ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system carries out
its effects through the production
of hormones, chemical messengers
that exert a regulatory effect on
the cells of the body. Secreted
from endocrine glands, which are
ductless structures, hormones are
released directly into the blood.
The function of the endocrine
system is the production and
regulation of chemical
substances called hormones.
 HORMONES
A hormone is a chemical
transmitter. It is released in
small amounts from glands and
is transported in the
bloodstream to target organs
or other cells. Hormones are
chemical messengers,
transferring information and
instructions from one set of
cells to another.
 • Steroids - produced by
the adrenal cortex, testes,
ovaries, and the placenta.
Synthesized from
CLASSIFICATION cholesterol, these
hormones are lipid soluble.
OF HORMONES Therefore, they cross cell
membranes readily and
bind to receptors found
intracellularly.
• Proteins/peptides - are derived from amino acids
and most hormones are of this type. This class of
hormones are preformed and stored for future use
in membrane-bound secretory granules with the
gland’s cells. When needed, they are released by
exocytosis.
Example: growth hormone, antidiuretic hormone,
oxytocin, insulin, and glucagon.

• Amines - which are derived from the amino acid

tyrosine, include the thyroid hormones and the
catecholamines.
Synergism - occurs when two hormones interact at a
target tissue such that the combination of their
effects is greater than the sum of their separate
effects.
Example: epinephrine, cortisol, and glucagon are three
hormones that each increase the level of blood
glucose.

Permissiveness - one hormone enhances the

responsiveness of the target tissue to a second
hormone.

Antagonism -occurs when the actions of one hormone

oppose the effects of another
 Hormones
produced in the
anterior pituitary
 PITUITARY
>The pituitary gland, or
hypophysis, is located at the
base of the brain just below
the hypothalamus. It is
composed of two:

• Neurohypophysis (posterior
pituitary)

• Adenohypophysis (anterior
pituitary)
 NEUROHYPOPHYSIS

> Derived from the > Neurons as the name

hypothalamus. This suggest are referred
anatomical connection to as neurosecretory
allows the cells because they
hypothalamus to generate action
directly influence the potentials (neuro-) as
function of the well as synthesize
neurohypophysis. hormones (-secretory).
ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
> Derived from glandular
tissue( rathke’s pouch )
and, therefore, has no
anatomical connection to
the hypothalamus.

> The difference between

anterior and posterior
pituitary is that the
neurohypophysis releases
hormones initially
synthesized in the
hypothalamus, while the
adenohypophysis
synthesizes its hormones
in specialized cell groups.
 Hormones
produced in the
anterior pituitary
 GROWTH HORMONE (GH)
> stimulates the growth of
long bones, organs, and
muscles during development.
> The growth-promoting
effects of GH are carried out
by somatomedins, which are
peptides found in the blood. At
least four somatomedins have
been identified and described.

> The two most important

somatomedins, which are
structurally and functionally
similar to insulin, are referred
to as insulin-like growth factors
I and II (IGF-I and IGF-II).
 IGF-I
> Is thought to
mediate the
growth-promoting
effects of GH
throughout life.
Levels of both GH
and IGF-I increase
in parallel during
puberty and other
periods of growth
in children.
IGF-II
> Thought to
be important
during fetal
growth and
development
and is
secreted in
response to
PRL.
 ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIN
(ACTH)

> stimulates the adrenal

cortex to produce
adrenal hormones such
as cortisol.
 CORTICOTROPIN

> releasing hormone (CRH) from

the hypothalamus stimulates
the secretion of ACTH.
 THYROID-STIMULATING
HORMONE (TSH)
> Regulates secretion
of thyroid hormones
T3 and T4.

> The release of TSH from

the thy rotrope cells of
the adenohypophysis is
induced by thyrotropin-
releasing hormone (TRH).
 LUTEINIZING HORMONE

> Luteinizing Hormone (LH)—stimulates

steroidogenesis in the gonads, maintains
secretory function of the corpus luteum.
 THE CORPUS LUTEUM

> In males, LH acts on the Leydig cells of the testes

to stimulate the secretion of testosterone
LH also induces the secretion of estrogen and
progesterone.
 FOLLICLE-STIMULATING
HORMONE (FSH)
> stimulates gamete production in the gonads.
 PROLACTIN (PRL)

> Initiates and maintains milk production in the

mammary glands postpartum.
LACTATION INVOLVES THREE
PROCESSES:
 MAMMOGENESIS
> The growth and
development of the
mammary glands,
which produce milk.

Galactopoeisis
> The maintenance
of milk production.
LACTOGENESIS
is the initiation of
lactation.
THIS PROCESS REQUIRES BOTH PRL AND
OXYTOCIN
HORMONES RELEASED BY THE
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
> Oxytocin—stimulates
contraction of uterine smooth
muscle during labor and delivery
as well as milk ejection from the
mammary glands.
> Oxytocin also causes
contraction of the myoepithelial
cells surrounding the alveoli of
the mammary glands.
This results in “milk-letdown” or
the expulsion of milk from deep
within the gland into the larger
ducts from which the milk can be
obtained more readily by the
nursing infant.
 ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
(ADH, VASOPRESSIN)

