UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

ASSESSMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC CORROSIVITY ON METALS AND ITS

MITIGATION BY GREEN CORROSION INHIBITORS IN THE KLANG
VALLEY, MALAYSIA

FADEL MOHAMED M ALI BINYEHMED

FPAS 2018 16
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ASSESSMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC CORROSIVITY ON METALS AND ITS
MITIGATION BY GREEN CORROSION INHIBITORS IN THE KLANG
VALLEY, MALAYSIA

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FADEL MOHAMED M ALI BINYEHMED

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Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

September 2018

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 COPYRIGHT

All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons,
photographs, and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia
unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis
for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material
may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra
Malaysia.

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Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia

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 DEDICATION

Special dedicated to:

My beloved wife

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 Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment
of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

ASSESSMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC CORROSIVITY ON METALS AND ITS

MITIGATION BY GREEN CORROSION INHIBITORS IN THE KLANG
VALLEY, MALAYSIA

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By

FADEL MOHAMED M ALI BINYEHMED

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September 2018

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Chairman : Professor Ahmad Makmom Bin Abdullah, PhD
Faculty : Environmental Studies
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The severity of atmospheric corrosion has now become a considerable concern
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worldwide, and poses a serious threat to many building materials. Many works in this
field have been conducted, particularly in tropical areas, but Malaysia has not received
much attention, only appearing in a few researches. Based on the literature, Malaysia
suffers from acid deposition, which is caused by different air pollution sources.
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Therefore, the corrosion of metals may accelerate in the country. This study was
conducted to assess the atmospheric corrosivity in Klang Valley, Malaysia, and to
mitigate the corrosion issue by taking the environment into consideration. Physico-
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chemical characteristics (pH, Electrical Conductivity and Total Dust Fall) were
determined, and samples collected at four locations with three sampling sites from
August 2014 to July 2015, with one location being chosen as the background location.
The samples were collected using a passive sampler consisting of a funnel and
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polyethylene bottle. The results of acid deposition showed that Klang Valley was
slightly acidic with a mean of 4.71 ± 0.48. Shah Alam had the lowest pH values due
to development in the area, urbanization, and traffic population. Meanwhile,
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Puchong—the background station—was less acidic. A mean electrical conductivity

(EC) of 52.50 ± 36.03 µS cm-1 was observed in this study, with Puchong showing
lower EC values indicating improved air quality, and Shah Alam exhibiting higher
ones, which may be attributed to the strong contribution of air pollution. Furthermore,
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the mean of total dust fall concentration exceeded the Malaysian guideline; reaching
199.51 ± 90.31 mg m-2 day-1.

An outdoor atmospheric corrosion test of four metals (Carbon steel, Mild steel,
Aluminum and Copper) was conducted in five locations, namely Shah Alam, UPM
U2 & U3, Puchong, and Putrajaya. The corrosion rates were determined using weight

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 loss based on ISO 9226. The results of the corrosion rates reveal that Shah Alam had
the highest corrosion rates for all tested metals, while the lowest rates of corrosion
were recorded in UPM U3 and Puchong. The atmospheric corrosivity indicates that
the time of wetness was 4600 hour/year (τ4), with a SO2 deposition rate of 7.26 µg m-
3
(P0 ), and a chloride deposition rate of 27.44 mg m-2 day-1 (S1 ). The findings of this
study reveal that the corrosivity of steel, aluminum, and copper belong to category C 3
(medium) according to ISO 9223, indicating that there is an agreement between
environmental parameters and corrosion rate. The results of the correlation coefficient
showed that all physico-chemical characterizations of the investigated metals such as

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time of wetness, and the deposition rate of sulfur dioxide and chloride, strongly affect
corrosion rate.

Corrosion mitigation was conducted using four natural products, namely Green Coffee

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Extract (GCE), Green Tea Extract (GTE), Pomegranate Waste Extract (PWE), and
Doum Extract (DE). Corrosion rate and inhibition efficiency were determined using
electrochemical methods (Tafel polarization) in artificial acid rain and with different
concentrations of extracts and different temperatures. The findings showed that all the

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green corrosion inhibitors under study acted as good inhibitors for aluminum
corrosion, with only PWE and DE showing adverse effects on carbon steel corrosion.
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The adsorption of these inhibitors onto the tested metals obeyed the Langmuir
adsorption isotherm, while the adsorption of molecule inhibitors followed the Temkin
isotherm. From the values of the standard free energy of adsorption, ΔGads, it can be
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observed that the adsorption process on the tested metal surface was spontaneous
adsorption, and the enthalpy of adsorption ΔHads showed that GCE acted as physical
adsorption and the others performed as chemical adsorption, but the relationship
between inhibition efficiency and temperatures proved that some extracts could
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perform chemical and physical adsorption, which was further proven via the Temkin
isotherm. The one-way ANOVA analysis revealed that temperature variation did not
significantly affect corrosion inhibition, which may be attributed to the chemical
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components’ inhibitor that could have been physically or chemically adsorbed onto
the metal surface. In addition, variation in concentration of green inhibitors
significantly affected the inhibition efficiency of carbon steel and aluminum.
Furthermore, a multifactorial analysis of variance showed that corrosion inhibition
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was greater for all inhibitors of carbon steel in comparison to that of aluminum.
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 Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah

PENILAIAN PENGAKISAN LOGAM DI LEMBAH KLANG DAN

PENGURANGANNYA MENGGUNAKAN PERENCAT KAKISAN HIJAU

Oleh

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FADEL MOHAMED M ALI BINYEHMED

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September 2018

Pengerusi : Profesor Ahmad Makmom Bin Abdullah, PhD

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Fakulti : Pengajian Alam Sekitar
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Keterukan kakisan atmosfera pada masa kini menjadi perhatian utama seluruh dunia,
dan boleh menyebabkan ancaman serius kepada bahan-bahan binaan. Terdapat banyak
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kajian dalam bidang ini yang dilakukan di kawasan tropika, namun Malaysia masih
kurang dikaji, dan hanya muncul dalam beberapa kajian sahaja. Berdasarkan literatur,
Malaysia mengalami deposisi asid disebabkan oleh pelbagai sumber pencemaran
udara. Justeru, kadar kakisan logam dalam negara ini mungkin akan meningkat dengan
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mendadak. Kajian ini dijalankan untuk menilai pengakisan atmosfera di lembah

