neutral axis to the distance
of the outermost layer from the neutral axis.

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FLEXURAL RIGIDITY :

If we consider the bending equation

The product EI is called the flexural rigidity of the beam or It is the product of sectional
property and material property. It is directly proportional to the strength of the beam.Its unit
is N-mm2

MOMENT OF RESISTANCE :on one side of the neutral axis there are compressive
stresses and on the other there are tensile stresses. These stresses form a couple,its magnitude
must be equal to the external moment M.

The moment of this couple, which resists the external bending moment, is known as moment
of resistance

Moment of resistance:

M=f * Z
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BEAMS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH:

In SS beam , maximum BM occurs at mid span and maximum bending stress occurs at
the centre of the beam decreases towards supports which is below the permissible limit.
In order to maintain the constant bending stress throughout the beam its cross sectional
area is reduced towards the supports. A beam in which bending stress is same at all cross
sections is known as beams of uniform strength. By using this concept design can be
made economical.

Methods used in practice to avoid wastage:

Keeping width constant and varying depth.

Keeping the depth constant and varying width

5.2

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Problems on Bending stress distribution diagram-variation of bending stresses across the

cross section of the beams only rectangular and T section

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5.3

Shear Stress distribution diagram for rectangular, I, T-section beams

SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS

When a beam is in pure bending, the only stress resultants are the bending moments and the
only stresses are the normal stresses acting on the cross sections.

Most beams are subjected to loads that produce both bending moments and shear forces. In
these cases, both normal and shear stresses are developed in the beam.

The normal stresses are calculated from the flexure formula.

Shear force F is distributed in the form of a shearing stress τ acting tangentially to the cross
section of the beam.

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As the bending stress is not uniform in beam section, it varies linearly. Similarly, the shear
stress (due to shear force) is not uniform and varies making a parabolic curve.

Shear stresses is usually maximum at the neutral axis of a beam (always if the thickness is
constant or if thickness at neutral axis is minimum for the cross section, such as for I-beam or
T-beam)but zero at the top and bottom of the cross section as normal stresses are
maximum/minimum.

The shear stress developed is of small magnitude, not as large as bending stress due to
bending moment, but it is of academic interest to learn about variation of shear stress along
the depth

The shear stress at any point of a cross section is given by

SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION DIAGRAM

1.RECTANGULAR SECTION

2.T-SECTION

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3. I- SECTION

The shear stress at the junction of the flange and the web changes abruptly

Summary:

 The resistance offered by the internal stresses, to the bending, is called Moment of
resistance
 The product of EI is called Flextural Rigidity
 The stress produced at the section of the beam to resist the bending moment is known
as Bending Stress
 For simply supported beam section with a superimposed load will have Tensile
stresses at the extreme bottom fibre.
 In a cantilever beam Tensile stress is developed above the neutral axis.
 Bending stress is zero at Neutral axis
 At neutral axis the value of compressive stress and tensile stress is Zero
 The stresses produced due to constant bending moment ( with zero shear force) are
known as bending stresses.
 The bending stress in any layer is directly proportional to the distance of the layer
from the neutral axis.
 According to the theory of simple bending, all the layers above the neutral axis suffer
compression whereas those below the neutral axis suffer tension. The amount by
which a layer is compressed or stretched depends upon its position with respect to the
neutral axis.

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 The bending stress on the neutral axis is zero.

 Moment of resistance is also defined as the maximum moment which can be carried
by a given section for a given maximum value of stress.
 Section modulus is defined as the ratio of moment of inertia of the section to the most
distant point of the section from the neutral axis.

CHAPTER -6 : SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

6.1

Introduction – Definitions of slope, deflection

INTRODUCTION:
Under the action of external loads any beam bends and suffers deflection at various points
along the length. The deflection is caused by the bending moment acting at various sections
of the beam. Deflection is also caused due to shear but the magnitude is small compared to
that due to bending and hence it is generally neglected.

The cross section of a beam has to be designed in such a way that it is strong enough to limit
the bending moment and shear force that are developed in the beam. This criterion is known
as the STRENGTH CRITERION of design .