> Acts upon the

kidney to
stimulate water
reabsorption in
the distal
tubules and
collecting ducts.
 THYROID GLAND
> The thyroid gland is a
butterfly-shaped structure lying
over the anterior sur- face of
the trachea just below the
larynx.
This gland produces two classes
of hormones synthesized by two
distinct cell types:
CALCITONIN
> Synthesized by
parafollicular cells.
>The primary
effect of
calcitonin is to
decrease the
blood levels of
calcium and
phosphate.
 ADRENAL GLANDS
> There are two
adrenal glands,
one located on
the superior
surface of each
kidney.
These glands are
composed of two
distinct
anatomical and,
therefore,
functional regions:
 ADRENAL MEDULLA
> It is the site of
production of
catecholamines,
epinephrine, and
norepinephrine.
The catecholamines
serve as a circulating
counterpart to the
sympathetic
neurotransmitter,
norepinephrine, which
is released directly
from sympathetic
neurons to the
tissues.
ADRENAL CORTEX
> The adrenal cortex, forming
the outer portion of the
adrenal gland, accounts for
80%–90% of the weight of the
gland. It is the site of synthesis
of many types of steroid
hormones including:
• Mineralocorticoids - The
primary mineralocorticoid is
aldosterone. The actions of
this hormone
include:
Stimulation of renal
retention of sodium
Promotion of renal excretion
of potassium
GLUCOCORTICOIDS
> The primary glucocorticoid is
cortisol. Receptors for the
glucocorticoids are found in all
tissues. The overall effects of these
hormones include:
Increase in blood glucose
Increase in blood free fatty acids.
ADRENAL ANDROGENS
> The predominant
androgens, or male sex
hormones, produced by the
adrenal cortex are
dehydroepiandrosterone
(DHEA) and androstenedione
- The adrenal gland is the
major source of androgens
in females.
These hormones stimulate
pubic and axillary (underarm)
hair development in pubertal
females.
PANCREAS
PANCREAS
> Is both an exocrine gland and an endocrine
gland.
The exo- crime tissue produces a bicarbonate
solution and digestive enzymes. These
substances are transported to the small
intestine where they play a role in the
chemical digestion of food
- Most important hormones produced by the
pancreas that regulates glucose metabolism
are insulin and glucagon.
INSULIN
> Is an important anabolic
hormone secreted at times when
the concentration of nutrient
molecules in the blood is high,
such as periods following a meal.
Its overall effects include
allowing the body to use
carbohydrates as an energy
source and to store nutrient
molecules.
GLUCAGON
> Is an important
anabolic hormone
secreted at times
when the
concentration of
nutrient molecules in
the blood is high, such
as periods following a
meal. Its overall
effects include allowing
the body to use
carbohydrates as an
energy source and to
store nutrient
molecules.
ENDOCRINE
DISORDERS
HYPERSECRETION
• Excess activity of a
specific hormone or
hormones

• May be due to
overproduction of a
hormone due to
abnormal glan- dular
function, glandular
hypertrophy/hyperplasia,
or the presence of
tumors that secrete
hormone.
HYPOSECRETION
• Reduced activity of a
specific hormone or
hormones.
• May be due to atrophy
of glandular tissue or
damage from an
autoimmune attack,
infection, or neoplasia;
may also occur as a
result of reduced
hormonal stimulation of a
gland.
 HYPOPITUITARISM
• Decreased activity of the
pituitary gland along with
hyposecretion of one or more
pituitary hormones. If all
pituitary hormones are lacking it
is termed panhypopituitarism.
• Most commonly results from
damage to the pituitary
(trauma, infection, ischemia) or
tumors.
• Manifestations are highly
variable and will depend upon
the hormone or hormones that
are lacking. For the effects of
specific hormone deficiency see
the following sections.
 DISORDERS OF THE
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
GLAND
 Deficiency of GH
secretion may occur
from a congenital
defect in the
pituitary gland or
may be acquired as a
result of injury or
tumor growth.
Growth hormone
deficiency is also
seen in congenital
conditions such as
Turner syndrome and
Down syndrome.
GIGANTISM
Results from the
excess production
of growth
hormone before
the epiphyseal
growth plates of
the long bones
fuse (around
puberty).
 DISORDERS OF
THE POSTERIOR
PITUITARY
DIABETES INSIPIDUS
> A condition
caused by
decreased
production of
ADH and not
related to the
condition of
diabetes
mellitus, which
involves insulin
deficiency.
SYNDROME OF INAPPROPRIATE
ADH (SIADH)
> A condition
characterized
by excess
production of
ADH from the
posterior
pituitary.
• May be a primary condition
resulting from a defect within
the thyroid itself or can be
secondary to a lack of
stimulation by TSH.
HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Dietary deficiency of iodine
may lead to hypertrophy of
the thyroid gland that presents
as a goiter (see Box).
Hypothyroidism will also occur
in patients who have
undergone thyroidectomy or
who are taking antithyroid
drugs such as methimazole or
propylthiouracil.

The most common cause of

hypothyroidism in adults is an
autoimmune condition called
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
(autoimmune thyroiditis) in
which antibodies are produced
against the tissue of the
thyroid.
DISORDERS OF THE
ADRENAL GLANDS
 ADDISON’S DISEASE
• A primary condition
associated with atrophy
of the adrenal glands.

• The majority of cases

arise from autoimmune
destruction of the
adrenal glands. Some
cases may occur as a
result of adrenal gland
injury
due to infection or
tumors.
 CUSHING SYNDROME
• A condition characterized
by excess production of
glucocorticoids.
• May be caused by excess
ACTH secretion due to
pituitary tumors or
less commonly as a result of
a cortisol-producing tumor
of the adrenal gland itself. In
rare instances, ACTH or
cortisol-producing malignant
tumors may occur in the
body outside of the pituitary
or adrenal glands
themselves.
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