Klang, Malaysia, dan untuk menyelesaikan masalah kakisan dengan mengambil kira
faktor alam sekitar. Ciri-ciri fiziko-kima (pH, kekonduksian elektrik dan jumlah
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kepekatan debu jatuh) telah ditentukan dan sampel telah dikumpul di empat lokasi
dengan tiga tapak pensampelan dari Ogos 2014 hingga Julai 2015, beserta satu lokasi
yang dipilih sebagai lokasi latar. Sampel dikumpul menggunakan pensampel pasif
yang terdiri daripada sebuah corong dan botol polietilena. Hasil kajian menunjukkan
bahawa lembah Klang agak berasid dengan min sebanyak 4.71 ± 0.48. Shah Alam
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menunjukkan nilai pH paling rendah, disebabkan kepesatan pembangunan, urbanisasi,

dan populasi trafik. Sebaliknya, Puchong—stesen latar—kurang berasid. Min
kekonduksian elektrik (KE) sebanyak 52.50 ± 36.03 µS cm-1 telah direkod dalam
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kajian ini. Puchong menunjukkan nilai KE yang lebih rendah, menandakan kualiti
udara yang lebih baik, manakala Shah Alam menunjukkan nilai KE yang lebih tinggi
mungkin kerana pencemaran udara yang banyak di kawasan tersebut. Di samping itu,
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min jumlah kepekatan debu jatuh iaitu 199.51 ± 90.31 mg m-2 day-1 di kawasan kajian
lebih tinggi daripada yang ditetapkan dalam garis panduan Malaysia.

Ujian kakisan atmosfera luar untuk empat jenis logam (logam keluli, keluli lembut,
aluminium, dan kuprum) dijalankan di lima lokasi iaitu Shah Alam, UPM U2 & U3,
Puchong, dan Putrajaya. Kadar kakisan ditentukan menggunakan pengurangan berat

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 berdasarkan ISO 9226. Keputusan ujian menunjukkan bahawa Shah Alam mempunyai
kadar kakisan tertinggi untuk kesemua jenis logam yang diuji, manakala kadar kakisan
terendah telah direkod di UPM U3 dan Puchong. Pengakisan atmosfera menunjukkan
bahawa masa basah adalah 4600 jam/tahun (τ4), dengan kadar deposisi SO2 sebanyak
7.26 µg m-3 (𝑃0 ) dan kadar deposisi klorida sebanyak 27.44 mg m-2 hari-1 (𝑆1 ). Hasil
kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa pengakisan keluli, aluminium, dan kuprum adalah
tergolong dalam kategori C3 (sederhana), berdasarkan ISO 9223, yang menandakan
persetujuan antara parameter alam sekitar dan kadar kakisan. Keputusan pekali
korelasi menunjukkan bahawa semua ciri-ciri fiziko-kimia logam yang telah dikaji

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seperti masa basah serta kadar deposisi sulfur dioksida dan klorida, mempunyai kesan
yang kuat terhadap kadar kakisan.

Pengurangan kakisan telah dijalankan menggunakan empat produk asli iaitu ekstrak

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biji kopi hijau (EKH), ekstrak teh hijau (ETH), ekstrak sisa delima (ESD), dan ekstrak
doum (ED). Kadar kakisan dan kecekapan perencatan ditentukan melalui kaedah
elektrokimia (pengutuban Tafel) dalam hujan asid buatan dan dengan pelbagai
kepekatan ekstrak dan suhu. Keputusan menunjukkan bahawa kesemua perencat

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kakisan hijau yang dikaji merupakan perencat kakisan aluminium yang bagus. Hanya
ESD dan ED menunjukkan kesan negatif terhadap kakisan keluli karbon. Penjerapan
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perencat-perencat tersebut ke atas logam mematuhi syarat-syarat penjerapan isoterma
Langmuir, manakala penjerapan perencat molekul mematuhi syarat-syarat penjerapan
isoterma Temkin. Nilai tenaga bebas standard untuk penjerapan, ΔGads, dapat dilihat
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bahawa proses adsorpsi pada permukaan logam yang diuji adalah penjerapan spontan,
dan entalpi penjerapan ΔHads menunjukkan bahawa GCE bertindak sebagai
penjerapan fisikal dan yang lain dilakukan sebagai penjerapan kimia , tetapi hubungan
antara kecekapan dan suhu pencerobohan membuktikan bahawa beberapa ekstrak
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boleh melakukan penjerapan kimia dan fizikal, yang dibuktikan melalui isoterm
Temkin. Analisis ANOVA satu hala menunjukkan bahawa variasi suhu tidak memberi
kesan signifikan ke atas perencatan kakisan. Hal ini mungkin terjadi kerana komponen
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perencat kimia mungkin telah dijerap secara fizikal atau kimia ke atas permukaan
logam. Selain itu, variasi kepekatan perencat hijau memberi kesan signifikan ke atas
kecekapan perencatan keluli karbon dan aluminium. Tambahan pula, analisis multi-
faktor yang dijalankan menunjukkan bahawa perencatan kakisan lebih berkesan untuk
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kesemua perencat keluli karbon berbanding perencat aluminium.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful

All praises to Allah for all His blessings and for granting me the strength to complete
this thesis. This research would not have been possible without the guidance and help
of several individuals, who had contributed and extended their valuable assistance in

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the preparation and completion of this study.