Another criterion for beam design is that the maximum deflection of the beam must not
exceed a given permissible limit and the beam must be stiff enough to resist the deflection
caused due to loading. This criterion is known as ‘STIFFNESS CRITERION of design”

DEFINITIONS:

DEFLECTION :

Deflection at any point on the horizontal beam is defined as the distance through which the
point is displaced vertically from its initial position. It is denoted by y.

ELASTIC CURVE:

When a straight beam is loaded, the longitudinal axis of the beam becomes a curve, which is
defined as the elastic curve.

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SLOPE:.

The angle made by a tangent drawn to the deflection curve with the horizontal axis of the
beam is called slope.

Deflection Limit :

Deflection should not be more than the permissible limit.As per Indian standard
specifications this limit is span/325.

Differential equation of elastic curve:

E I(d2y/dx2)= M

RADIUS OF CURVATURE :

Radius of curvature is the distance of the elastic curve from the centre of curvature. It is
expressed by the relation

Where, EI = Flexural rigidity of the beam

M = Bending moment at the section

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Methods for finding slope and deflection of beams:

1. Double integration method

2. Macaulay’s method
3. Area moment method
4. Conjugate beam method
5. Unit load method

Mohr's theorems stated as:

1. The change of slope between any TWO points is equal to the net area of the B.M. diagram
between these points divided by El.
2. The total deflection between any two points is equal to the moment of the area of B.M.
diagram between the two points divided by El.

6.2

Slope and deflection using Moment area method for simply supported and cantilever,
subjected to symmetrical point loads and UDL

MOMENT-AREA METHOD

In this method, the area of the bending moment diagrams is utilized for computing the
slope and or deflections at particular points along the axis of the beam or frame.

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The moment area theorems are utilized for calculation of the deflection.

One theorem is used to calculate the change in the slope between two points on the
elastic curve.

The other theorem is used to compute the vertical distance (called tangential
deviation) between a point on the elastic curve and a line tangent to the elastic curve
at a second point.

Application of Mohr’s theorem

The Mohr's theorems is conveniently used for the following cases:

Problems on cantilevers (single load)

Simply supported beams carrying symmetric loading (single load)

Beams fixed at both ends (single load)

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PROBLEMS

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CHAPTER – 7 : COLUMNS
Introduction – Short and long columns - Euler’s theory on columns - Effective length, slenderness
ratio - radius of gyration, buckling load - Assumptions, Euler’s Buckling load for different end
conditions - Limitations of Euler’s theory

Introduction:

It is a vertical structural member in a building frame subjected to an axial compressive load is

called as a column (compression member) . A strut is also a compression member but it is not
vertical , it can be either horizontal or inclined

A wooden colun , asteel column and a masonry colunm are called as Post, stanchion and
pillar respectively

Terminology:

Crushing load : The load corresponding to the crushing stress is called as crushing load.

Buckling load : The load at which the column just buckles is called as buckling load or
critical load or crippling load.The value of buckling load is less the crushing load.

Safe load : The load under which the column will not buckle is called as safe load.

Effective length: It may be defined as the actual length of the column that is subjected to
buckling.or It is the distance between the points of inflection on the elastic curve .

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Slenderness ratio : It is defined as the ratio of effictive length of column to the least radius of
gyration.The strength of column depends on the slenderness ratio and end condition. The
slenderness ratio is inversely proportional to the strength of the column. Its unit is mm.

Classification of columns:

Based on slenderness ratio columns can be classified into two types

1.Short column: If the slenderness ratio is less than 80, it is called as a short column.It fails
due to crushing. Euler’s formula is not valid for short columns.

2.Long column: If the slederness ratio is more than 80 it is called as long column. It fails due
to buckling. Euler’s formula is valid .

Euler’s theory on columns:

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The stability of long columns was made by mr Euler , he derived an equation for the buckling
load of long columns based on the bending stress and the effect of direct stress is
neglected.That is why it is applicable only for long columns.

The following table gives the values of effective length for various end conditions:

Assumptions made in Euler’s column theory:

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1.The column is initially perfectly straight and the load is applied axially.

2.The cross section of the column is uniform through out its length.

3.The column material is perfectly elastic , homogeneous and isotropic and obey’s hook’s
law.

4.The length of the column is very large as compared to its lateral dimensions

5.The direct stress is very small as compared to the bending stress.

6.The column fails by buckling alone.

7.The self weight of the column is neglected

Limitations of Euler’s theory:

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PROBLEMS :

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