Formation of the Elements and

Nuclear Reactions
Elements are Formed in Different Ways in our
Universe
 Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei) formation.
• Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Today, only stellar and supernova nucleosynthesis are
occurring in our universe.
• Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion
reactions.
(fusion = come together)
 Nuclear Fusion
•In nuclear fusion,
smaller nuclei collide
together to make
larger nuclei, and
energy is released in
the form of
electromagnetic
radiation.
 Nuclear Fusion
• Requires extremely high
temperatures and
pressures beyond those
found on or within Earth.
However, these
temperatures and
pressures are found inside
stars and did occur during
the initial formation of our
universe (during the Big
Bang event).
 Nuclear Fusion
• Fusion involves only the
nuclei of atoms. At the
temperatures at which
fusion can occur, matter
exists as a plasma. This is
the state of matter where
the electrons have been
stripped off of the atoms.
Plasma is basically a super
high energy, electrically
charged gas.
 Nuclear Fusion
• When nuclei collide, some of
the mass of the nuclei is
converted to energy by
Einstein’s famous equation,
E=mc2. Nuclear fusion
releases a lot of energy per
gram of material; much more
energy than is released by
burning a comparable
amount of wood, coal, oil, or
gasoline!
 The Big Bang
•The Big Bang Theory is the
most widely accepted
scientific theory about the
origin of the universe. It is
supported by multiple lines
of evidence.
•The “Big Bang” was a
phenomenally energetic
explosion that initiated the
expansion of the universe.
 The Big Bang
•At the moment
prior to the Big
Bang explosion, all
matter and energy
were compressed at
a single point (a
singularity – a point
of infinite density).
 The Big Bang
•We do not know
what was
before…..?
•The universe has
been expanding
ever since, with
galaxies moving
farther and farther
 The Big Bang
• Using the rates of expansion
measured in the universe and
astronomical distances, the
age of the universe can be
calculated back to the time of
the Big Bang. The age of the
universe is calculated at about
13.7 billion years old. By
contrast, our Sun and its
surrounding planets (i.e. our
Solar System) is 4.65 billion
years old.
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe was produced
during the Big Bang Event, starting ~100 seconds after the
explosion. A small amount of Lithium was also produced.

• Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few minutes after

the Big Bang because the universe had expanded and cooled
sufficiently by then such that the temperatures and pressures
were too low to support additional nuclear fusion reactions.
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• A star is a very hot ball of gas (plasma). Stars create elements by combining lighter nuclei into
heavier nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions in their cores and releasing energy in the process.
They are natural nuclear reactors!
• Enormous temperatures (15,000,000 K), pressures, and densities of matter are needed to
initiate the fusion (thermonuclear) reactions which squeeze nuclei together and release energy.
• The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun converts hydrogen to helium and releases energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiation (see the basic fusion reaction below). This is why our Sun
shines!
• Our Sun is only large enough to fuse hydrogen into helium within its core.
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Stars much larger than our Sun can
fuse heavier elements from lighter
elements.
• These giant stars have an “onion
layer” structure.
• As you proceed deeper into the
star, temperatures and pressures
increase, and heavier and heavier
nuclei are fused together.
• The heaviest element that can be
made in a star is iron. Elements
heavier than iron have fusion
reactions with temperature and
pressure requirements greater than
those that can occur within the
core of a giant star.
• Note: In the adjacent diagrams, the
term “burning” really means
nuclear fusion!
 Nuclear Fusion Requirements
(in stars)
Minimum Core Minimum Core Minimum Stellar
Fusion Fusion By-product
Temperature Density Mass*
Hydrogen He 13 million K 100 gm/cc 0.08 solar masses
Helium C, O 100 million K 100,000 gm/cc 0.5 solar masses
Carbon O, Ne, Mg, Na 500 million K 200,000 gm/cc 4 solar masses

Neon O, Mg 1.2 billion K 4 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Oxygen Mg, Si, S, P 1.5 billion K 10 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Si, S, Ar, Ca, Ti, Cr, Fe,

Silicon around 3 billion K 30 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses
Ni

gm/cc = grams per cubic centimeter (units of density)

https://sites.uni.edu/morgans/astro/course/Notes/section2/fusion.html
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
•Elements An exploded star
(supernova)

heavier than Relative Abundance of the Elements in our Universe

Iron (Z = 26)
are made
primarily when
giant stars
explode in
supernovae.
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
An exploded star
• Even the largest stars do not have (supernova)
core temperatures and pressures
high enough to fuse iron into
heavier elements. Therefore, Relative Abundance of the Elements in our Universe
when a star runs out of nuclear
fuel (lighter nuclei) and can no
longer undergo fusion reactions,
gravity causes the star to collapse.
The gravitational collapse triggers
a phenomenally large explosion
called a supernova. The explosion
of the star momentarily generates
high enough temperatures and
pressures to cause nuclear fusion
reactions that make elements with
atomic numbers 27-92 (Cobalt to
Uranium).
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
• Since only the An exploded star
(supernova)
largest stars can
explode in Relative Abundance of the Elements in our Universe

supernovae events,
elements with
atomic numbers 27-
92 are rarer than
elements with
atomic numbers 1-
26
 A summary…
(You are made of stardust from exploded stars)
 Nuclear Fission
• We have learned that elements form in the universe
by nuclear fusion reactions which assemble larger
nuclei by forcing smaller nuclei together under
tremendous temperatures and pressures.
• However, elements can also form when a large,
unstable nucleus breaks apart in an attempt to
achieve a more stable, lower energy state.