First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Dr.
Ahmad Makmom Bin Abdullah, for his continuous support throughout my Ph.D study

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and research—for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His
guidance has helped me immensely in my research and in the writing of this thesis. I
am truly grateful for everything, I remain throughout my life indebted to him, and I
beseech Allah (SWA) to reward him abundantly. Besides my supervisor, I would also

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like to thank the rest of my supervisory committee, Prof. Dr. Zulkarnain Zainal, and
Dr. Ruzniza Binti Mohd Zawawi, for their encouragement, insightful comments, and
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tough and thought provoking questions.
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My acknowledgment also goes to the Department of Environment, Malaysia,
especially Mrs. Mashitah Binti Darus and Mrs. Zaliha Mohd Rashid, the management
of Masjid UPM, and all staff and technicians in the Faculty of Environmental Studies,
in particular Mr. Shamsuddin Johan, Mr. Abd Gafar Talib, Mr Zuber bin Mohd Saad,
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Mrs. Siti Norela Talib, Mrs. Suhana, Mr. Remy, and Mrs. Jc Chua from Metrohom
Malaysia.
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I am grateful to Universiti Putra Malaysia for awarding me the IPS-Putra Grant to fund
this project and for providing me with the data, training, and purchase of other items,
which greatly contributed to accomplishing my work. Also, I send my thanks to Sebha
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University, Faculty of Engineering & Technology that it nominated, supported and

motivated me to complete my study through scholarship as well as the Education
Ministry, State of Libya.
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I must express my deepest gratitude, respect, and thankfulness to Zinab, my lovely

wife, who stood by me during this challenging journey, suffered with me through
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expatriate life, and in weathering all difficulties together. Not to forget my children,
Salman, Reham, Ahmed, and Asil, who I cannot imagine life without. To my Father,
the greatest teacher, and my Mother, the greatest woman I know, I send special thanks
and my deepest appreciation for all their sacrifices to see me achieve my goal. My
thanks also go to my lovely sisters and my beloved brothers, for their love and support
during these trying times.

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 Last but not least, I would like to thank all my friends and colleagues as well as
everyone who had indirectly contributed to this research; your kindness means a lot to
me. Thank you very much indeed.

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©
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 This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been
accepted as fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.The
members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Ahmad Makmom Abdullah, PhD

Professor
Faculty of Environmental Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia

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(Chairman)

Zulkarnain Zainal, PhD

Professor

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Faculty of Science
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)

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Ruzniza Mohd Zawawi, PhD
Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Science
Universiti Putra Malaysia
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(Member)
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ROBIAH BINTI YUNUS, PhD

Professor and Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
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Date:
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 Declaration by graduate student

I hereby confirm that:

 this thesis is my original work;
 quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;
 this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree
at any institutions;
 intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by

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Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Research) Rules 2012;
 written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy
Vice-Chancellor (Research and innovation) before thesis is published (in the form
of written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules,

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proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports,
lecture notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti
Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;
 there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly

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integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate
Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia
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(Research) Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software
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Signature: Date:
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Name and Matric No: Fadel Mohamed M Ali Binyehmed, GS35539

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 Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee

This is to confirm that:

 the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;
 supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate
Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) were adhered to.

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Signature:
Name of Chairman
of Supervisory
Committee: Professor Dr. Ahmad Makmom Abdullah

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Signature:

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Name of Member
of Supervisory H
Committee: Professor Dr. Zulkarnain Zainal
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Signature:
Name of Member
of Supervisory
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Committee: Dr. Ruzniza Mohd Zawawi

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
APPROVAL vii

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DECLARATION ix
LIST OF TABLES xv
LIST OF FIGURES xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxii

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CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Atmospheric Corrosion 2

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1.2.1 Atmospheric Corrosion Mechanism 2
1.3 Problem Statement 4
1.4 H
Objectives of the Study
1.4.1 General Objective
1.4.2 Specific Objective
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1.5 Scope and Limitation 6

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Atmospheric corrosivity 8
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2.1.1 Emission Sources in Urban Area 8

2.1.1.1 Vehicular Emission in Urban Areas 8
2.1.1.2 Dust fall in Urban Area 9
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2.1.2 Acid Deposition 12

2.1.2.1 The effect of acid deposition 17
2.1.3 Factors Affecting Atmospheric corrosion 21
2.1.3.1 Relative Humidity (RH) 21
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2.1.3.2 Temperature (T) 21

2.1.3.3 The composition of electrolyte 21
2.1.3.4 Type of metal 22
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2.1.3.5 Exposure angle of specimens 22

2.1.3.6 Nature of corrosion products 23
2.1.3.7 Sheltering 23
2.1.4 The Atmospheric Corrosivity 23
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2.1.4.1 Time of Wetness (TOW) 26

2.1.4.2 Sulfur Dioxide SO2 27
2.1.4.3 Deposition Rate of Chloride (DRC) 31
2.2 Corrosion Mitigation 32
2.2.1 Approaches of the Green Inhibitors 33
2.2.2 Inhibition Efficiency (IE) 35
2.2.3 Mechanism of Green Inhibition 36

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 2.2.4 Adsorption Isotherm 36
2.2.4.1 Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm 38
2.2.4.2 Temkin Adsorption Isotherm 39
2.2.4.3 Frumkin Adsorption Isotherm 40
2.2.5 The Inhibitive Action of Green Corrosion Inhibitor on
the Corrosion of Carbon Steel 41
2.2.6 The Inhibitive Action of Green Corrosion Inhibitor on
the corrosion of Aluminum 42
2.2.7 The Consideration of Green Corrosion Inhibitor 50

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2.2.7.1 Green Coffee Bean 50
2.2.7.2 Green Tea 51
2.2.7.3 Pomegranate Fruit 51
2.2.7.4 Doum Fruit 52
2.3 Summary 53

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3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 54
3.1 Study Area 54
3.2 Atmospheric corrosivity Study 57

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3.2.1 Physico-chemical Analysis 57
3.2.1.1 Dust Fall Sampling 57
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3.2.1.2 Determination of pH level and conductivity
3.2.1.3 Volume-Weighted Mean (VWM)
3.2.1.4 Determination of Total Dust Fall
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3.2.2 Determination of Chloride deposition rate 60
3.2.3 Secondary Data 61
3.2.3.1 Meteorological Data 61
3.2.3.2 Air Quality Data 62
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3.2.4 Outdoor Atmospheric Corrosion Test 62

3.2.3 Determination of Atmospheric Corrosivity 64
3.2.3.1 Time of Wetness (TOW) 64
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3.2.5.2 Classification of Pollution categories 64

3.2.5.3 Classification of corrosivity based on
Environmental Data 65
3.2.5.4 Classification of corrosivity based on corrosion
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rate 65
3.3 Corrosion Mitigation 67
3.3.1 Selection of plant for green inhibitor 67
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3.3.2 Sample Preparation 67

3.3.3 Extraction 68
3.3.4 Preparation of Artificial Acid Rain 68
3.3.5 Preparation of Working Electrode 69
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3.3.6 Electrochemical Test 69

3.3.7 Extrapolation 70
3.3.8 Adsorption Isotherm Models 71
3.3 Statistical Analysis 73

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 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 74
4.1 Physico-chemical characteristics 74
4.1.1 Acid Deposition characteristics 74
4.1.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 82
4.1.3 Total Dust Fall (TDF) 90
4.2 Atmospheric Corrosivity Results 97
4.2.1 Environmental Data & Time of Wetness 97
3.2.2 Pollution of Sulfur Dioxide SO2 101
4.2.2.1 The Corrosivity of SO2 105

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4.2.3 Deposition Rate of Chloride (DRC) 106
4.2.3.1 Corrosivity of DRC 111
4.2.4 Corrosion Test 112
4.2.5 Determination of the Atmospheric Corrosivity 116
4.2.6 Correlation between Environmental Parameters and

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Corrosion Rate of Metals 120
4.3 Corrosion Mitigation 122
4.3.1 Green Coffee Bean Extract (GCE) 122
4.3.1.1 Effect of GCE on Carbon Steel Corrosion 122

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4.3.1.2 Effect of GCE on Aluminum Corrosion 130
4.3.2 Green Tea Extract (GTE) 136
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4.3.2.1 Effect of GTE on Carbon Steel Corrosion
4.3.2.2 Effect of GTE on Aluminum Corrosion
4.3.3 Pomegranate Waste Extract (PWE)
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4.3.3.1 Effect of PWE on Carbon Steel Corrosion 151
4.3.3.2 Effect of PWE on Aluminum Corrosion 153
4.3.4 Doum Extract (DE) 159
4.3.4.1 Effect of DE on Carbon Steel Corrosion 159
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4.3.4.2 Effect of DE on aluminum Corrosion 160

4.3.5 Differences in GCE corrosion inhibition on carbon steel
based on temperature and concentration 166
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4.3.6 Differences in GCE corrosion inhibition on aluminum

based on temperature and concentration 167
4.3.7 Differences in GTE corrosion inhibition on carbon steel
based on temperature and concentration 167
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4.3.8 Differences in GTE corrosion inhibition on Aluminum

based on temperature and concentration 168
4.3.9 Differences in PWE corrosion inhibition on Carbon Steel
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based on temperature and concentration 168

4.3.10 Differences in PWE corrosion inhibition on Aluminum
based on temperature and concentration 168
4.3.11 Differences in DE corrosion inhibition on carbon steel
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based on temperature and concentration 169

4.3.12 Differences in DE corrosion inhibition on Aluminum
based on temperature and concentration 169
4.3.13 Assessing the main and interactive effects of inhibitors
and metals on corrosion rate 170

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 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 171
5.1 Conclusion 171
5.2 Recommendation for future studies 172

REFERENCES 174
APPENDICES 225
BIODATA OF STUDENT 265
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 266

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 pH values of acid precipitations in Malaysia and other countries 14

2.2 The effect of simulated acid rain on the environment and building
materials 19

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2.3 The effect of different exposure angles on the corrosion rate of plain
carbon steel 22

2.4 The classification of atmospheric corrosivity worldwide 26

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2.5 The effect of some green corrosion inhibitors on carbon steel corrosion 44

2.6 The effect of some green corrosion inhibitors on aluminum corrosion 47

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3.1 Coordinates and description of sampling sites in the Klang Valley 55

3.2

3.3
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The investigated air monitoring stations in the Klang Valley

Classification of time of wetness

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3.4 Classification of Sulfur dioxide SO2 65

3.5 Classification of the airborne salinity 65

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3.6 Estimated corrosivity categories of the atmosphere 66

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3.7 Classification of corrosivity of atmospheric corrosion rate of some

metals 66

3.8 Classification of corrosion rate 67

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4.1 pH mean values in the study area 77

4.2 Electrical Conductivity mean values (µS cm-1) in the study area 84
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4.3 Electrical conductivity (µS cm-1) of the current study and previous
studies 89
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4.4 The concentration of total dust fall (mg m-2 day-1) in the study area 90

4.5 The results of TDF (mg m-2 day-1) of the current study and previous
studies 97

4.6 Meteorological data from Environmental Lakes 99

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 4.7 Descriptive statistics for SO2 data in 2013 103

4.8 Descriptive statistics for SO2 data in 2014 103

4.9 Analysis of variance of SO2 104

4.10 The categories of SO2 in 2013 based on ISO 9223 105

4.11 The categories of SO2 in 2014 based on ISO 9223 106

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4.12 The concentration of DRC (mg m-2 day-1) in the study area 110

4.13 Monthly mean of DRC (mg m-2 day-1) in the study area 111

4.14 Classification based on the minimum and maximum values

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(mg m-2 day-1) of DRC 111

4.15 Corrosion rates of tested metals in the study area (µm/year) 112

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4.16 Atmospheric corrosivity factors 117

4.17 Corrosivity Categories for different metals

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4.18 Correlation coefficient between environmental parameters and

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atmosphere corrosion 120

4.19 Tafel parameters and inhibition efficiency attained from the impact of
GCE on carbon steel in AAR 124
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4.20 Adsorption parameters for the adsorption of GCE in AAR on carbon

steel at different temperatures 128
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4.21 Correlation coefficient and slope values of three kinds of adsorption

isotherms 129

4.22 Tafel parameters and inhibition efficiency obtained from the effect of
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GCE on aluminum in artificial acid rain solution 131

4.23 Adsorption parameters for the adsorption of GCE in AAR on

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aluminum at different temperatures 134

4.24 Correlation coefficient and slope values of three types of adsorption

isotherms 136
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4.25 Tafel parameters and inhibition efficiency obtained from the effect of
GTE on carbon steel in artificial acid rain solution 138

4.26 Adsorption parameters for the adsorption of GTE in AAR on carbon

steel at different temperatures 142

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 4.27 Correlation coefficient and slope values of three types of adsorption
isotherms 142

4.28 Tafel parameters and inhibition efficiency obtained from the effect of
GTE on aluminum in artificial acid rain solution 145