Nuclear
bullet
 Nuclear Fission
• The splitting of a nucleus to form two or more
smaller, more stable nuclei is called nuclear
fission. (fission = split)
• Fission may occur spontaneously (without
energy being added) or it may be prompted by
firing a nuclear bullet (like a proton or neutron)
at an unstable nucleus, as seen in the example
below. Nuclear
bullet
 Nuclear Fission
• Like fusion, fission also releases energy stored in the
nucleus of an atom. However, not as much energy is
released from fission as from fusion. Still, the energy
released per gram of material by fission is
considerably more than the energy released by
burning a comparable amount of wood, oil, gasoline,
etc. Fission of uranium-235 atoms is used in nuclear
power plants to produce energy.
Nuclear
bullet
 Nuclear Fission
• Fission also occurs naturally within the layers of the
earth as radioactive elements in rocks spontaneously
decay to more stable elements, creating a natural
source of heat within the earth. You also contain a
small proportion of radioactive isotopes within your
body. These isotopes decay naturally, releasing
radiation. Therefore, you are slightly radioactive too!
So is the banana you ate for breakfast!
Nuclear
bullet
 Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the release
of energy, in the form of
energetic particles and
waves, from the nuclei of
unstable (radioactive)
isotopes. Radioactive atoms
undergo fission-type
reactions in order to try to
become more stable nuclei
with lower energies.
Radioactive atoms are called
radioisotopes.
 Radioactivity
• The nuclei of unstable,
radioactive isotopes have the
wrong ratio of neutrons to
protons (n/p). Generally, it is
too high. When n/p of an
isotope falls between 1 to 1.5,
the nucleus is stable (within the
“Band of Stability” on a n0 vs. p+
plot). Outside of that range,
nuclei tend to be unstable and
break apart over time. This
“breaking apart” of unstable
nuclei over time and the
accompanying release of nuclear
particles and energy is called
radioactive decay.
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Alpha Decay
In alpha decay, an
unstable nucleus
releases two
neutrons and two
protons. This is
called an alpha ()
particle. It is
equivalent to a 42He
nuclei. Energy is
also released in the
process.

Credit: Khan Academy

 Types of Radioactive Decay – Alpha Decay
As a result, the
mass number of
the remaining
nucleus
decreases by 4
and the atomic
number
decreases by 2. A
new element is
formed in the
process! Credit: Khan Academy
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Beta Decay
In beta decay of an
unstable nucleus, a
neutron suddenly
changes to a proton,
releasing an
electron, a ghostly,
low mass particle
called a neutrino
(not pictured), and
energy!
Credit: Khan Academy
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Beta Decay
As a result, the atomic
number of the remaining
nucleus increases by 1 but
the mass number does not
change. A new element is
formed!

Note: The released electron

did not come from outside
the nucleus. It came from
inside the nucleus. It is
called a beta () particle.

Credit: Khan Academy

 Types of Radioactive Decay – Gamma Decay
In gamma decay, an
unstable nucleus
releases a high energy
form of
electromagnetic
radiation (light) called
a gamma () particle
or a gamma ray. This
particle of light is also
known as a photon.

Credit: Khan Academy

 Types of Radioactive Decay – Gamma Decay
The energy is
released as the
protons and
neutrons in the
unstable nucleus
reposition
themselves in an
attempt to find a
lower energy
arrangement. Credit: Khan Academy
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Gamma Decay
Since no protons or
neutrons are released,
the mass number and
atomic number of the
nucleus remain
unchanged, and no
new element is
formed. Gamma
decay usually
accompanies alpha
and beta decay.
Credit: Khan Academy
 Nuclear Reactions can be Represented by
• Fusion
Nuclear Equations
Making a
larger nucleus
from two or
more smaller
nuclei

• Fission
Making two or
more smaller
nuclei from a
larger nucleus
 Important Symbols Used in Nuclear Equations
• To write a nuclear
reaction, you Particle How written in a nuclear reaction
must remember Proton 1 1
how to read and p or H
use isotope 1 1
symbol notation Neutron 1
n
0
Electron 0 0
(Beta particle) e or β
-1 -1
• You must know
Alpha Particle 4 4
the symbols used (Helium nuclei)  or He
for various 2 2
subatomic
particles like Gamma Particle or 
Ray (a massless packet of pure
protons,
electromagnetic radiation, a form of
neutrons, etc.
energy)
 Balancing Nuclear Reactions
Check the math on
these examples of
nuclear equations to
238 U
92
see if the sums of the
mass numbers and
the atomic numbers
32 P are the same on each
15
side of the
equations.
10 B
5 Can you figure out
which equations are
fission and which are
fusion?
 Transmutation
Transmutation is a general term for the changing of chemical element
or isotope to another by changing the number of protons and/or
neutrons. Fusion and fission reactions both qualify as transmutations.
The bombardment of a nucleus by a nuclear bullet in order to change it
into another element also counts as transmutation.
 Synthetic Elements
• Elements with atomic
numbers Z ≥ 93 are
synthetic (man-made)
• These elements have
been made in particle
accelerators, either by
smashing smaller nuclei
together or else by
shooting nuclear
bullets at large nuclei.
 Synthetic Elements
• These elements are all
radioactive. They
decay over time to
more stable elements,
releasing radiation
(particles and energy)
from their nuclei.
Some have very short
half-lives and have only
existed for fractions of
a second.
 Synthetic Elements
• Some synthetic elements
have uses for mankind.
Americium (Am) is used in
smoke detectors. Others
have no current use but
were made during basic
research to better
understand atomic nuclei
and the forces that hold
them together. The heaviest
synthetic element has an
atomic number of 118. It
has no uses at present.