4.29 Adsorption parameters for the adsorption of GTE in AAR on aluminum

at different temperatures 149

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4.30 Correlation coefficient and slope values of three types of adsorption
isotherms 149

4.31 Tafel parameters and inhibition efficiency obtained from the effect of
PWE on carbon steel in artificial acid rain solution 152

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4.32 Tafel parameters and inhibition efficiency obtained from the effect of
PWE on aluminum in artificial acid rain solution 155

4.33 Adsorption parameters for the adsorption of PWE in AAR on

T
aluminum at different temperatures 158

4.34
H
Correlation coefficient and slope values of three types of adsorption
isotherms 159
IG
4.35 Tafel parameters and inhibition efficiency obtained from the effect of
DE on carbon steel in artificial acid rain solution 160

4.36 Tafel parameters and inhibition efficiency obtained from the effect of
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DE on aluminum in artificial acid rain solution 161

4.37 Adsorption parameters for the adsorption of DE in AAR on aluminum

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at different temperatures 166

4.38 Correlation coefficient and slope values of three types of adsorption

isotherms 166
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C
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xvii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1 Schematic of atmospheric corrosion mechanism 4

2.1 The annual average concentration of SO2 (µg m-3) at several cities in
East Asia 28

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2.2 The concentration of SO2 (µg m-3) in some cities in India 29

2.3 SO2 concentrations (µg m-3) from 1999 to 2013 in Malaysia 30

2.4 Correlation between the adsorption isotherm (a) and the corrosion rate

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(b) with the concentration of inhibitor 37

2.5 Plot of Langmuir adsorption isotherm 39

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2.6 Plot of Temkin adsorption isotherm 40

2.7

3.1 Framework of the methodology

H
Plot of Frumkin adsorption isotherm 41

56
IG
3.2 Map of the study area showing the stations and sampling sites 57

3.3 Dust fall sampler 58

R

3.4 Wet candle sampler 61

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3.5 The specimens after finishing the exposure 63

3.6 Dried and grounded of Doum Fruit 68

3.7 Working electrode 69

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3.8 Electrochemical cell 70

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3.9 Extrapolation results using NOVA software outcomes 70

4.1 pH mean of the rainwater in the Klang Valley 75

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4.2 Collected rainwater amount in the Klang Valley 75

4.3 pH mean values of rainwater in Shah Alam 77

4.4 pH values of rainwater in Cheras 78

4.5 pH mean of rainwater in UPM 78

xviii
 4.6 pH mean values of rainwater in Kajang 79

4.7 pH values of rainwater in Puchong 79

4.8 Box and Whisker plots for mean pH in the study area 80

4.9 Chart of the EC mean (µS cm-1) in the Klang Valley 83

4.10 EC mean values (µS cm-1) of rainwater in Shah Alam 85

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4.11 EC mean values (µS cm-1) of rainwater in in Cheras 86

4.12 EC mean values (µS cm-1) of rainwater in in UPM 86

4.13 EC mean values (µS cm-1) of rainwater in Kajang 87

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4.14 EC mean values (µS cm-1) of rainwater in in Puchong 87

4.15 Box and Whisker plots for mean EC (µS cm-1) in the study area 88

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4.16 Total dust fall mean (mg m-2 day-1) in the Klang Valley 91

4.17
H
Total dust fall mean (mg m-2 day-1) in Shah Alam 92

4.18 Total dust fall mean (mg m-2 day-1) in Cheras 92

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4.19 Total dust fall mean (mg m-2 day-1) in Kajang 93

4.20 Total dust fall mean (mg m-2 day-1) in UPM 94

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4.21 Total dust fall mean (mg m-2 day-1) in Puchong 94

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4.22 Box and Whisker plots for mean TDF (mg m-2 day-1) in the Klang
Valley 95

4.23 The chart of time of wetness and relative humidity in the Klang
Valley 100
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4.24 The chart of time of wetness and precipitation in the Klang Valley 100
C

4.25 The concentration of atmospheric SO2 (µg m-3) in 2013 102

4.26 The concentration of atmospheric SO2 (µg m-3) in 2014 103

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4.27 The monthly mean of DRC (mg m-2 day-1) in the Klang Valley 107

4.28 Monthly mean of DRC (mg m-2 day-1) of Shah Alam 107

4.29 Monthly mean of DRC (mg m-2 day-1) of Cheras 108

4.30 Monthly mean of DRC (mg m-2 day-1) of Kajang 108

xix
 4.31 Monthly mean of DRC (mg m-2 day-1) of UPM 109

4.32 Monthly mean of DRC (mg m-2 day-1) of Puchong 109

4.33 Inhibition efficiency of carbon steel in AAR in the presence and

absence of GCE at different temperatures 125

4.34 GCE at 300 K 126

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4.35 Tafel polarization plots for carbon steel in AAR at different
concentrations of GCE at 313 K 126

4.36 Tafel polarization plots for carbon steel in AAR at different

concentrations of GCE at 323 K 127

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4.37 Langmuir isotherms for adsorption of Inhibitor GCE on carbon steel at
300, 313, and 323K 128

4.38 Inhibition efficiency of Aluminum in AAR in the presence and absence

T
of GCE at different temperatures 132

4.39 H
Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different
concentrations of GCE at 300 K 133
IG
4.40 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different
concentrations of GCE at 313 K 133

4.41 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different

R

concentrations of GCE at 323 K 134

4.42 Langmuir isotherms for adsorption of Inhibitor GCE on aluminum

PY

at 300, 313, and 323K 135

4.43 Inhibition efficiency of carbon steel in AAR in the presence and

absence of GTE at different temperatures 139
O

4.44 Tafel polarization plots for carbon steel in AAR at different

concentrations of GTE at 300 K 140
C

4.45 Tafel polarization plots for carbon steel in AAR at different

concentrations of GTE at 313 K 140

4.46 Tafel polarization plots for carbon steel in AAR at different

©

concentrations of GTE at 323 K 141

4.47 Langmuir isotherms for adsorption of Inhibitor GTE on carbon steel

at 300, 313, and 323K 143

4.48 Inhibition efficiency of aluminum in AAR in the presence and absence

of GTE at different temperatures 146

xx
 4.49 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different
concentrations of GTE at 300 K 147

4.50 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different

concentrations of GTE at 313 K 147

4.51 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different

concentrations of GTE at 323 K 148

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4.52 Langmuir isotherms for adsorption of Inhibitor GTE on aluminum
at 300, 313, and 323K 149

4.53 Inhibition efficiency of aluminum in AAR in the presence and absence

of PWE at different temperatures 155

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4.54 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different
concentrations of PWE at 300 K 156

4.55 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different

T
concentrations of PWE at 313 K 156

4.56
H
Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different
concentrations of PWE at 323 K 157
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4.57 Langmuir isotherms for adsorption of Inhibitor PWE on aluminum at
310, 313 and 323 K 158

4.58 Inhibition efficiency of aluminum in AAR in the presence and absence

R

of DE at different temperatures 162

4.59 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different

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concentrations of DE at 300 K 163

4.60 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different

concentrations of DE at 313 K 163
O

4.61 Tafel polarization plots for aluminum in AAR at different

concentrations of DE at 323 K 164
C

4.62 Langmuir isotherms for adsorption of Inhibitor DE on aluminum at 300,

313, and 323K 165
©

xxi
 LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS

Kads Adsorptive Equilibrium Constant

AOD Aerosol Optical Depth

ASMA Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sdn. Bhd.
AIS Alteration Impedance Spectra

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ASTM American Society for Testing And Materials
ANOVA Analysis of Variance

𝛽𝑎 Anodic Tafel Constant

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A Area
AAR Artificial Acid Rain

T
bpd Barrel per Day
BTA
BS
H
Benzotriazole
British Standard
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𝛽𝑐 Cathodic Tafel Constant

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

R

CO Carbon Monoxide
Cl Chloride
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C Concentration
R2 Correlation Coefficient
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icorr Corrosion Current Density

CR Corrosion Rate
C

CE Counter Electrode

𝜃 Degree of Surface Coverage

©

D Density

DOE Department of Environment

DRC Deposition Rate of Chloride
DE Doum Extract

xxii
 DEIS Dynamic Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
EC Electrical Conductivity
EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
E.C. Element Carbon

FPAS Fakulti Pengajian Alam Sekitar (Faculty of Environmental

Studies)

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GP Galvanostatic Polarization
GCE Green Coffee Bean Extract

GTE Green Tea Extract

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GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNP Gross National Product

T
HC Hydrocarbon
HCl
HE
H
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrogen Evolution
IG
ICP Induced Coupled Plasma
IE Inhibition Efficiency
R

ISO International Organization for Standardization

KL Kuala Lumpur
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LPR Linear Polarization Resistance

LSV Linear Sweep Voltammetry

MMS Malaysian Meteorological Service

O

MMD Malaysia Meteorology Department

C

Mtoe Million Ton of Oil Equivalent

NOx Nitrogen Oxides
©

OCP Open Circuit Potential

O.C. Organic Carbon

PM Particulate Matter
ppb Part per Billion

xxiii
 ppm Part per Million
Rp Polarization Resistance
PWE Pomegranate Waste Extract
PP Potentiodynamic Polarization

RMAQG Recommended Malaysia Air Quality Guideline

PM
RE Reference Electrode
RH Relative Humidity
ΔGads Standard Free Energy of Adsorption
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

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SO2 Sulfur Dioxide

H2SO4 Sulfuric Acid

T
TEP Tafel Extrapolriazation
T
H
Temperature (Centigrade & Absolute)
TOW Time of Wetness
IG
TDF Total Dust Fall
UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia
R

VPI Vapor-Phase Inhibitor

PY

VOC Volatile Organic Compound

VWM Volume-Weighted Mean
WL Weight Loss
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WD Wind Direction
WS Wind Speed
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WHO World Health Organization

WE Working Electrode
©

xxiv
 CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Air pollution is a serious global concern, and is becoming even more pressing due to

PM
rapid urbanization and increased industrial emissions in several cities around the world
(Jahn et al., 2013; Sharma et al., 2013; Elansky, 2014; Calderón-garcidueñas et al.,
2015). This phenomenon occurs as a consequence of human activity (anthropogenic)
as well as natural processes. Generally, anthropogenic air pollution is caused by
various sources; mobile sources such as transportation means and stationary sources

U
such as industrial activities (Abdullah et al., 2012). In urban areas, particulate matter
(PM) pollutants have been observed as the principal pollutant (Hao & Wang, 2005; Li
et al., 2009). Although PM originates from vehicle exhaust, it may also relate to many
other sources such as biomass burning (Zhang et al., 2009b) and road traffic

T
(Gurugubelli et al., 2013). In Malaysia, air pollution has become a key environmental
problem due to the growing numbers of vehicles, industrial activities, and trans-
H
boundary pollution from neighboring countries, which are the main sources of air
pollution in the country (Azid et al., 2015). In addition, Afroz et al. (2003) stated that
mobile sources account for 70–75% of total air pollution, while stationary sources
IG
account for 20–25% of the total, with open burning making up 3–5% of total air
pollution. In addition, dust fall is a typical primary air pollutant, where the main
content of dust fall is particulate matter PM with a diameter equal to or greater than
10 µm that has the capability to deposit on surfaces after temporary suspension in air
R

(Sami et al., 2006). Thus, dust fall is a significant contributor to air pollution in urban
areas (Gurugubelli & Pervez, 2009; Harrison et al., 1997; Xia et al., 2007), industrial
areas, construction locations (Pandey et al., 2008), and roadways (Arsene et al., 2007).
PY

Furthermore, there are also natural contaminants that may affect the quality of air in
an urban area such as chloride. The chloride ion is one of the most significant natural
contaminants in the marine environment, and plays a vital role in the corrosion process
of structural metals (Ma et al., 2009; Corvo et al., 2005). In fact, there are several
chemical reactions that occur between pollutants and atmospheric components that
O

lead to deposits on the earth’s surface, either by wet deposition (Afroz et al., 2003;
Ramírez-lara et al., 2016) or dry deposition (Jaradat et al., 2004; Ramírez-lara et al.,
C

2016).

As is known, air pollution is an important issue that affects population health (Hamatui
©

& Beynon, 2017; Krecl et al., 2017; Lang et al., 2012; Mardani et al., 2015; WHO,
2016). In addition, atmospheric pollution leads to ecological issues (Grantz et al.,
2003; Ramírez-lara et al., 2016), acid rain (Chen et al., 2013a), desertification (Molina
& Molina, 2004; Zelnik et al., 2017), and global climate change (Zhang et al., 2003;
Khan et al., 2015). The impact of air pollution is not only confined to the environment
or human health but also to building materials (Slezakova et al., 2011; Corvo et al.,
2010; de la Fuente et al., 2013). A considerable amount of literature has been

1
 published on the role of pollutants and their effect on the atmospheric corrosion of
metals and its alloys (Kamimura et al., 2012; Kosaki, 2008; Samie et al., 2007b; Syed,;
2010; 2013; Qian et al., 2015; Kubzova et al., 2017). According to Syed (2006),
“corrosion is defined as the destruction of materials caused by the chemical or
electrochemical action of the surrounding environment”. Atmospheric corrosion
causes a metal surface that is exposed to the atmosphere to erode. Moreover,
atmospheric corrosion is the most common form of corrosion, as most materials are
exposed to the atmosphere (Morales et al., 2005).

PM
1.2 Atmospheric Corrosion

Atmospheric corrosion is a natural electrochemical reaction (Kamimura et al., 2012;

Wint et al., 2016), which takes place in corrosion cells rather than in the form of a

U
direct chemical attack (Tong, 2012). Besides that, atmospheric conditions such as
relative humidity, temperature, pollutants, and salinity play a vital role in causing
atmospheric corrosion and its behavior (Katayama et al., 2005; Natesan et al., 2006).
In particular, the most corrosive conditions that result in serious atmospheric corrosion

T
of metals are found in tropical, subtropical, and marine environments (Li et al., 2010).
These conditions are due to the conjoined reactions of base metal, oxygen, and water
H
in which the oxidation of iron and reduction of oxidizing agent occurs simultaneously.
Water that condenses on the metal surface acts as an electrolyte for transferring
electrons and charges. However, in the absence of the electrolyte, the metal corrodes
IG
at a negligible rate. In other cases, the existence of electrolyte could also be associated
with atmospheric corrosion. In addition, the existence of dust and contaminants from
the atmosphere such as sodium chloride, sulfur dioxide, and carbon dioxide, will speed
up corrosion reactions (Tong, 2012).
R

Importance changes in the atmosphere occur due to certain environmental conditions

PY

such as temperature, moisture, and pollutants; hence, atmospheric corrosion rates

differ noticeably around the globe. Realization of marked variances in corrosivity has
resulted in the grouping of atmospheric corrosivity into several types. The major types
are rural, urban, marine, and industrial atmospheres. In addition, there are also
subdivisions, such as dry and wet tropical, with great differences in corrosivity (Revie
O

& Uhlig, 2008).

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1.2.1 Atmospheric Corrosion Mechanism

Atmospheric corrosion is a complicated electrochemical reaction that is carried out in

©

corrosion cells, comprising of metal, electrolytes, corrosion products, and air

(Schweitzer, 2010). Although this process occurs spontaneously, it may be slowed and
controlled. Generally, the key reason for corrosion is that the metals used are not in a
pure state in the earth, and as a result of metallurgical and manufacturing processes
that separate metals from the ore, the energy in the metal will elevate to a higher level.
However, most used metals are unstable in the atmosphere, and therefore, when these

2
 metals are exposed to the atmosphere, they tend to return to their original state or to
similar metallic compounds (Veleva & Kane, 2003).

During the corrosion process, in addition to mass transfer, there is also an interchange
of charged particles at the interface of the metal and the electrolyte. Therefore, the
transfer of electrons occurs because of the formation of a galvanic corrosion cell on
the metal surface. Generally, the corrosion in this cell requires three essential elements
to occur; anode and cathode sites, an electrolyte, and an oxidizing agent such as

PM
oxygen and hydrogen ions (Veleva & Kane, 2003). Equations 1.1 to 1.6 summarize
the anodic and cathodic reactions that occur on the surface interface between metal
and atmosphere (see Figure 1.1).

Anodic reaction: 𝑀 → 𝑀 𝑛+ + 𝑛𝑒 − (1.1)

U
while, the cathodic reaction can be grouped into one of five different categories of
reduction reactions.

T
H
Hydrogen evolution: 2𝐻+ + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 ↑ (1.2)
IG
Reduction of metal ion: 𝑀 3+ + 𝑒 − → 𝑀2+ (1.3)

Metal deposition: 𝑀2+ + 2𝑒 − → 𝑀 (1.4)

R

Reduction of oxygen in acids 𝑂2 + 4𝐻+ + 2𝑒 − → 2𝐻2 𝑂

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(1.5)

Reduction of oxygen -neutral solutions:𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 − → 4𝑂𝐻 − (1.6)

O
C
©

3
 PM
U
T
Figure 1.1 : Schematic of atmospheric corrosion mechanism
(Source: Tong, 2012)
H
In fact, the corrosion reaction cannot be stopped totally, but it can be mitigated using
IG
different techniques (Revie, 2011). Unfortunately, most of these techniques are
complicated, expensive, non-biodegradable, or toxic. Therefore, the environmental
consideration of green methods, which could solve this issue and conserve the
environment, is of great concern nowadays.
R

1.3 Problem Statement

PY

Atmospheric corrosion in tropical areas is a significant problem due to a combination

of higher humidity and air pollutants (Beeharry & Surnam, 2018; Juan A. Jaén &
Iglesias, 2017). In Malaysia, air pollution is a significant issue that demands the
immediate attention of all relevant authorities (Azid et al., 2015; Azmi et al., 2010),
O

as the issue is expected to exacerbate with rapid economic growth, urbanization, and
industrial activities particularly in Klang Valley (Abdul Mutalib et al., 2013; Shahid
C

et al., 2014). Consequently, air pollution has become the major issue that influences
the choice of buildings and materials (Cai et al., 2018; Díaz et al., 2018). Additionally,
natural pollutants such as the deposition rate of chloride has a great impact especially
on the degradation of metals (Alcántara et al., 2015; Kubzova et al., 2017). The
©

majority of metallic constructions and equipment are exposed to terrestrial air

conditions to some degree and therefore can suffer from atmospheric corrosion
(Portella et al., 2012; Veleva & Kane, 2003).

4
 Atmospheric corrosion can be so severe that it can degrade more than 80% of metallic
constructions materials (Badea et al., 2011), release hazardous elements into the
environment as corrosion products (Goidanich et al., 2011; Hedberg et al., 2015),
adversely affect safety (Melchers, 2013), cause a loss in the aesthetic view of metallic
structures (Groysman, 2010; Ismail et al., 2012), leads to an accelerated depletion of
mineral reserves (Prabhu & Rao, 2017; Vasant & Bansal, 2013), and incur more losses
and costs (Ivaskova et al., 2015; Syed, 2013; Vasconcelos et al., 2014). In addition,
Okafor et al. (2009) stated that the cost of atmospheric corrosion includes damage to
structures such as historical monuments, buildings, bridges, transport vehicles, power

PM
grids, communications hardware, and household equipment. It is found that roughly
20% of the failures of aircraft electronics are due to atmospheric corrosion.

A report on the economic impact of corrosion published in the USA from 1999 to 2001
showed that the total cost of corrosion was USD 276 billion annually, equivalent to

U
3.1% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Hansson, 2011; Koch et al.,
2002). In 2016, NACE International estimated that the global cost of corrosion was
approximately US$ 2.5 trillion, equivalent to 3.4% of the global GDP (Koch, 2017).

T
In addition, Dai et al. (2016) stated that the annual costs of corrosion reached USD
trillions and accounted for about 6% of GDP in that year.
H
A number of researches have studied atmospheric corrosion and classified
atmospheric corrosivity in tropical areas worldwide. However, there are only a few
IG
studies that have studied Malaysia, which is a tropical country. One study conducted
an international project involving Malaysia (Tidblad, 2012), while another developed
a corrosion risk map (Fathoni et al., 2013). In addition, studies were also conducted
R

to compare the indoor and outdoor corrosion of some metals (Ismail, 2009; Tong,
2012), and the effect of temperature on the corrosion behavior of stainless steel (Ishak
et al., 2008). In fact, the study of this issue will enrich the literature and knowledge,
PY

assist to avoid the great costs and protect the environment.

Considering the above, mitigating this problem should be made a priority, and using
a suitable corrosion control method could prevent about 20–25% of the corrosion cost
O

(Badea et al., 2011), and result in global savings of between 15% and 35% of the cost
of damage, or between US$ 375 and US$ 875 billion (Koch, 2017). In fact, most
mitigation techniques e.g., coating (Graziani et al., 2017), electrochemical methods
C

(Revie & Uhlig, 2008), and environmental alteration (El Ouadi et al., 2015) are
complicated. One of the most widespread methods of environmental alteration is the
use of corrosion inhibitors (Akpan & Offiong, 2014; El Ouadi et al., 2015).
Unfortunately, most corrosion inhibitors are toxic, expensive, and non-biodegradable.
©

Therefore promising materials, which are friendly towards the environment (e.g., non-
toxic, cheap, available, and bio-degradable) should be used instead. These are called
green or eco-friendly corrosion inhibitors. Many researchers have started to see the
promise of using green corrosion inhibitors to prevent the corrosion process in
different media, but this study is the first of its kind to investigate this issue in artificial
acid rain conditions.

5
 1.4 Objectives of the Study

1.4.1 General Objective

The general objective of this study is to assess the atmospheric corrosivity and its
effect on metals in the Klang Valley, and its mitigation.

PM
1.4.2 Specific Objective

The specific objectives of the study are:

1. To characterize atmospheric corrosion by determining the physicochemical

U
characteristics of dust fall in terms of acid deposition, electrical conductivity (EC),
and total dust fall (TDF) concentration in urban areas in Klang Valley.
2. To classify atmospheric corrosivity using time of wetness and deposition rate of

T
chloride and sulfur dioxide in Klang Valley.
3. To determine the atmospheric corrosion rate by conducting weight loss method in
the Klang Valley. H
4. To assess the effectiveness of corrosion control using green corrosion inhibitors
via potentiodynamic polarization (Tafel polarization), and to study the
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corresponding adsorption isotherms.

1.5 Scope and Limitation

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The investigation was conducted to assess the atmospheric corrosivity on metals in

PY

Klang Valley, Malaysia. This includes the assessment of physicochemical

characteristics of dust fall in five locations in Klang Valley, namely Shah Alam,
Cheras, Kajang, UPM, and Puchong, from August 2014 to July 2015. In addition, this
study pinpoints the issue of atmospheric corrosion, due to many metallic structures
being exposed outdoors and part of them being left without any protection. Thus, these
O

findings will provide information on areas exposed to atmospheric corrosion that

require more attention to prevent and to avoid huge costs and negative impacts on the
environment. The atmospheric corrosion assessment was conducted outdoors using
C

four types of metals i.e. carbon steel, mild steel, aluminum, and copper, with Shah
Alam, UPM, Putrajaya and Puchong as the exposure sites.
©

Many attempts have been conducted to mitigate the negative impact of corrosion
attack. Anodic and cathodic protection, using a selected noble material, overdesign of
the metallic structure, painting, coating and using chemical inhibitors are conventional
techniques, but using inhibitors are more significant methods to prevent corrosion,
which has not been fully explored. In fact, most chemical inhibitors— besides being
expensive—have some drawbacks in terms of their impact on the environment. This
study attempts to use eco-friendly materials found in common plants and waste

6
 agriculture as the green corrosion inhibitors for the tested metals. In the future, the
findings of this work will help to improve the mitigation of atmospheric corrosion
using materials obtained from plants.

However, the present study is subjected to several limitations. The first limitation is
that the author was unable to perform Ion Chromatography to determine the chemical
composition of deposition due to limited budget. Furthermore, the study of corrosion
products requires specific techniques. Thirdly, the plant extracts need to be identified

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to determine the main chemical components in the plants that are responsible for the
inhibitory action.

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T
H
IG
R
PY
O
C
©

7
 6 REFERENCES

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